NonsexistResearchMethods Nonsexist Research Methods A Practical Guide MARGRIT EICHLER Ontario Institutefor Studiesin Education ROUTLEDGE New York London Publishedin 1988 by Allen and Unwin, Inc Reprintedin 1991 by Routledge An imprint of Routledge,Chapmanand Hall, Inc 29 West 35 Street New York, NY 10001 Publishedin Great Britain by Routledge 11 New FetterLane London EC4P4EE Copyright © 1991 by Routledge,Chapmanand Hall, Inc Printedin the United Statesof America All rights reseIVed.No part of this book may be reprintedor reproducedor utilized in any form or by any electronic,mechanical or othermeans,now known or hereafterinvented,including photocopyingand recording,or in any information storageor retrieval system,without permissionin writing from the publishers Library of CongressCataloging-in-Publication Data Eichler, Margrit Nonsexistresearchmethods Bibliography: p Includesindex Social sciences- Research Sexism Title 87-11477 H62.E453 1987 300'.72 ISBN 0-04-497044-7 ISBN 0-415-90605-9(pb) British Library Catalouging in Publication Data Eichler, Margrit Nonsexistresearchmethods:a practicalguide Sexismin social scienceresearch Title 300'.72 H62 ISBN 0-04-497044-7 ISBN 0-415-90605-9 Contents Acknowledgments Sexismin Research pagevii TheFourPrimary Problems Androcentricity 19 Overgeneralization 48 GenderInsensitivity 65 DoubleStandards 85 TheThreeDerivedProblems SexAppropriateness, Familism,andSexualDichotomism 106 GuidelinesforNonsexistResearch 129 Epilogue 166 Appendix:NonsexistResearchChecklist 170 Index 177 AbouttheAuthor 183 Acknowledgments This book is the result of severalyearsof studyin the areaof sexism in scholarship and nonsexist alternatives It has thus profited immenselyfrom the variousdebatesandpublicationson this topic Many but not all of the authorswho havecontributedto this debate are cited in the text I have also profited over the years from discussionswith students.In particular, however, I am grateful to PaulaCaplan,Marjorie Cohen,Jill Vickers, MaryleeStephenson, and Wendy McKeen for reading and commenting on the entire manuscript,and to Robert Brym and RhondaLenton for reading and commentingon portions of the manuscript.The commentsof the readersalso resultedin severalimportant changesin the final version Finally, my greatest debt goes to Linda Williams, who provided invaluable researchassistanceat various points during the writing of the book I would also like to thank the following peoplefor providing me with specific references: Paula Caplan, Ursula Franklin, Ester Greenglass,ThelmaMcCormack,Paul Olson, Ruth Pierson,Monica Townson,and Paul Wiesenthal The guidelinescontainedin the book have gone through many revisionsand applications.Part of themwere developedwithin the framework of a federal committee,the CanadianWomen'sStudies vii viii Nonse}Cist Research Methods Advisory Committeeof the Secretaryof State'sWomen'sProgramme This committeewas establishedto advise the federal government on whereto locatefive chairs on women'sstudiesendowedby the Canadiangovernmentfor the five geographicregions of Canada Having receiveda broad ratherthan narrow mandate,the committee addedthe developmentof a set of guidelinesfor nonsexistresearch to its agenda.The entire committee,consistingof JuneGow (chair), Donna Greschner,Gilberte Leblanc, Donna Mergler, Beth Percival, Charlotte Thibault, Jennifer Stoddart, and myself screenedand discussedtwo earlier versions of the guidelinescontainedin this book In particular, Donna Mergler contributed to the present shapeoftheguidelines Finally, I wish to acknowledgegratefully the excellent copyediting done by Patricia Miller Lisa Freeman-Miller of Allen & Unwin wasa dreamcometruein whatyouhopefor in aneditor Chapter Sexism in Research 1.1 Introduction 12 Sexismin research 1.3 The sevensexist problems 1.3.1 Androcentricity 1.3.2 OvergeneralizationlOverspecificity 1.3.3 Genderinsensitivity 1.3.4 Double standards 1.3.5 Sex appropriateness 1.3.6 Familism 1.3.7 Sexual dichotomism 1.4 Organizationand history of this book 1.5 Sexismand scientific objectivity 1.6 Solving the problem of sexismin research 1.1 Introduction Over a centuryago, a schoolmasternamedEdwin A Abbott wrote an amusing"Romanceof Many Dimensions,"entitled Flatland,l in which he describedthe adventuresof the Square,a beingfrom a twodimensionaluniverse (Flatland), who explores a one-dimensional universe (Lineland) and a three-dimensionaluniverse(Spaceland) Nonse}Cist Research Methods 1.1 The Squaredescribesthe inability of the King of Lineland, a onedimensional being, to grasp the essenceof a two-dimensional universe,and then describeshis own incapacityto believe in the existenceof a three-dimensionaluniverse It is only when he is physically lifted out of his own universeand seesit from above (a dimensionthat is nonexistentin his own Flatland) that he becomes capableof intellectually graspingthe existenceof three-dimensional space When the Squarereturnsto his own country, he eagerlytries to spreadthe Gospelof Three Dimensions,but is predictablyput into prisonasa dangerouslunatic, wherehe languishesat the endofthe novel,"absolutelydestituteof converts." The following is an excerptin which our hero, the Square,tries to convince the King of Lineland that there are, in fact, two dimensions.He arguesthat, in addition to Lineland's motions of Northwardand Southward,which are the only directionsin which lines can move in Lineland, thereis anothermotion, which he calls from right to left: KING; E}Chibit to me, if you please,this motionfrom left to right I: Nay,thatI cannotdo, unlessyoucouldstepoutofyourLinealtogether KING: OutofmyLine? Doyoumeanoutoftheworld?OutofSpace? Well, yes Out ofyour Space.For your Spaceis not the true Space.True Spaceis aPlaneibutyourSpaceis onlyaLine KING: Ifyou cannotindicate this motionfromleft to right byyourselfmoving in it, then I begyou to describeit to me in words I: If I cannot tell your right sidefrom your left, I fear that no words of mine can makemy meaningclear to you But surelyyou cannotbe ignorant of so simple a distinction KING: I donotin theleastunderstandyou (Abbott,1952:62) I: Like the King of Lineland, we have been brought up in an intellectually limited universe.Our dilemma is that all our major concepts,our way of seeingreality, our willingnessto acceptproof, havebeenshapedby one dimension- onesex- ratherthanby two For as long as we remain within this intellectual universe,we are incapableof comprehendingits limitations, believing it to be the only world that exists.In orderto truly understandour universe,we must create a vantagepoint that allows us to observeit both for what it is and for what it is not Not an easy task, as the Square 1.1-12 SBl(ism in Research found out when he tried to explain the existenceof left and right to a personwho had neverexperiencedthem Similarly, noneof us haseverlived in a nonsexistsociety:moving toward nonsexistscholarshipis comparableto tIying to comprehend a dimension that we have not materially experienced.We can describeit in theoreticalterms, but we cannotfully appreciateits natureuntil we areable to lift ourselvesout of our currentconfining parameters.This involves becoming aware of sexism in research and starting to eliminate it Sexism in researchwas first recognized as a major problem around the mid-1970s.While books and articles that pointed out the problemexistedbeforethat time,z it is only sincethe mid-1970s that critiques have appearedwith some regularity and in more mainstreamoutlets In the early 1970s and continuing into the 1980s, various organizations,publishers,and publication outlets beganadopting rules about the use of nonsexist language,3and recently, about nonsexistcontent.4Nevertheless,sexism in researchis still badly understood.Evenlesswell understoodis how to conductresearch in a nonsexistmanner This book has two major objectives:(1) to presentan analysisof sexismin researchthat enlargesour understandingof this problem and sensitizesstudentsand researchersto sexism in its various manifestations;and(2) to provideguidelinesfor solving the problem that offer clear and concisemeansof creatingnonsexistalternatives 1.2 Sexism in Research Most analysesof sexism in researchfocus either on one discipline or subjectareaor else on one type of sexism.s Indeed,we not tend to speak of "types of sexism," but of "sexism," pure and simple.s The term "sexism" suggeststhat we are dealing with one problem that may manifest itself in different areasdifferently, but which neverthelessis a single basicproblem- what one might call the "big blob" theory of sexism This book takesa different approach.Sexismis herebrokendown into sevendifferent types Of these seventypes, four are primary 168 Nonse"istResearchMethods • What is the age-specificproportion of men who father children with women to whom they are not married?Are they single or married to someoneelse?Is there a group of men who father such children comparablein size to the group of unmarriedwomen who give birth, or is it only a relatively small group of men who are responsiblefor a relatively large numberof pregnancies? The Elderly • Are there genderdifferencesin the way elderly sick women and men are perceived?If so, what are they? Do malesand femaleshave the sameor different perceptionsof elderly men and women?What are the policy implications of any differencesthat exist? • Do elderly women and men use different coping resources?If so, what are they? Are someresourcesthat facilitate coping in one sex neutral or negativein their impact on the other sex?If so, why? How doesthis affect our understandingof the relationshipbetweencoping resources and health effects in general? This is only a small sampling of questionsthat emergefrom an analysis of sexism They should, however, suffice to demonstrate the immensearray of questionsthat presentthemselvesonce we have critically examinedthe existing literature for sexist problems It is not easy to accept the idea that well-establishedways of looking at the world may be inherentlyflawed, as the hero of our first chapter,the Squarefrom Flatland, found when he was bodily lifted by his guide, a Sphere,out of his two-dimensionalhomeland to lookatitfrom thethird dimension: An unspeakablehorror seized me There was a darknessithen a dizzy, sickening sensationof sight that was not like seeingi I saw a tine that was no tinei Spacethat was not SpaceiI was myselfand not myself When I could find voice, I shriekedaloud in agony, "Eithel' this is madnessor it is Hell." "It is neither,"calmly replied the voice of the Sphere,"it is Knowledgei it is Three Dimensions:openyour eye once again and try to look steadily." I looked, and, behold, a new world! Epilogue 169 If, like the Square,we dareto openour eyesand look steadilyat the world asit presentsitself from the perspectiveof both sexes,we will find a new richnessin what we thought were familiar and wellcharted grounds Introducing the perspectiveof women into a previously androcentric frame of reference opens up infinite researchpossibilities.Looking at men as genderedbeings- and not as humanity pure and simple - makes us understandthem differently and more realistically By embracingthe principles and practicesof nonsexistresearch,we too can behold a new world Androcentricity Overgeneralization Overspecificity Double Standard AndI'Ocentricity Double Standard Basedon sexist language Basedon sexist concept Overgeneralization Type ofProblem TextReferences: DescriptionlE;camples 7.4 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 5.2.1 2.3.1 5.2.2 Ego constructedas male in conceptsthat are presentedas general 2.2.2, 2.3.2 ResearchComponent:Concepts Sex-specificterms usedfOl' generic purposes Generic terms usedfor sex-specificpurposes Nonparallel terms usedfor femalesand males One sex consistentlynamedfirst One sex consistentlydiscussedin the passive mode, the other in the active mode 7.6.1.1 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.4 3.2.2, 3.3 ResearchComponent:Language 7.4 Text References: Identificationl Resolution 3.3, 3.6 Research Component:Title Title generalizescontentof study when in fact researchhas beencarried out on only one sex Title reflects andlor containsa sexist concept (seebelow) Title containssexist language(seebelow) Description of Problem Appendix: Nonsexist Research Checklist ~ 6.4.2 6.3.3 6.2 5.3.3 5.32 5.3.1 2.3.2 3.4 2.22, 2.2.5, 2.3.2 Study designedfrom a male perspective Femalebehaviorassessed againstmale behavior,which is taken as the norm 2.2.3 2.2.1, 2.3.3 2.2.4 ResearchComponent:ResearchDesign Conceptexpressesrelational quality from the perspectiveof one sex only Conceptdemeanswomen Conceptdefined as sex-specificwhen it is applicableto both sexes Conceptclassifiesthe sameattributedifferently on the basis of sex Conceptidentifies a behavior,trait, or attribute with only one sex when in fact it is or may be presentin both sexes Conceptor conceptualpair ascribesa different value to traits more commonlyassociatedwith one sex Conceptbasedon the notion of "sexappropriate"behavior,traits or attributes Conceptattributesindividual propertiesto families of households Conceptattributeshumancapacitiesto one sex only Choice of ResearchQuestion Women excludedfrom researchdesign even Androcentricity when the researchquestionaffects both sexes Frameof Reference Androcentricity Androcentricity Sexual Dichotomism Familism Sex Appropriateness Double Standard Double Standard Double Standard Androcentricity Overspecificity Androcentricity 7.7.1.2 7.7.1.1 7.7.1.1 7.6.5 7.6.4 7.6.3.4 7.6.3.3 7.6.3.2 7.6.3.1 7.6.12 7.62 7.6.1.1 "'I VariablesE;}(a.mined Variablesrelatedto women'sspecific situation in two-sex studiesnot adequatelytaken into account Sex ofParticipants in the ResearchProcess Study doesnot take into accountthe fact that GenderInsensitivity female and male subjectsmay react differently to comparablesituations Androcentricity 4.5 2.3.3 7.7.4 7.7.3 7.7.2.2 6.4.3 5.4.1, 6.2.1 7.7.2.1 7.7.1.3 2.3.3, 5.4.1 Men excludedfrom researchdesign,especially in areasconcerningfamily and reproductive issues Both sexesincluded in researchdesign but different researchquestionsaskedabout femalesand males 5.4.2 7.7.1.2 TextReferences: Description/Examples Description of Problem Choice of ResearchInstrument Double Standard Different researchinstrumentsusedfor the two sexes Researchinstrumentdivides malesand females SexualDichotomism into discretegroupsand assignshuman attributesto eachof them Double Standard! Sex Appropriateness Gynocentricity Type of Problem Text References: Identification! Resolution '"'" tj ofAnalysis Researcherfails to report on sample compositionby sex Questionsand Questionnaires Overgeneralization Questionsuse sexist language SampleComposition Overspecificityl GenderInsensitivity 4.6 6.3.2,6.3.3 4.5 4.5 3.5.1 3.52,42 2.3.4 ResearchComponent:Methods Noncomparablegroups of femalesand males used The family usedinappropriatelyas smallestunit of analysis Study doesnot take into accountthe fact that male and female researchersand researchstaff may elicit different responsesfrom human subjects Study doesnot take into accountthe fact that data obtainedfrom informantsand authorsof statements(whetherwritten, oral, audiovisual, or other) are likely to vary by sex ResearchInstrumentValidation Androcentricity Researchinstrumentvalidatedfor onesexonly butusedfor bothsexes ComparisonGroups GenderInsensitivity Familism Unit GenderInsensitivity GenderInsensitivity 7.8.3 7.8.2 7.8.1 7.7.7 7.7.5 7.7.4 7.7.4 tJ Questionsdo not allow for total range of possibleanswersfor both sexes Questionspremisedon notion of sex-lin) appropriatebehavior,traits, or attributes Androcentricity Androcentricity Coding Procedures Double Standard Other-Sel'Opinions GenderInsensitivity 5.4.3 4.4 6.4.4 6.2.1 2.3.5 Tel't References: Description/El'amples Findings interpretedwithin male frame of reference Forms of female subjugation,abuse,or restriction seenas trivial 2.2.4 2.2.5 Research Component:DataInterpretation Identical responsescodeddifferently by sex People(including experts)askedabout behaviors,traits, or attributesof membersof the other sex, and such information treatedas fact ratherthan opinion Choice of ResearchInstruments Sexual Dichotomism Researchinstrumentstressessex differences with the effect of minimizing the existenceand importanceof sex similarities Sex Appropriateness Androcentricity SampleComposition TypeofProblem Descriptionof Problem 7.9.1 7.9.1 7.8.6 7.8.5 7.8.4 7.8.3 7.8.3 Tel't References: Identification/ Resolution ~ ~ Double Standard! Sex Appropriateness Double Standard GenderInsensitivity Sex Appropriateness GenderInsensitivity GenderInsensitivity Overgeneralization Androcentricity Androcentricity 7.9.1 7.92 7.9.3 7.9.3 7.9.4 22.5 3.6 4.3 4.6 6.2.2, 6.2.3 Failure to take into accountthe fact that policies have different impact on the sexesdue to the historically grown differencesin the positionof the sexes Samecircumstancesevaluateddifferently on the basis of sex Differential treatmentby sex hidden behind ostensiblynonsexualdistinction 7.10.2 7.10.2 5.6.1, 6.2.2 5.6.2 4.3, 4.7 7.102 7.9.1 22.4,22.6 ResearchComponent:PolicyEvaluationsandRecommendations Formsoffemalesubjugation,abuse,or restrictionseenasnormalor defendedin termsof culturalor ethnictradition Victim ratherthanperpetratormaderesponsible forthecrime Generalconclusionsdrawnfrom anall-male lorall-female)sample Data collected (or available) for both sexesbut not analyzedby sex Interpretationof sex similarities or differences fails to take the different social positionsof the sexesinto account Sex-specificroles acceptedas normal and desirable '~"" Index Abbott,EdwinA.,Flatlandl abilitygrouping55,61 abstracts55 abuse77,142,childabuse38,sexual abuse38,wifeabuse31,32,75 activism59 adolescents 76,94,95,deviancein 95 aduItery29,30 adventurestories121 agricuIture,women'srolein73,74 alternativemotivationalschemes 26 AmericanJournalojPsychology66 AmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation Award73 androcentricity4-6,19-45,androcentric bias74,80,androcentric choiceof variables151,andmcentricconcepts 139,androcentricformulationof researchquestions148,androcentric frameofreference146,indata interpretation158,anddouble standards87,91,andgender insensitivity79,inlanguage40,inthe validationofresearchinstruments 154 andmgyny122 Anglo-SaxonEngland,concubinage in25 anthmpology122 Aries,Philippe29 asymmetricalconcepts90,142 authorsofstatements 77 baselinedatasets45 beauty,quantificationof66 bedroomcommunity,suburbasa26,40, 139 Bernard,Jessie80 "bigblob"theoryofsexism blamingvictims146,158-60,blaming women34;seealsomother-blaming breadwinners90~162breadwinners90~162 cellarlad79 Chagnon,Napoleon,Yanomamo:The FiercePeople31,32,75 characterattributes119 checklist134,170 childabuse~eeunderabusechildabuse~eeunderabuse childcarel08,109,113 childlessness 54-56,140,166,167;see alsoinfertility chivalry,women'sprivilegesduring periodof22 Christiansen-Ruflinan,Linda69 citizen(asanonsexistterm)146 citizencontractors58 codingprocedures 96,doublestandards in158 177 178 lnde,c communists51.52.57.155 comparisongroups153 complexdoublestandards 98.100.101 concepts.sexist138-145.androcentric 40.139.asymmetrical90.142.based onsexualdichotomism144 familisticl44.misogynistlmisandrist 140.overgeneraI56.140.premisedon adoublestandard89.141.premised onnotionsofsexappropriateness 143.premisedon unequaltreatment ofequalattributesin thetwo sexes 89.141.value-Iaden91.142 concubinage25.26 constructionofegoasmale139 consumer(asanonsexistterm) 146 consumersurplus50 contacting59 contactor59 contextawareness 91 contextblindness91 copinginhibitors72 copingresources 71.72.168 cruelty30.31.mental30.physicaI30.159 culturalsubjectivism13 Daly.Mary.GynlEc%gy39 datainterpretation158-162 androcentricityin158.double standards in 93.97.gender insensitivityin 67.160 overgeneralizationin 60.160.sex appropIiatenessin 161 deBeauvoir.Simone 20 decontextualization 78-80.andgender insensitivedalainterpretation 161 departmentheads44.156 derivedsexistproblems4 desexedterms 14.15 desexingoflanguage 124 developmentofmoraljudgment (Kohlberg'smodel)43 deviance.adolescent95 divisionoflabor111-114.156 divorce78.146.152.161.groundsfor29 30 doublestandards4,7.9.85-102,in codingprocedures 158.concepts premisedon89.90.141.indata interpretation93.97.161 in language 86,inpolicyevaluationand recommendations98-102.164.in researchmethods92.research questionsbasedon148.149 dressmaker121 dualperspective45 dysphoria8 earner.pIimary91.101.102.117.142 164.secondary91.101.102.1l7.142, 162.164 earningsdifferentials32-34.70.80 EconomicCouncilofCanada32 EdmontonAreaStudy110 education33.34.educational expectations in IsraeI55.61, educationalmobility 55.educational outcomes61.participationin 78 elderly72.1l6.167.168.elderlysickrole 55,60.61.asanonsexistterm 146 Ellis Havelock86 emotionalcommitment12 emotionality119 employerdiscIiminationhypothesis 79 80 encoding67 equalattIibutes,unequaltreatmentof 141 equalbenefits.assumptionof117 equalpayforequalorequivalentwork 32,34 equaloIialwesterlies133 estrogen119 exogamy24 experimentalsubjects66 experimenter76-78.experimenter's confederates 77 expert12 familism4.8,76.114-118.familistic concepts144 family(asagenericterm)52 family114.115.148.behaviorstudies42 decision-makingin 76.familylwork conflictl10.headof89.income117 144.152.as thesmallestunit of analysis114.152,studies 148 supportsystems116.144 fathen,6,54.93.109, 113.attendance of at birth 112.fatheringrole113 father'stongue56.psychological functioningof93 Fee.Elizabeth11,12 femaleinvisibility:seegynopia female-maledifferencesin participation 73 lnde" femaleperspective45 femalesubjugation39,159 feminism77 167,rates167 fertility 54,56,140,166, fielddependence91,142 field independence 91,142 fishing121 Flatland1,2,168 Flalland,EdwinA.Abbott1 footbinding39 formulationofquestionsand questionnaires43,50,57,148,sexist biasin 155,156 frameofreference145,androcentric 146 freetrade81 freedomofspeech,attitudes towaros51, 52 FrenchRevolution56 genderapartheid 119 genderdifferencesin productivity21 genderdysphoria 121,122,syndrome 120 gendered people45 genderinsensitivity4,6,65-82,indata interpretation160,familism8,114, 144,inpoIicyevaluationsand recommendations 162,inreporting onsample155,inresearch process 151,157 gender-neutral terms15 generationalboundaries,dissolutionof 36,37 genericterms49,52,54,146 genitalmutilation39 gerontologists115 grammarandgrammaticalmodes87, 137,grammaticalstructureof scholarlywriting89 groupcohesion23-25,40,42, 139, 146, 167,amongearlyhominids 151 groupmembership23 guidelinesfornonsexistresearch 129-164,166 GyniEcology,MruyDaly39 gynocentricity5,20,154,gynocentric concepts40,139,informulationof researchquestions148,incipient20 gynopia5,20,27 headsofdepartment 144,156 headsofhousehold 70,71,89,90,138, 141 179 Herman,Judith38 historians28,29 Hobsbawm,Eric 29 hominidgroups25,151,hominid evolution23 homogamy80 homosexuals52,57,120 hopscotch121 household115;seealso headsof household housewives109 housewori