The overall objective of the study is contributing to sustainable development for Khmer community through a set of guidelines for a post-literacy curriculum for Khmer women.
GUIDELINES FOR A POST-LITERACY CURRICULUM FOR RURAL KHMER WOMEN, TRA VINH PROVINCE, VIETNAM by Nguyen Chi Doan Hanh A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Examination Committee: Dr Barbara Earth (Chairperson) Dr Kyoko Kusakabe Dr Nicholas J Dimmitt Nationality: Previous Degree: Vietnamese Bachelor of Arts Hue College of Education Vietnam Scholarship Donor: ASEAN Foundation Asian Institute of Technology School of Environment, Resources and Development Thailand August 2002 Acknowledgments I would like to express my profound gratitude to my Advisor, Dr Barbara Earth, for her untiring guidance and suggestions throughout the process of preparing this thesis I am indebted her constant supports as well as her stimulation in doing this research I am extremely grateful for Dr Kyoko Kusakabe for her inspiration, her incalculable comments and suggestions, which contributed to enhancing the quality of thesis work I would like to give my special thanks to Dr Nicholas J Dimmitt for the valuable knowledge in education that made me to this research I am also indebted him for his lasting encouragement and precious comments for the research My thesis would not have been completed without the openness and hospitality offered by Khmer women in Hoa Loi commune who were so kind to give their time to share their stories with me during my field visits The hospitality, warm welcomes and logical support of all members of Project VIE/96/025, the encouragement of the Board of Project VIE/96/025, The Department of Planning and Investment of Tra Vinh, particularly the untiring and constant support of Ms Nguyen Ngoc Tu, Ms Kien Thi Bi, facilitated the research process Without their assistance, I would have faced a lot of difficulties during my fieldwork I would like to give sincere thanks to ASEAN Foundation for their financial support for my study and research Last but not least, I am so indebted to my parents, and to my brother for their support and encoragement during my study I cannot help thinking of my friends, both in Vietnam, AIT and overseas, Mr Nguyen Minh Dat, Ms Pham Thi Bich Hong, Ms Nguyen Hai Binh, Mr Russell Parmenter and Ms Bui Minh Hue for their support, sympathy and encouragement during my stay at AIT Without their friendship, my study at AIT would have been very difficult I cannot express my depth of love and gratitude to my beloved fiancé who has been the closest, encouraging and supporting me throughout my studies at AIT ii Abstract After 17 years of transition from a centrally planned economy to a market oriented economy, Vietnamese have enjoyed a huge development and improvement in socioeconomics However, the increasingly, widening gap between people in rural and urban areas, unequal opportunities to participate in social development between men and women and between majority women and ethnic women are the challenges facing Vietnam At the same time, researchers, developmental organizations, policies makers and governments worldwide, are paying increasing attention to improving the lives of poor, rural people, especially for women through education They hope that education when provided, to disempowered rural and ethnic women can improve their situation and opportunities This study aims to developing guidelines for a post-literacy curriculum for Khmer women, using a poor, Khmer commune in Tra Vinh province, Vietnam as the study area The specific objectives are to assess the current status of Khmer women in terms of education, explain factors influencing their low level of education and to assess the needs of those Khmer women and develop guidelines for a post –literacy curriculum to empower Khmer women Qualitative research methods are applied to reach the most precise interpretation of the study The research not only lead to one or two major findings but also to a series of small but significant findings, which the researcher hopes will help with the understanding of rural women status in general, of Khmer women’s status in Tra Vinh province specifically and might perhaps contribute to improved interventions by policies-makers and practitioners At the end of the research, a set of guidelines for a post-literacy curriculum is suggested This is followed by recommendations for further research iii Table of Contents Chapter Title Page Title Page Acknowledgments Abstract Table of Contents List of Figures List of Case studies List of Tables List of Abbreviations i ii iii iv vii viii ix x Introduction 1.1 Background 1.2 Problem Statement 1.3 Rationale of the Study 1.4 Objectives 1.5 Scope of the Study 1.6 Organization of the Research Research Design And Methodology 2.1 Conceptual Framework 2.2 Type of research 2.3 Selection of the Study Area 2.3.1 Study Area 2.3.2 Target Groups 2.4 Data Collection 2.4.1 Secondary Data 2.4.2 Primary Data 2.4.2.1 Key Informants Interviews 2.4.2.2 Focus Group Discussions: 2.4.2.3 In-depth Interviews 2.4.2.4 Observation 2.5 Data Analysis 2.5.1 Daily Update 2.5.2 Data Analysis 5 6 8 8 9 10 10 10 Literature Review 3.1 Indigenous People 3.1.1 Definition 3.1.2 Ethnic Discrimination 3.1.3 Indigenous People in Vietnam 3.1.3.1 Period After Liberation 30 April 1975 3.1.3.2 Time of Transition-1989-1994 3.2 Education for Empowering Women 3.2.1 Concepts and Definitions 3.2.1.1 Formal and Non-Formal Education 12 12 12 12 16 16 17 21 21 21 iv 1 3 3.2.1.2 Functional and Post-literacy 3.2.1.3 Empowerment 3.2.2 Importance of Education to Women 3.2.3 Women’s Participation in Non-formal Education has The Same Effect as Formal Schooling on Demographic Change and on Women’s Empowerment 3.2.3.1 Schooling that leads to Demographic Transition and Behavior Change 3.2.3.2 Schooling that leads to Autonomy and Empowerment 3.2.3.3 Non-formal Education leads to Autonomy and Empowerment 3.2.3.4 Constraints of Women’s accessing to Education 3.2.4 Education and Literacy in Vietnam 3.2.4.1 Overview of Literacy in Vietnam 3.2.4.2 Eradication Illiteracy in Vietnam and Education for All in Vietnam 3.2.4.3 Education of Ethnic Minorities in Vietnam 3.3 Country Experiences in Literacy Education for Indigenous People 3.3.1 Case of Cambodia 3.3.2 Case of China 3.3.3 Case of Lao PDR 3.3.4 Vietnamese National Policies on Literacy/Non-formal Education 23 24 25 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 29 30 31 31 32 33 33 Profile of Study Area 4.1 General Profile of Tra Vinh Province 4.1.1 Physical Environment 4.1.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics 4.1.3 Bureau of Ethnic Minorities 4.1.4 Department of Training and Education 4.2 Main Features of Chau Thanh District 4.2.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics 4.2.2 Mass Organizations in the District 4.2.3 Infrastructure of Chau Thanh District 4.3 Hoa Loi Commune 4.3.1 Population and Ethnicity 4.3.2 Economic Activities 4.3.3 Infrastructure, Education and Health 4.3.4 Tri Phong Village 4.3.5 Kinh Xang Village 4.3.6 Qui Nong B Village 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 39 40 Khmer Women Low Education Levels 5.1 Reasons Leading to Current Low Level of Education of Khmer Women 5.1.1 Historical Context: Government Policies and Programs 5.1.2 Ethnic Discrimination 5.1.3 Gender Discrimination 5.1.4 Poverty and Motivational Factors 44 v 44 44 45 46 47 5.2 Results of Khmer women low education 5.2.1 Poverty and debt 5.2.2 Fear of going out leads to dependence and being outsider from society development 48 48 Towards Transformatory Curriculum 6.1 Expressed needs of Khmer Women 6.1.1 Basic tools of learning 6.1.2 Quality of life 6.1.3 Productivity skills 6.1.4 Civic consciousness 6.1.5 Empowerment 6.1.6 Time and Language 6.2 Current Literature Program 6.2.1 Summary of the Current Literature Program 6.2.2 Drawbacks of Current Literature Program 6.3 Guidelines for a New Curriculum for Khmer Women 6.3.1 Content 6.3.1.1 Basic tools of Learning (Literacy Skills) 6.3.1.2 Productive Work 6.3.1.3 Quality of Life 6.3.1.4 Legal Literacy 6.3.1.5 Cultural Revitalization 6.3.2 Methods, Materials and Training Schedule 6.3.2.1 Methods 6.3.2.2 Materials 6.3.2.3 Training Schedule 51 52 52 53 53 53 53 54 54 54 56 56 56 57 57 57 58 58 59 59 59 60 Conclusions and Recommendations 7.1 Conclusions 7.1.1 Profile of the Study Area in which the Educational Level is Highlighted 7.1.2 Reasons Contributing to the Low Level of Education of Khmer Women 7.1.3 The needs for a post-literacy curriculum 7.1.4 Guidelines for a post- literacy curriculum 7.2 Recommendations for Further Research 7.2.1 Research into Comparison Gender Relations among Khmer in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia 7.2.2 Research into Content and Methods used in other Cases of Post literacy Curriculum for Ethnic Women 7.2.3 Further Development of a Post literacy Curriculum for Khmer Women and for Ethnic Women 7.2.4 Research into How to Implement and Manage Curriculum arising from these Guidelines 7.2.5 Research into formative and summative evaluation of any curriculum arising from these guidelines 62 62 References Appendices 66 72 vi 49 62 62 63 63 64 64 64 64 64 65 List of Figures Figure Title Page The diagram of Conceptual Framework Study Area Map of Hoa Loi Commune The Flow Chart of Data Analysis 10 Comparison of education level of group of 18 – 60 age in three villages of Hoa Loi commune 42 Characteristics of illiteracy level in different villages by age 43 Low Educational Attainment is both a Result and a Cause of Khmer Women’s low Status 51 vii List of Case studies Case study Page 45 45 46 47 47 48 49 49 50 viii List of Tables Table Title Page Data Collection Overview of Indigenous People in South East Asia 14 Master Plan for Northern Highland Areas 19 Ideal-type Model of Formal and Non-Formal Education 22 Literacy Rate of Persons aged and over of selected Ethnic Groups by Sex, 1998 30 Current Education Situation by Sex in Tri Phong Village 39 Educational Level of Persons aged less than 18 by Sex in Tri Phong Village 39 Educational Level of Persons aged 18-60 by Sex in Tri Phong Village 39 Educational Level of Persons aged over 60 by Sex in Tri Phong Village 39 10 Current Education Situation by Sex in Kinh Xang Village 40 11 Educational Level of Persons aged less than 18 by Sex in Kinh Xang Village 40 12 Educational Level of Persons aged 18-60 by Sex in Kinh Xang Village 40 13 Educational Level of Persons aged over 60 by Sex in Kinh Xang Village 40 14 Current Education Situation by Sex in Qui Nong B Village 41 15 Educational Level of Persons aged less than 18 by Sex in Qui Nong B Village 41 16 Educational Level of Persons aged 18-60 by Sex in Qui Nong B Village 41 17 Educational Level of Persons aged over 60 by Sex in Qui Nong B Village 41 18 Summary of Eliminated Subjects 55 19 Two Levels of the Post-literacy Curriculum 57 20 Developing Guidelines for a Post-literacy Curriculum 61 ix List of Abbreviations ACCU APPEAL ATLP CED DKBA DKBO EFA EOL KNU MoEYS MRDP NFED NGO(s) OHCHR PROAP PSE ULSE UN UNDP UNESCO UNICEF UPE USAID USCR WDEFA WEF The Asia/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO Asia Pacific Program of Education for All APPEAL Training Materials for Literacy Personnel Continuing Education for Development Democratic Kayin Buddhist Army Democratic Kayin Buddhist Organization Education For All Eradication of Illiteracy Karen National Union Ministry of Education, Sports and Youth Mountain Rural Development Program Non-formal Education Department Non-Government Organization(s) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Pre-school Education Universal (ization) of Lower Secondary Education United Nations United Nations Development Program United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations International Children Emergency’s Fund Universal (ization) Primary Education The United States Agency for International Development United States Committee for Refugees World Declaration on Education For All World Education Forum x Khmer proud history in the past, folksongs, dances and effective herbal healing methods in order to revitalise Khmer culture, Khmer traditional knowledge and language 6.3.2 Methods, materials and training schedule 6.3.2.1 Methods Treating the learners as passive containers of information, obviously, cannot cater to the practical educational needs of Khmer women The program requirements here should be to put the learners at the center of the teaching-learning process The variety of participatory teaching-learning strategies that involve the learners in their education would be the appropriate action area for this situation Hayes (1989) said that women when studying tend to define themselves in terms of relationship to others So a literacy class should be a forum where people can participate as equals It should be an environment where women can be encouraged to talk, to share their ideas and to be listened to Then, the learners, when put at the center, will have their self-esteem increased, productivity enhanced, confidence built, and civic awareness generated When teaching in this environment, the teacher should play a role as a facilitator, not a traditional teacher The facilitator has to encourage learners to get out of their timidity and join the class activities bringing actual life settings into class, learning to name what is their constraints, what holds them back by telling and sharing their experience are major activities used in classes With this interactive method employed, the goals of the curriculum will be developed in the process of teaching 6.3.2.2 Materials Although the need to include empowerment content in the curriculum materials is generally acknowledged, it seems to provide information rather than generate critical awareness It is not building attitudes and practical training skills Thus, the materials and curriculum should emphasize critical and practical information in their content They should not be treated as academic or formal learning curriculum but as practical life issues that the learners encounter Finally, the development of materials should be guided by the objective of empowerment To fix the different needs and different educational levels of learners, in each level, the material should be designed into modules, for example, in the Functional level; in Basic tools learning (Literacy skills) the intended content will be divided into modules In each module different and suitable skills are included that be grouped according to the needs expressed by the learners This flexible arranging of topics can satisfy the different levels and requirements of learners One thing that cannot be ignored is the language of the material and language of instruction From the needs expressed by Khmer women in the study area, Kinh language is put as priority as language of instruction Thus, it is suggested that at the functional level, the literacy program would be in Kinh language, then at the advanced level Khmer language would be in the material and would be taught in the program And the teachers for this program must be fluent in Kinh as well as Khmer to be able to achieve the goals of the suggested curriculum 59 6.3.2.3 Training Schedule As the learners are adults, they must spend their daytime for working and earning a living; time for studying cannot be the same as that of regular students but depends on the time they are free According to the needs of the subjects, time for class should be varied and flexible For example, courses that provide farming techniques should be conducted in daytime and on weekends or in suitable seasons This would make the learning process easy, applicable and reachable for the learners to participate Courses that provide basic theory can be conducted in the evening Some courses, which need experiment time in their schedule, should be organized and presented compactly to avoid wastage of time and resources for learners The needs of a literacy curriculum, as perceived by Khmer women themselves, includes basic functional needs (1) Basic tools of learning, (2) Quality of life, (3) Productivity skills, (4) Civic consciousness and (5) Empowerment These functional needs when compared with current literacy curriculum reviewed are the grounds for the researcher to develop guidelines for a new literacy curriculum for Khmer women The set of guidelines for a new curriculum includes basic tools of learning (literacy skills), productive work, quality of life, knowledge of how to empower women are included in organization, attitudes and values and the last but not the least is knowledge of culture, how to keep it, and preserve it, is taken into account in the guidelines (Table 20) 60 Table 20: Developing Guidelines for a Post-literacy Curriculum Reasons for low level of education Government policies and programs In the past, because of governor’s policies, education for ethnic people was not valued After liberation, ethnic people were ignored for a long time and they have just received attention from government recently So, their educational level is low comparing with that of majority Kinh It is consequent that they are excluded from national, social development Ethnic discrimination Although there are ethnic matters in the policies issued by the government, residents living in Vietnam territory still have ethnic discrimination in their mind Internalized oppression and low motivation among Khmer people have emerged and expanded and suppressing down their actions, influenced their behaviors and making them more and more marginalized Gender discrimination Although gender discrimination among Khmer community seems to be not as severe as that of Kinh, it still exists Consequently, women are less encouraged to go to school Poverty This is the determining element in increasing the educational level of Khmer people When they are poor, there is not enough to eat, they cannot think of other things Khmer women expressed needs To be included in a post literacy curriculum Civic consciousness, Legal literacy, quality of life, cultural revitalization Want to know procedures at local authority, what happens around them to be aware of, to be insiders in the developing flow of the country No one articulated Empowerment, ethnic issues in the Cultural expressed needs revitalization but other sources of information indicate their relevance Want to learn Legal literacy what is gender and gender equality Want to learn Productive knowledge, skills skills to overcome poverty At the moment, the framework only gives the basic, necessary elements To be most effective, the program designed must be sincerely and seriously developed to really convey the empowering knowledge required by the learners As already mentioned, methods of teaching should draw on learners’ living environment and real applications to their life 61 Chapter Conclusions and Recommendations This chapter presents conclusions of the main findings of the study, followed by recommendations The main findings and conclusions are divided into four parts: Profiles of the study area, reasons contributed to low level of women in Hoa Loi commune, the needs for a post- literacy curriculum and guidelines for a post- literacy curriculum 7.1 Conclusions 7.1.1 Profile of the Study Area in which the Educational Level is Highlighted The study was done at Tri Phong, Kinh Xang and Qui Nong B villages in Hoa Loi commune, Chau Thanh district, Tra Vinh province Tra Vinh is one of the poorest provinces in the South of Vietnam with 29 percent of population is ethnic Khmer, which is ranked second after its neighbor, Soc Trang province Tra Vinh’s economy mainly depends on agriculture and recently on aquaculture However, the soil is becoming poor because of decreasing water capacity and nutrients, and being severely affected by acidity and salinity Chau Thanh is one of the wealthiest districts of Tra Vinh province but Hoa Loi commune where the research was carried out is one of the poorest and most vulnerable in Tra Vinh and in Vietnam With 8,919 persons and 66.19 percent ethnic Khmer, Hoa Loi is one of the communes where Khmer ethnic reside most Most Khmer people in Hoa Loi are poor, landless and illiterate From commune statistic, with regard to illiteracy, an labour age, in Tri Phong, 14.1 percent female and 13.2 percent are male; in Kinh Xang, the rate is 27.1 percent to female and 21.5 percent to male; in Qui Nong B 15.5 percent and 12.7 percent to female and male respectively Such illiteracy rates have much influence not only on labour capacity and participation in community affairs but also on women status in family, in community, in society 7.1.2 Reasons Contributing to the Low Level of Education of Khmer Women Government policies and programs Elements influenced from past discrimination, from government were found to be the main cause that contributed to the low level of Khmer women in Hoa Loi commune Specifically, domination policy of the colonial French governor made the oppressed position of indigenous people more miserable People felt depressed but they had no way to get out of their “fate” Then during the time occurring the war in South of Vietnam, inconveniences caused by war and discouraging attitude from the ruler both prevents Khmer people generally and in particular Khmer women from going to school After liberation, Vietnam faced a lot of difficulties in economy and the border security; thus, no attention was paid to education for ethnic minorities In addition, national policies and programs at that time, even unintentionally, pushed people into poverty and discouraged them to go to school 62 Ethnic Discrimination Khmer people in Hoa Loi identified language barriers, landlessness and fewer skills in trading are major obstacles for them Training courses and meeting events were organized for them, and they did attend but felt uncomfortable because the language used at those events was in Kinh, the language used by the majority people This factor led them to have a great number of difficulties to participate in community in raising their concerns Landlessness was also considered heavy problem to Khmer people while it was felt nothing Kinh people in the community Internalized oppression, which was found rooted from being discriminated and excluded for a long period was also an obstacle that prevent Khmer people in Hoa Loi from participating in the community This affected social capital as well as mobility of Khmer people generally and Khmer women specifically Gender Discrimination Gender discrimination was found contributing to low levels of education of Khmer women in Hoa Loi commune However, this kind of discrimination was also found not so severely as that of Kinh people in Vietnam Poverty and motivational factors Poverty and motivation were factors influencing low levels of education of Khmer women in Hoa Loi commune Past discrimination and no representation of Khmer people in the community and authority made people feel discouraged from society and they found nothing worth or nothing-valuable going to school 7.1.3 The needs for a post-literacy curriculum Khmer women, local authorities and previous teachers in Hoa Loi commune expressed their needs for a literacy program including basic knowledge on literacy and numeracy, knowledge for improving their quality of life, knowledge on productive skills and knowledge relating to civic life and community cooperation Specifically, knowledge on basic literacy and numeracy, knowledge of how to manage a household, techniques of husbandry, farming, and aquaculture are needed Moreover, Khmer women and local authorities also mentioned knowledge of law, cooperation, environment as well as health 7.1.4 Guidelines for a post- literacy curriculum A number of areas of knowledge and skills are suggested for the post- literacy curriculum to empower Khmer women in Hoa Loi commune Literacy skills are put at the first line for this curriculum They are considered the basic tool for further learning Then, courses on farming technique, animals raising, mushroom farming which are categorized as productive work should be in the curriculum because they are the jobs women are involved in their daily life activities for family living Further, management-training courses, economic knowledge when put into the curriculum will enhance women capacity in household management and increase their income Next is the knowledge on environment, health care, which is the surrounding and daily facing activities women are recommended to the curriculum Skills of enhancing community cooperation and solidarity are also highly proposed in the curriculum Lastly, information 63 of Khmer culture, history and tradition are to be in the curriculum so that people there can understand themselves better and become empowered, proud, confident and motivated in their current activities and studying In summary, the time, material and language for the curriculum are critical factors The post literacy classes should be organized at night when most women are free from their work The material as well the language used for the curriculum are suggested to be in Kinh language at the functional level and then at the empowerment level, it will be in Kinh and Khmer The teachers for the curriculum should be able to be fluent in Kinh and Khmer Lastly, the method to be used for the curriculum is suggested to be as a forum where women can feel free to talk, to share their idea And in this case, teachers should be a facilitator rather than a teacher 7.2 Recommendations for Further Research 7.2.1 Research into Comparison Gender Relations among Khmer in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia Studies on indigenous people, and Khmer people in particularly, have been carried at by Vietnamese and international researchers However, researches focusing on relations of same ethnic groups in the Southeast Asia are rare Hence, research in the difference between Gender relations among Khmer in Vietnam and Khmer in Cambodia would be beneficial It should discover if Khmer people in Vietnam has been assimilated by Kinh culture in terms of gender discrimination The findings of the research could provide insight and understanding of Khmer women and Khmer people in the region and the results emerging from this can be used as a source of Khmer tradition 7.2.2 Research into Content and Methods used in other Cases of Post literacy Curriculum for Ethnic Women Currently, there have been some successful literacy and training programs for ethnic women in Vietnam and in other countries but those programs focus on specific topics and they have their own strengths as well as weaknesses Reviewing those programs critically into content and methods used will be crucial contribution for the sources to design an effective post literacy curriculum for ethnic women 7.2.3 Further Development of a Post literacy Curriculum for Khmer Women and for Ethnic Women Although many training/education programs for Vietnamese have been developed and put into practice, 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Do you think going to school help you? What about some other educational programs you have joined? …………… 72 Checklist Key informants: educational officers and organizations providing training courses and teachers in the study area and from the provincial organizations Name of respondent: Position: Interviews will be flexible because it is open-ended Based on ideas and perceptions of interviewees, there may be more or less questions than in this guideline What you think the areas needed to be in the curriculum program? What knowledge is essential for Khmer women daily activities? What you suggest will be in the curriculum content [Family life, Economics and Income, Health, Civic Consciousness]? What you think should be in Family life section? What you think should be in Economics and Income section? What you think should be in Health section? What you think should be in Civic Consciousness section? What you think what in their tradition should be in the training content? Have you got any problems when delivering your training? 10 What are they? 11 How did you solve them? 12 Have you confronted any other problems [traditions, customs, religion]? 13 What you think about the hardworking, willingness and ability of participants in the village? 14 Do you have any other suggestions? Checklist (For individual Khmer women) Name of respondent: Interviews will be flexible because it is open-ended Based on ideas and perceptions of interviewees, the questions may be followed-up interviewees’ answer Tell me about your life How long have you been living here? Do you live here in your childhood? How you find school here? Do you like it? How you find life in this village? ……… 73 ... Related information was also found at Development Projects in TraVinh, Ethnic Minority Bureau of TraVinh province, TraVinh libraries, Tra Vinh Statistic Office, Tra Vinh Department of Education... the rate of illiteracy has much improved and gained profit from adult literacy campaigns in “revolutionary” countries such as Cuba, Tanzania and Nicaragua Havely (Havely, 1998) a regional analyst... UNICEF UPE USAID USCR WDEFA WEF The Asia/Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO Asia Pacific Program of Education for All APPEAL Training Materials for Literacy Personnel Continuing Education for Development