Charismatic leadership in organizations

www.ebook3000.com CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP in Organizations www.ebook3000.com www.ebook3000.com CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP in Organizations Jay A Conger RabindraN.Kanungo SAGE Publications InternationalEducational'andProfessionalPublisher Thousand Oaks London New Delhi www.ebook3000.com Copyright © 1998 by Sage Publications, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher For information: SAGE Publications, Inc 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagepub.com SAGE P u b l i c a t i o n s Ltd Oliver's Yard 55 City Road L o n d o n EC1Y ISP SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box N e w Delhi 110 Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Conger, Jay Alden Charismatic leadership in organizations / by Jay A Conger and Rabindra N Kanungo p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-7619-1633-4 (acid-free paper) ISBN 0-7619-1634-2 (pbk.: acid-free paper) Executive ability Leadership Organizational effectiveness I Kanungo, Rabindra Nath II Title HD38.2 C658 1998 658.4Ό92—ddc21 98-9003 03 Acquiring Editor: Editorial Assistant: Production Editor: Editorial Assistant: Typesetter/Designer: Indexer: 10 Marquita Flemming Heidi Van Middlesworth Diana E Axelsen Lynn Miyata Danielle Dillahunt Trish Wittenstein www.ebook3000.com Contents Preface vii PART I: Theory Development Evolution of the Field A Model of Charismatic Leadership 35 Charismatic Leadership: Measurement and Empirical Validity 71 PART II: Components of Charismatic Leadership The Leader's Search for Opportunity 121 Aligning the Organization Through Vision 153 Implementing the Vision 189 PART III: Remaining Challenges T h e Shadow Side of Charisma 211 Looking to the Future 241 Appendix: The Conger-Kanungo Charismatic Leadership Questionnaire 251 References 255 Index 271 About the Authors 287 www.ebook3000.com www.ebook3000.com Preface When we first set out to explore charismatic leadership in organizations a decade ago, there were but a handful of references concerning the topic We felt very much like adventurers exploring a new land Today, it is with a sense of surprise that we see how the field has flourished The saying "let a thousand flowers bloom" would certainly be appropriate to describe how interest has unfolded Given the growing attention to the topic, it seemed timely to introduce a book that would not only aim to integrate what we have learned to date but also would push our frontiers of knowledge further We trust that readers will feel that we have succeeded in both of these objectives To understand scientifically a phenomenon as elusive as charismatic leadership, three vital steps must be undertaken First, a conceptual or theoretical framework is needed that can adequately describe the phenomenon and at the same time strip away its surrounding aura of mystery for both management scholars and practitioners Second, the framework must then be empirically validated through systematic investigation looking at the nature, causes, and consequences of charismatic leadership Finally, after such validation efforts, the framework can and should be used to explain and predict charismatic leadership in actual observed cases in organizations The first two chapters of this book are devoted to the first step They explore how theory has developed over the past decade and specifically how our own theoretical framework has evolved They close with a model of charismatic leadership in organizations Chapter looks at the second step— empirical validation In this chapter, we examine a series of studies undertaken to test our theory and to develop a measure of charismatic leadership These investigations confirm the validity of the model and have resulted in a reliable measure of what has heretofore been considered a highly elusive form of vii www.ebook3000.com CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS leadership Chapters through are devoted to the third step—the explanation of charismatic leadership as observed in company case studies Here we illustrate our framework using examples of business leaders as well as expand on our model Our final two chapters look at the challenges facing the field—the liabilities of charismatic leadership and future areas of research Although charismatic leadership is often known for its positive consequences, it has a shadow side that has been poorly explored In Chapter 7, we begin to address this important gap in our knowledge Finally, while interest has grown dramatically in the topic, some might say that we have only scratched the surface Chapter therefore looks at where future attention must be directed if we are to more fully understand the many dimensions of charismatic leadership We also include a discussion of the challenges facing leaders in the upcoming century and why charismatic leadership is particularly well suited to address these In our writing throughout this book, we have both been guided by a belief that charismatic leadership is a critically important topic within the larger field of leadership studies, one deserving far greater attention than it has received in the past We say this because charismatic leaders are often exemplars of the qualities we normally associate with leadership For example, they can be remarkable change agents, able to reinvent entire organizations and societies They are also superb examples of leaders who are master communicators and motivators As such, they provide many important lessons for those who wish to lead others or for those who wish to study leadership Paradoxically, these same leaders also provide us with lessons about the greatest dangers of leadership Throughout history, certain charismatic leaders have proved themselves master manipulators and purveyors of evil They have been responsible for the collapse of corporations and of nations Given these two faces of this form of leadership, it is imperative that we learn as much about it as we can for the well-being of ourselves, our organizations, and our society It is our hope, therefore, that this volume will stimulate continued inquiry into this potent source of leadership In writing this manuscript, we have been fortunate in having wonderful help We especially want to thank Kim Jaussi and Gretchen Spreitzer for their review of our manuscript Their comments have played an important role in improving this volume We also want to thank Sanjay Menon and Purnima Mathur, who collaborated with us in conducting several of the validation studies reported in Chapter They were instrumental both in helping us collect data and in analyzing it Finally, we are especially grateful for the patience, fortitude, and skills of Deletha Gafford and Kristen Martin They did a remarkable job not only of transforming our handwritten notes and script into text but also of managing the modern process of producing a book, one that has been assembled through e-mail messages and computer disks www.ebook3000.com PART THEORY DEVELOPMENT www.ebook3000.com 276 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS monitoring and liaison role in, 122-123 process of, 128-132 realism in (Study 1), 72, , (table), 79-80 (tables), 81 research needs, 248 within status quo, 132-134 See also Sensitivity to environment; Sensitivity to environment (SE) Environmental influences See Contextual/environmental influences Environmental movement See Social movements Environmental scanning See Environmental assessments of opportunities/constraints Erlich, S B., 141 Ethics: of socialized vs personalized charismatics, 213-215, 214 (table) research needs on, 250 social responsibility of business organizations, 245-246 See also Moral qualities Exchange: as essence of leader/follower relations, 9-10 modes of governance determining types of, 26-27 See also Transactional leadership Exemplary behaviors, 67 (table) demonstrating commitment through, 56, 189-191 instilling beliefs/values through, 191-192 research needs on, 248 vicarious empowerment through, 192-193, 199-200,208 (n3) See also Role-modeling Expectancy theory, 58, 173 Expectations, 19 building self-esteem through, 18 motivation through, 14, 58, 173 setting performance standards, 21 Expertise: articulation of motivation through, 66 (table) as "gift" vs active learning, 140 building credibility through, 183-184 demonstrating through unconventional behavior, 50 (figure), 51 (table), 56-57, 66 (table), 77 (table) limiting willingness to change, 125-126 power base from, 43, 51 (table), 59, 60, 67 (table) Extra-role behaviors, 203-204 Failure: contextual factors influencing, 22-23 impacting aura of charisma, 190 May Kay (Ash) on, 176-177 of successors, 237 tempered by sensitivity to followers, 134 See also Burr, Donald; Dark side of charisma; Jobs, Steven; Land, Edwin Falbe, C M., 161-162 Fiedler, F E., 42 Follower outcomes, 11 dark side of charisma and, 214 (table), 215-217 defined, 106 hypothesized in Conger-Kanungo model, 50 (figure), - , (table) research needs on, 248-249 separating, from leader behaviors, 15, 69 See also Dark side of charisma; Organizational outcomes; Study (follower outcomes) Followers: assessing competence of, 128, 134-139 assigning attribution of charisma to leaders, 15, 47-48, 64, 66 (table), 106, 155 characteristics and dynamics of, 19-21, 38-39 research needs, 19, 21, 46-47, 248-250 transformation of, through charismatic leadership, 9-11, 33n, 70, 249-250 Frame alignment, 66, 139, 151, 174-177 See also Values, shared Frame amplification, 174 See also Frame alignment French, J R., Jr., 43 Frontier Airlines See Burr, Donald Future See Vision Gadiesh, Orit, 199 aligning values, 180-183 assessment of followers, 134 Garvin, D Α., 204 Gates, Bill, 140 curiosity facilitating assessments, 127128 vision formulation, 137-138 General Electric: external performance measures, 128 See also Welch, Jack General Motors, 56 Gitner, Gerald, 147 Glick, W.H., 125-126 Global markets: competition forcing organization change, 5-6, 11,153, 242-243, 247 (table) customer diversity in, 244-245, 247 (table) See also Markets Index Goals: defined, 53, 155 path-goal models, 10, 44, 55 preliminary assessments leading to, 49, 50 (figure), 51-52, 51 (table) specificity of, enhancing performance, 159 See also Stage model of charismatic leadership (Conger-Kanungo); Strategic vision and articulation (SVA); Vision; Vision formulation Goldstein, H., 137, 139 "Great man" theory, 38 Greatest Thing in the World, The (Drummond), 148 Groups See Cohesion in groups; Collective identity Grove, Andy, vision formulation by, 142-143 Growth opportunities: in entrepreneurial environments, 20, 23, 24 self-actualizing, 9-11, 14, 69-70 Hamel, G., 141-142, 205-206 Hauser, G Α., 185, 186 Helplessness See Powerlessness Heroic deeds: as impression management device, 55 cultural need for, 141 enhancing followers' admiration, 12, 51 (table), 55, 57, 154-155 involving personal risk, 77 (table) Heroic motive, 18, 159-160 See also Collective identity Hewlett Packard, external performance measures, 128-129 Hollander, E P., 46 House, R J., 7, 13, 16-19, 20, 31, 37, 44, 65, 66, 68 (table), 69, 137, 156, 191-192 Howell, J M., 13, 16,31 Huber,G P., 125-126 Iacocca, Lee, 29, 56, 57, 161 context shaping Chrysler vision, 168-169 misleading claims of, 231 Ibarra, H., 166, 178, 179, 184 IBM, maladaptive traditions in, 30-31 Identification with leaders, 14,60-61, 154, 155 dark-side charismatics and, 212-213, 214 (table), 215-217 See also Values, shared Identity: creation of, in charismatic leaders, heroic, 154-155 organizational goals tied to, 16-17 277 through psychological transference, 19, 154,215-217, 229 See also Collective identity; Identification with leaders; Self-efficacy; Self-esteem; Values "Idiosyncratic credit" model, 44, 134 Immigration, 244 Impression management, 49, 50 (table), 55 ethical vs unethical use of, 32, 214 (table), 215, 225 Individualized consideration, , proximity influencing importance of, 62-63 See also Sensitivity to follower needs; Sensitivity to member needs (SMN) Influence process, 39 comparisons among behavioral approaches, 69 determining status through, 48 ethical vs unethical, 213, 214, 214 (table) in Conger-Kanungo model, 51 (table), 57-61,67 (table) in House's charismatic leadership model, 16 leader-follower research, 43-45 reciprocal nature of, 18 transactional, (table), 43-45, 57-58, 60 transformational, (table), 58-61, 69-70, 249 See also Articulation; Leadership effectiveness Information gathering See Environmental assessments of opportunities/constraints Information sharing, 132, 198, 214 Information technology, future challenges, 243-244, 247 (table) Initiating structure role See Task-orientation role Initiative: conditions extinguishing, 197 latitude for, influencing charismatic leadership, 23 Innovative behavior See Unconventional behavior Inspiration: importance of, 19 motivation through, 14, 67, 68 (table), 70, 86 (table) through articulation, 14,68 (table), , , 77 (table), 86 (table), 94 (table), 114 (table), 139 Inspiring behavior (INS): validity test (Study 3), 97, 99, 100 (table) validity test (Study 6), 114 (table) Institutionalization, of charismatic leadership, 12, 27-31 Instrumental leadership, 231-233 278 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS Intel Corporation, vision formulation within, 142-143 Intellectual stimulation, 14,66-67, 68 (table), 70,184-185 Internal governance, receptivity to change and mode of, 26-27 Internalization of vision: empowerment strategies facilitating, (table), 58-59,195-196 through role-modeling, 191 -192 through shared values, 16-17, 60-61,70, 212-213, 214 (table), 215 See also Vision International affairs: impacting environmental assessment, 131 See also Global markets James, William, Jobs, Steven, 29, 56, 161 contrasting Apple and IBM, 202-203 creation of in/out groups by, 32 emphasis on technical operations, 123 flawed vision of, 221-222 misleading claims of, 231 narcissism of, 230 unrealistic/distorted environmental assessment, 225-226 Judgment, trust earned through, 44 Katz, M., 144 Katzenberg, Jeffrey, 229 Kawai, Ryoichi, environmental assessment process, 129-130 Keats, John, 176, 177 Kelleher, Herb, 133, 145, 199 demonstrating commitment, 190-191 hiring complementary talent, 235 modeling beliefs/values, 192 organizational mission, 164 unconventional strategic actions, 205 Kelman, H C, 60-61 Kennedy, Edward, 185 Kennedy, John F., 185 Kenny, P Α., 52 Kets de Vries, M F R., 6-7, 154, 217-218 Kidder, T, 201 Kieschnick, William, 199 King, Rollin, 145 Kirkpatrick, S., 137, 139 Kohut, Heinz, 217, 229 Kotter, J P., 130 Kriger, M P., 161-162 L L Bean, 129 Land, Edwin, 123-124, 161, 221 Language See Articulation; Communication Larwood, L., 161-162 Latitude of acceptance, 54,66,66 (table), 158 See also Values, shared Leaders: as substitute parents, 19,154,216,229 differences between managers and, 6-10, (table), 11, 51 (table), 61-63, 121-124, 132-133,157-158, 232-236 myths about, 139-142 transformation of, through leadership, 9-11 Leadership (Burns), Leadership, romance of, 37,70n Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations (Bass), 13 Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), 15 Leadership effectiveness: and lack of sensitivity to environmental constraints/opportunities, 51-52,124-126 measuring, by effects on followers, 39-40, 63 perceptions of followers influenced by, 15, 47-48, 155 research on context of, 21-27,41-43 See also Influence process Leadership elements (contents), defined, 39 Leadership process: defined, 39, 57 See also Influence process Leadership theory: assumptions underlying, 38-40,48 general literature review, 36-37 limitations of existing, 45-47 research orientations in, 40-45 Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) model, 42 Legal resources, 43, 58, 59,67 (table) Leonard, Stew, 131-132 Levering, R., 144 Lewin, Κ., 41, 42 Liabilities See Dark side of charisma Liaison role, assessing environment through, 122, 123, 129-130 Likableness, 51 (table), 54, 87 (table), 94 (table), 115 (table), 157 Lindholm, C , 154 Lipp, Robert, 161 Lippit, R., 41 Locke, E., 137, 139 Lockheed Martin, 236-237 Lorenzo, Frank, 145, 146, 147, 148, 227, 228 Love, as workplace principle, 148 LPC (Least Preferred Coworker) model, 42 Lucent Technologies, 237-238 279 Index Machine bureaucracy, 25-26 Management grid, 41 Managerial Practices Survey (MPS), 97-100, 100 (table) Managers: as moderate change agents, 53, 66 (table), 133 complementing role of charismatics, 232-236 differences between leaders and, 6-10,9 (table), 11, 51 (table), 61-63, 121-124, 132-133, 157-158, 232-236 maintenance of status quo by, 8, (table), 46, 124-126, 132-133, 162 succession to leadership positions, 29-30, 236-238 See also Administrators; Business organizations; Study (managerial roles/behavior attributes); Transactional leadership Market mode of internal governance, 26-27 Markets: competition in global, 5-6,11,153, 242-243, 247 (table) customer diversity in global, 244-245, 247 (table) sensitivity lacking toward changes in, 124 shaping visions, 137-139, 161 unrealistic assessments of, 219 (exhibit), 220, 239 Mary Kay Cosmetics See Ash, Mary Kay Maximum man leader, 6-7 McArthur, John, 227 McGill, Archie J., 223-224 McGinn, Richard, 238 Meaning-making: importance of, 17, 19, 159 language shaping, 173-180 Meindl, J R., 141, 154 Microsoft See Gates, Bill Miesing,P, 161-162 Miller, D., 124, 220-221 Minimum man leader, 6-7 Mintzberg, H., 25-26, 122-123 Mission: concept of vision vs., 155-156, 162-165 See also Vision Mitchell, T R., 44 Models See Charismatic leadership model (House and Shamir); Conger-Kanungo model; Path-goal models; Stage model of charismatic leadership (Conger-Kanungo); Transformational leadership model (Bass and Avolio); Visionary leadership model (Sashkin) Monitoring behavior (MON), validity test (Study 3), 97, 99, 100, 100 (table) Monitoring role, 122-124 See also Environmental assessments of opportunities/constraints Moral qualities: lending credibility, 184-186 of ethical vs unethical leadership, 214 (table), 215 See also Ethics; Personal traits Moskowitz, M., 144 Motivation, research on methods of, 44 through articulating values, 55, 173-177, 179-183 through challenging status quo, 54, 177-180 through inspiration, 14,67, 68 (table), 70, 86 (table) through self-concept enhancement, 16-17, 18, 20-21,176, 177 through setting goals, 14,44, 159 through transactional influence process, 57-58 "Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory, The" (Shamir, House, Arthur), 16 Motives: distinguishing ethical vs unethical leadership, 213-214, 214 (table), 215 heroic, 18, 159-160 Mount, Balfort, vision formulation, 149-152 Multiculturalism, in work force, 244-245, 247 (table) Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), 15 Multinational corporations, 244-245, 247 (table) Murdoch, Rupert, 140 Muse, Lamar, 146 Mustafa, Zaki, 204 Nadler, D Α., 231-232, 238 Nanus, Β., 7-8,10, 129, 152, 156 Narcissism, dark-side charismatics and, 32-33, 211-212, 213, 214 (table), 217-218, 225, 229-231,239 National Council on Alcoholism, 28 NEC, 142 Negative charismatics, 31, 212 ethics of positive charismatics vs., 213-215, 214 (table) See also Dark side of charisma Neo-charismatic paradigm, 7, 47 280 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS Networks, facilitating environmental assessment, 129-132 New leadership school, 7, NeXT computers See Jobs, Steven Niles, K., 137,139 Nocera, J., 226 Novak, W., 168 Nutt, P C , 156 O'Donnell, James, 147 Offermann, L R., 46 Ogilvy & Mather See Beers, Charlotte 100 Hundred Best Companies to Work for in America, The (Levering, Moskowitz, Katz), 144 Operant conditioning, 10, 173 Organ, D W., 203 Organizational outcomes: hypothesized in Conger-Kanungo model, 50 (figure), 63, 67 (table) institutionalization of charismatic leadership, 12, 27-31 Organizations See Business organizations; Organizational outcomes Ouchi, W G., 26-27 Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA), 145 Palliative care See Mount, Balfort Parents, leaders as substitute, 19,154,216, 229 Participative role: of managers in Study 1,73,75 (table), 78, 78-79 (tables), 80, 81 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 83, 85 (table), 89-90, 90 (table), 91, 91-92 (tables), 92 validity test (PART) (Study refinement), 95,96,96 (table) Path-goal models, 55 leadership as exchange in, 10,44 Pawar, B S., 24-27, 33n Pearlstein, S., 232-233 People Express See Burr, Donald People-orientation role, 6, 40-42, 58 facilitating environmental assessment, 134-137 validity test (Study 1), 73,75 (table), 78, 78-79 (tables), 80,81 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 83, 85 (table), 89-90, 90 (table), 91,91-92 (tables), 92 validity test (PPL) (Study refinement), 95, 96, 96 (table) See also Sensitivity to follower needs; Sensitivity to member needs (SMN) "People's program," Burr's conception of, 148 Performance ratings, 4, 20 measurement systems, 128-129 Person/consideration roles, See also Managers; Transactional leadership Personal risks: as empowerment strategy, 69,192-193, 201 (table) demonstrating commitment, 190 desire to downplay, 162 from advocating change, 52,124-126, 186 to achieve goals/vision, 20, 56, 66 (table), 68 (table), 69 validity test (Study 1), 73, 74,77 (table), 79-80 (tables), 80,81 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 87,87 (table), 88, 88 (table), 89,90 (table), 91,91-92 (tables), 92 See also Personal risks (PR); Sacrifices Personal risks (PR): conclusions from Studies 1-6,116 validity test (Study refinement), 94 (table), 95,96,96 (table) validity test (Study 3), 99, 100 (table) validity test (Study 4), 103 (table) validity test (Study 5), 105,105 (table) validity test (Study 6), 111,113, 114 (table), 116 (tables) See also Personal risks; Sacrifices Personal traits, 16, 48, 55 attributing external situational factors to, 141 character flaws, 211-212, 213, 214 (table), 215,246 entrepreneurial, 133 expert and referent power bases, 43, 51 (table), 59,60,67 (table) likableness, 51 (table), 54, 87 (table), 94 (table), 115 (table), 157 tolerance of, 134 trait theory of leadership, 38 trust through interpretation of character, 184-186 Personality types: "great man" theory of leadership, 38 "once-borns" vs "twice-borns," Personalized charismatics: ethics of socialized charismatics vs., 213-215,214 (table) need for power, 31, 212 See also Dark side of charisma Persuasion: verbal, 199, 200 Index See also Public speaking skills Persuasion theory, 184-185 Platt, Lew, 128 Polaroid See Land, Edwin Political leaders: characteristics of followers of, 19-20 crises facilitating leadership, 22, 23-24 See also Study (charismatic vs noncharismatic discrimination) Political support, cultivation of, 219 (exhibit), 223-225 Political-regulatory events, impacting environmental assessment, 131 Position power, 42, 43, 51 (table), , (table) See also Power Positive charismatics, 31, 212 ethics of negative charismatics vs., 213-215, 214 (table) See also Dark side of charisma Power: ethical vs unethical use of, 214-215, 214 (table), 229 exercising influence through social, 39 from expertise, 43, 51 (table), 59, , (table) leader effectiveness determined by, 42 personalized charismatics' need for, 31, 212 willingness to sacrifice, 56 See also Position power; Powerlessness Power and the Corporate Mind (Zaleznik & Kets de Vries), 6-7 Powerlessness: elimination of, 196-198, 197 (table), 201 (table) in cult followers, 19 research needs on, 249 Prahalad, C K., 141-142, 205-206 Problem-solving behavior (PRB), validity test (Study 3), 97, 99, 100, 100 (table) Professional bureaucracy, absence of receptivity to change, 25-26 Proximity, influencing followers, 23, 62-63, 217 Public speaking skills, 77 (table), 94 (table), 114 (table), 183, 184 See also Articulation Raskin, Jef,231 Raven, Β H , 43 Recognizing behavior (RCG), validity test (Study 3), , 9 , 0 , 0 (table) Referent power base, 43, 51 (table), , , 67 (table) 281 Relational processes: defined, 39 See also Influence process Religious leaders: characteristics of followers, 19-20 crises facilitating leadership, 22 demonstrating commitment, 207n Research needs: behavioral characteristics of leaders, 248 content/process of vision, 161, 246-248 contextual influences on leadership, 21-22, 24, 27, 248 cultural dynamics, 249 dark side of charismatic leadership, 33 followers, 19, 21, 46-47, 248-250 institutionalization of charismatic leadership, 28 leaders' roles, 45-47 testable hypotheses, 66-67 (table) unconventional behavior, 113 Research on charismatic behaviors, 3-4, 12-13, 36-37 assumptions underlying, 38-40 Bass and Avolio's transformational model, 13-16 context of leadership effectiveness, 21-27, 41-43 dark side of charisma, 31-33 House and Shamir's charismatic leadership model, 16-19 leader role behavior, 38, 39, 40-41 leader-follower influence processes, 43-45 limitations of existing, 45-47, 248 research challenges of, 36-37, 248 See also Conger-Kanungo model; Conger-Kanungo scale; Studies 1-6 Resources: coercive, 43, 58, 59, 67 (table) emotional/spiritual vs physical, 7-8 focus of, through vision, 158-159 legal, 43, 58, 59, 67 (table) management of, in Study 1, 73, 75 (table), 78, 78-79 (tables), 80 political, 219 (exhibit), 223-225 rewards as, 43, 44, 58, 59, 60, 67 (table) shortages in, facilitating innovative solutions, 133-134,167-168, 171 Responsibility, social, in business organizations, 245-246, 247 (table) Retaliation, fear of, from criticism, 132, 198 Reverence for leaders: assessment of (REV), validity test (Study 6), 106-107, 108, 109, 109 (figure), 109 (table), 111, 113, 116 (table) 282 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS hypothesized in Conger-Kanungo model, 50 (figure), 63, 67 (table) Rewards: as leadership resource, , 4 , 58, 59, 60, 67 (table) ensuring compliance, (table), 10, 57-58, 215 promoting powerlessness, 197 (table), 198 Rhetorical skills, 5 , , 183-184, 185 See also Articulation Rhodes, L., 232-233 Rituals/rites: collective identity through, 18, 29, 30 See also Traditions Roberts, N C , 22 Robson, John, 147,148 Rochford, Ε Β., 174 Rockefeller, John D., 137-138 Roddick, Anita, 161 contextual factors shaping vision, 171-172 early bias against management skills, 233 empowerment through vision, 195-196 motivation through meaningful work, 173-174 projecting moral qualities, 185-186 unconventional strategies, 206 See also Body Shop, The Role-modeling: achieving goals/visions through, 67 (table), 68 (table), 69 demonstrating commitment, 16, 56, 189-191 empowerment through, 192-193, 199-200, 201 (table), 208 (n3), 215 instilling beliefs/values, 191-192 nonpunitive behavior, 132 research needs on, 248 Rothbard, N , 134, 182-183 Routinization, of charismatic leadership, 12, 27-31 Royal Victoria Hospital See Mount, Balfort Sackley, N., 166, 178, 179, 184 Sacrifices: as empowerment strategy, 69, 70 promoting cooperation, 5 , , 202 trustworthiness through, , , 59-60, 136-137 See also Personal risks; Self-sacrifice Sanctions, ensuring compliance, (table), 10, 57-58,215 Sankowsky, D., 32-33, 239 Sashkin, Marshall, 13, 65, 67, 68 (table), 70 Satisfaction of followers: assessment of (LSAT), validity test (Study 6), 106-107, 108, 109, 109 (figure), 109 (table) charismatic leadership enhancing, 4, , , 54 hypothesized in Conger-Kanungo model, 50 (figure), , (table) See also Empowerment Saunders, Cicely, 150 Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) See Carlzon, Jan Schacht, Henry, 237-238 Schlender, B., 127, 128 Schneider, J., 137, 139 Scripts, supporting vision statements, 165, 166, 167 Sculley, John, 29, 222, 232-233 Self-actualization, 9-11, 14,69-70 Self-concept See Identity Self-confidence: excess of See Dark side of charisma of charismatic leaders, 16, 20, 32, 66 (table), 68 (table) promoting cohesion in work force, 170 promoting vision through, 181-183,184 Self-efficacy: destroyed by leaders, 32-33 empowerment through, 194, 195, 199-201, 201 (table), 215 motivation from, 17, 18, 20, 58-59, 69, 243 Self-esteem: destroyed by leaders, 32-33 enhancing commitment, 69, 70 measuring, through leaders* approval, 20, 21,216-217 of dark side charismatics, 31, 212 through high expectations, 18 through meaningful work, 177, 180-183 Self-interests of followers: transcending, 14,17, 18, 26-27, 159 See also Collective identity; Values, shared Self-interests of leaders: dark-side charismatics and, 31, 211-212, 213-215, 214 (table), 218-222, 219 (exhibit) See also Altruism Self-sacrifice: absence of, in House's charismatic leadership model, 16 demonstrating commitment, 136-137, 190-191, 207n in Conger-Kanungo model, 66 (table) Sensitivity to environment: validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 86 (table), 88-89, 88 (table), (table), , - (tables), 92 Index See also Environmental assessments of opportunities/constraints; Sensitivity to environment (SE) Sensitivity to environment (SE): conclusions from Studies 1-6,115,116 validity test (Study refinement), 93-96, 94 (table), , (table) validity test (Study 3), , 9 , 0 , 0 (table) validity test (Study 4), 103 (table) validity test (Study 5), 105,105 (table) validity test (Study 6), 1 , 1 , 1 (table), 116 (tables) See also Environmental assessments of opportunities/constraints; Sensitivity to environment Sensitivity to follower needs: assessment of, in Conger-Kanungo model, , (figure), 52, 55, , 6 (table), 68 (table) gaining commitment through, 122, 134-139, 148 validity test (Study 1), , , (table), 78, 79-80 (tables), 81, 84, 86 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 87-88, 87 (table), 88 (table), , (table), , - (tables), 92 See also People-orientation role; Sensitivity to member needs (SMN) Sensitivity to member needs (SMN): conclusions from Studies 1-6, 115, 116 validity test (Study refinement), 94 (table), 95, , (table) validity test (Study 3), 99, 100, 100 (table) validity test (Study 4), 103 (table) validity test (Study 5), 105, 105 (table) validity test (Study 6), 111, 113,115 (table), 116 (tables) See also People-orientation role; Sensitivity to follower needs Serengeti Eyewear, 204 Sexual identity, 19 Shadow side of charisma See Dark side of charisma Shaklee, 30 Shamir, B., 13,16, 17, 18, 19, , , 6 , 68 (table), , , 191-192 Sherman, S., 164 Simple organization structure, receptivity to change, 25-26 Simplification of message/vision, 158-159, 166-167, 201 (table) Snow, D Α., 174 Social contagion theory of leadership, 154-155 Social exchange theory/transactional influence, (table), 43-44,45, - , 283 Social movements: organizational vision reflecting, 167-168, 171-172, 195-196 reflecting shared values, 174,184 Social responsibility, of business organizations, 245-246, 247 (table) Social role See People-orientation role Socialized charismatics, , 2 ethics of personalized charismatics vs., 213-215,214 (table) See also Dark side of charisma Solidarity See Cohesion Soul of a New Machine (Kidder), 201 Southwest Airlines, 164,190 creation and growth of, 145-147 unconventional innovations, 133-134 See also Kelleher, Herb Spindler, Michael, 29 Sportsmanship, 203 Stage model of charismatic leadership (Conger-Kanungo), 48-49 constellation vs isolation of behaviors in, 61-63 evaluation of status quo (Stage 1), 49, 50 (figure), 51-53, 51 (table), 65, 68 (table), 69 formulation/articulation of goals/visions (Stage ) , , (figure), 51 (table), 53-55,59, 65-66, 66 (table), 68 (table) goal achievement (Stage 3), 49, 50 (figure), 51 (table), 55-57,66 (table), 68 (table) See also Conger-Kanungo model; Studies 1-6 Status quo: articulation of deficiencies in, 55, 66 (table), 177-180 breakdown during crises, 22 change threatening to, 26, 124-126 demonstrating inadequacy of, through expertise, 56 discrepancy between idealized goals/visions and, 54, 57, 58, 66-67, 66 (table), 157-158 evaluation of, 49, 50 (figure), 51-53, 51 (table), , (table), , - motivating through challenging, 54, 177-180 role of leadership to challenge, , (table), , (table), 52, 121-122, 132-133, 204-207 use of transactional influence to maintain, (table), 58 validity test (Study 1), , , (table), 79-80 (tables), 80,81 284 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 87 (table), 88, 88 (table), 89, 90 (table), , - (tables), 92 Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership (Bass), Strategic goals/actions: as component of vision, 157, 158,164, 165-167 emphasis on operational skills vs., 237 unconventional, 133-134,204-207 See also Strategic vision and articulation (SVA) Strategic vision and articulation (SVA): conclusions from Studies 1-6, 115, 116 validity test (Study refinement), 93-94, 94 (table), , , 96 (table) validity test (Study 3), 98, 99, 100, 100 (table) validity test (Study 4), 103 (table) validity test (Study 5), 105, 105 (table) validity test (Study 6), 111, 113, 114 (table), 116 (tables) See also Articulation; Strategic goals/actions; Vision Study (managerial roles/behavioral attributes): behavioral attributes, 73-74,75-77 (table), 78, 79-80 (tables), 80-81 discussion, 81 managerial roles, 73-74,75 (table), , (table), 79 (table), 80-81 method, 73-74 objective, 72-73 results, 74-81, 75-80 (tables) sample and procedure, 74 Study (Conger-Kanungo scale): conclusions, 115 design of questionnaire/procedure, 82-83 objective, 81-82 refinement phase, 93-97, 94 (table), 96 (table) results, 84-92, 85-88 (tables), 90-92 (tables) sample description, 83-84 See also Conger-Kanungo scale Study (Managerial Practices Survey (MPS)): analysis and results, 98-100, 100 (table) conclusions, 115 method/sample, 98 objective, 97 Study (charismatic vs noncharismatic discrimination): analysis and results, 102-103, 103 (table) method, 101-102 objective, 100-101 Study (convergent and discriminant validity): analysis and results, 104-106, 105 (table) method, 104 objective, 103-104 Study (follower outcomes): conclusions, 115 method, 106-107 objective, 106 results, 107-109,109 (figure), 109-110 (tables), 111, 112(table), 113, 113 (table), 114-116 (tables) See also Follower outcomes "Substitutes for leadership" theory, 42 Success: as impediment to vision, 124 enhancing charisma, 56, 190 maintenance of charismatic leadership and, 12 Succession, problems in, 27-28, 29-31, 32, 220 (exhibit), 236-239 Sun Moon, Reverend, 19 Supervisors: as focus of existing research, 46 as moderate change agents, 53, 66 (table), 133 differences between leaders and, 6, , (table), 53 use of transactional influence by, 58 See also Managers Supporting behavior (SUP), validity test (Study 3), 97, 99, 100,100 (table) Task efficacy: assessment of (TSK), validity test (Study 6), 107, 109 (table), 111, 113, 113 (figure), 116 (table) high levels hypothesized in Conger-Kanungo model, 64, 67 (table) Task-orientation role, 6, 40-42, 58, 155 of managers in Study 1, , (table), 78, 78-79 (tables), 80 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 83, 85 (table), 89-90, 90 (table), 91, 91-92 (tables) validity test (TASK) (Study refinement), 95, 96, 96 (table) Teamwork See Collective identity; Cooperation Technicians, internal vs external orientation, 25, 123-124 Technology: future challenges in information, 243-244, 247 (table) impacting environmental assessment, 131 rate of change from, 142 Texas International Airlines, 144-145,146-148 Thomas Aquinas, Saint, 213 Thompson, J D., 25 Index Tichy, Ν Μ., 156, 164 Total quality management (TQM), 243 Traditions: maladaptive, impeding change, 30-31 written/oral, 28, 29 See also Rituals/rites Training programs, 41, 199 "Trait" theory, 38 Transactional influence process, (table), 43-44, 57-58,60 Transactional leadership: as realm of managers, 9, (table), 10, 25 in transformational leadership model (Bass and Avolio), 13 through social exchange, 43-44, 57-58,60 Transference, psychological, 19, 154, 215-217, 229 Transformational influence process, (table), 58-61,69-70, 249 Transformational leadership: adaptation orientation of, 25 charisma as component of, 11 empowerment facilitating See Empowerment transcendent mission from, 9-10, (table) See also Transformational leadership model (Bass and Avolio) Transformational leadership model (Bass and Avolio), 13-16, 33 comparison with Conger-Kanungo model, 67-70, 68 (table) overlap with charismatic leadership model (House and Shamir), 15-16, 33n, 92 Trice, Η M., 28-29 Trust: assessment of (TRU), validity test (Study 6), 106-107, 108, 109, 109 (figure), 109 (table) by followers in leaders, 14, 41, 63, 67 (table) enhancing perceptions of charisma, 23, 67 facilitating change, 195, 201 (table) in Conger-Kanungo model, 50 (figure), 51 (table), 55-56 research needs in, 45-46 through commitment, 45, 46, 56, 59-60, 189-191 through cooperation, 204 through credibility, 131, 135-137 through interpretations of character traits, 184-186 through judgment, 44 through nonpunitive behavior, 132 Tushman, M L., 231-232 285 Unconventional behavior, 16, 68 (figure) as communicative device, 55, 66 (table) contextual appropriateness of, 62 expertise demonstrated through, 50 (figure), 51 (table), 56-57, 66 (table), 77 (table) research needs, 113 strategic actions, 133-134, 204-207 validity test (Study 1), 73, 74, 77 (table), 79-80 (tables), 80,81 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 86-87, 87 (table), 88 (table), 89, 90 (table), , - (tables), 92 See also Personal risks; Unconventional behavior (UB) Unconventional behavior (UB): conclusions from Studies 1-6, 115-116 validity test (Study refinement), 94 (table), , , (table), 97 validity test (Study 3), 99, 100, 100 (table) validity test (Study 4), 103, 103 (table) validity test (Study 5), 105-106, 105 (table) validity test (Study 6), 111, 113, 115, 116 (tables) See also Unconventional behavior Value amplification, 174 See also Frame alignment Values: articulating, 55, 173-177, 179-183, 184 cultural, shaping self-interests, 27 promoting changes in, role-modeling, 191-192 See also Values, shared Values, shared: defining charismatics through vision reflecting, 54, 63, 66, 66 (table), 68 (table), 156, 157-158 enhancing meaning, 137, 139, 151, 174-177, 179-183, 195-196, 201 (table) internalization of vision through, 16-17, 60-61, 70, 212-213, 214 (table), 215 See also Values Verbal persuasion, 199, 200 Vicarious empowerment, 192-193, 199-200, 208 (n3) See also Empowerment Virgin Group companies See Branson, Richard Vision: articulation aiding implementation of, 159, 164-165, 166-167, 168-169, 187 (nl), 247, 248 as component of charismatic leadership, 15, 26, 68, 154-155 286 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS content of, 161-167,246-247 dark side of, 218-228,219 (exhibit), 239 defined, 53,153-154,155-157,162,164 discrepancy between status quo and, 54, 57,58,66-67,66 (table), 157-158 distinguishing leaders from managers, 6, 7-8, 8,9 (table), 51 (table), 157-158 enhancing follower self-concept through, 17 idealized, defined, 53,164 internalization of, by followers See Internalization of vision power base from, 59 reflecting shared values See Values, shared role of, 157-160 strategic goals/actions as component of, 157,158,164,165-167,179-180 validity test (Study 1), 73,74,76 (table), 79-80 (tables), 81 validity test (Study pre-refinement), 82, 84, 86 (table), 88, 88 (table), 90-91,90 (table), 91-92 (tables), 92 See also Goals; Strategic vision and articulation (SVA); Vision formulation Vision formulation as individual vs collective process, 139-143,157, 248 as intuitive vs rational process, 122, 152, 162, 248 contextual influences, 141-143, 162, 167-172 examples of, 137-138,143-152 formulation/articulation of goals/visions (Stage of Conger-Kanungo model), 49, 50 (figure), 51 (table), 53-55, 59, 65-66,66 (table), 68 (table) shaped by follower needs vs external environments, 137-139 See also Strategic vision and articulation (SVA); Vision "Visionary leader" myth, 139-142 Visionary leadership model (Sashkin), 13,65, 67, 68 (table), 69,70 Visionary Leadership (Nanus), 152 Wal-Mart, 30, 137 Waller, M J., 125-126 Walt Disney Company See Disney, Walt; Katzenberg, Jeffrey Walton, Sam, 30,137-138 Watson, Thomas, Sr., 30-31 Weber, Max, 12, 15, 22, 27-28,115-116, 117, 153, 155 Welch, Jack, 26,157,161 articulating status quo, 178 contextual evolution of vision, 169-170 empowerment strategies, 198 hiring complementary talent, 235 organizational vision, 164 Welsh, K., 137,139 West, J., 204 Westley, F R., 149-150,151-152 Wheeler, J K., 137,139 White, J Α., 224 White, R K., 41 Wilkins, A L., 26-27 Wilson, Bill, 28 Women: empowerment strategies for, 175-176, 193, 196, 200 increasing participation in work force, 244-245, 247 (table) Worden, S K., 174 Work force: class systems separating management and, 136-137, 170, 191,204 multiculturalism in, 244-245, 247 (table) women in, 244-245, 247 (table) See also Follower outcomes; Followers Xerox Corporation, 129, 231 Yukl, G., 97,123 See also Managerial Practices Survey (MPS) Zacarro, S J., 52 Zaleznik, Α., 6-7 Zander, Α., 38,47 Zebco, 135-137, 191 About the Authors Jay A Conger is Chairman and Executive Director of The Leadership Institute at the University of Southern California As the author of more than 60 articles and seven books, he researches executive leadership, corporate boards, the management of organizational change, and the training and development of leaders and managers His articles have appeared in the Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management Executive Boards and Directors, Business and Strategy, Harvard Business Review, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, and Organizational Dynamics His books include The Leader's Change Handbook (1998), Winning 'Em Over: A New "ersuasion (1998), Spirit at Work (1994), Learning to Lead (1992), The Charismatic Leader (1989), and Charismatic Leadership (1988) An outstanding teacher, he has been selected by Business Week as the pick of business school professors to teach leadership to executives 287 288 CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS In recognition of his work on leadership education, Professor Conger was invited years ago to join the Harvard Business School as a visiting professor to assist in redesign of the school's organizational behavior course around leadership issues While a professor at McGill University in Montreal, he twice received McGilPs Distinguished Teaching Award He received his BA from Dartmouth College, his MBA from the University of Virginia, and his DBA from the Harvard Business School Rabindra N Kanungo is Professor of Organizational Behavior and holds the Faculty of Management Chair at McGill University, Montreal, Canada His work experience as a university professor, researcher, and consultant spans both East (India) and West (Canada and the United States) He has published widely in both the basic and applied areas of psychology and management His publications include more than 100 professional articles in such journals as Experimental Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Personal and Social Psychology, Academy of Management Review, California Management Review, and Psychological Bulletin He has written several books, including Memory and Affect (1975), Biculturalism andManagement(1980), Work Alienation (1982), Compensation: Effective Reward Management: The Canadian Context (1977), Management of Work and Personal Life (1984), Charismatic Leadership (1988), and Management in Developing Countries (1990) His most recent books include Compensation: Effective Reward Management (1996, with M Mendonca), Work Motivation (Sage, 1994, edited with M Mendonca), and Ethical Dimensions of Leadership (Sage, 1996, with M Mendonca) For his contributions to psychology and management, Professor Kanungo was elected a Fellow of the Canadian Psychological Association and has won Commonwealth and Seagram Senior Faculty Fellowships and Best Paper Awards He received his PhD from McGill University in 1962 LaVergne, TN USA 05 January 2010 168862LV00004B/4S7A 9780761916345