(BQ) Part 1 book Contemporary human behavior theory has contents: The nature of theories, systems theory, conflict theories, theories of empowerment, feminist theory, psychodynamic theory, theories of assimilation, acculturation, bicultural socialization, and ethnic minority identity.
www.downloadslide.net www.downloadslide.net Contemporary Human Behavior Theory A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR SOCIAL WORK www.downloadslide.net This page intentionally left blank www.downloadslide.net Third Edition Contemporary Human Behavior Theory A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE FOR SOCIAL WORK Susan P Robbins University of Houston Pranab Chatterjee Case Western Reserve University, Emeritus Edward R Canda University of Kansas Allyn & Bacon Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo www.downloadslide.net Editorial Director: Craig Campanella Editor in Chief: Dickson Musslewhite Executive Editor: Ashley Dodge Editorial Product Manager: Carly Czech Director of Marketing: Brandy Dawson Executive Marketing Manager: Jeanette Koskinas Senior Marketing Manager: Wendy Albert Production Manager: Meghan DeMaio Editorial Production and Composition Service: Kalpana Venkatramani / PreMediaGlobal Printer/Binder/Cover Printer: R R Donnelley & Sons Creative Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Suzanne Behnke Cover Image: Vetta Stock photo/Istockphoto Credits appear on appropriate pages, which constitutes an extension of the copyright page Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Allyn & Bacon, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Higher Education, Rights and Contracts Department, One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ Many of the designations by manufacturers and seller to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robbins, Susan P Contemporary human behavior theory : a critical perspective for social work / Susan P Robbins, Pranab Chatterjee, Edward R Canda.—3rd ed p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-0-205-03312-6 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-205-03312-1 (alk paper) Social service Human behavior Social ecology I Chatterjee, Pranab, 1936– II Canda, Edward R III Title HV40.R575 2012 361—dc22 2010053558 10 [DOH] 13 12 11 ISBN-10: 0-205-03312-1 ISBN-13: 978-0-205-03312-6 www.downloadslide.net There is nothing so practical as a good theory —Kurt Lewin There is no theory that is not beset with problems —Karl Popper There is nothing as harmful as a bad theory —Bruce Thyer www.downloadslide.net CHAPTER CO-AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Barbara Becker, MPH late Brené Brown, PhD Research Professor University of Houston Graduate College of Social Work Thomas M Brown, PsyD Psychologist Orem, Utah David Lawson Burton, MSW, PhD Associate Professor Smith College School for Social Work Graciela Couchonnal, PhD Program Officer Health Care Foundation of Greater Kansas City Cynthia Franklin, PhD, LCSW, LMFT Professor University of Texas at Austin School of Social Work Fernando J Galan, PhD, LMSW-ACP late David Hussey, PhD Clinical Director Beech Brook of Cleveland vi James McDonnell, PhD Associate Professor University of Tennessee at Chattanooga Beverly McPhail, PhD Director University of Houston Women’s Resource Center Fred Richardson, PhD Professor Emeritus University of Texas at Austin Department of Educational Psychology Mende Snodgress, JD, LCSW MHMRA of Harris County Houston, TX Kimberly Strom-Gottfried, PhD Professor University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Social Work Joanne Yaffe, PhD Associate Professor University of Utah College of Social Work www.downloadslide.net CONTENTS Foreword xiii Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Chapter The Nature of Theories Organization of the Book and Rationale for Selection of Theories Why Study Theories of Human Behavior? Theories: What Are They? The Social Construction of Theories Ideology, Scientific Theory, and Social Work Practice Determinism and Reductionism: A Problem of Social Construction 13 Theories: Application to Practice 14 Critical Analysis of Theory: The Missing Dimension 16 An Afterthought: Paths to Human Knowledge 22 Summary 23 Chapter Systems Theory 25 Historical Context 26 Key Concepts 28 Structural Functionalism 28 The Ecological Perspective 32 Dynamic Systems Theory 35 Deep Ecology 43 Ecofeminism 45 Contemporary Issues 46 Application to Social Work Practice 47 Critical Analysis 52 Consistency with Social Work Values 55 Philosophical Underpinnings 57 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 57 Summary 58 Chapter Conflict Theories 59 Historical Context 60 Key Concepts 61 Class Conflict 62 Roads from Marx 65 vii www.downloadslide.net viii Contents Contemporary Issues 73 Application to Social Work Practice 75 Critical Analysis 79 Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 81 Philosophical Underpinnings 82 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 82 Summary 84 Chapter Theories of Empowerment 85 Historical Context 86 Key Concepts 87 Stratification, Oppression, and Inequality: The Sociopolitical Context of Empowerment Theories 87 Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, Questioning, and Intersexed Empowerment Theories 90 Social Work Empowerment Theories 93 Contemporary Issues 96 Application to Social Work Practice 97 Critical Analysis 101 Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 104 Philosophical Underpinnings 105 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 105 Summary 106 Chapter Feminist Theory 107 Historical Context 108 Key Concepts 110 Feminist Theories 118 Contemporary Thought in Feminist Theory 119 Contemporary Issues 126 Application to Social Work Practice 126 Critical Analysis 129 Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 131 Philosophical Underpinnings 131 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 132 Summary 133 Chapter Theories of Assimilation, Acculturation, Bicultural Socialization, and Ethnic Minority Identity 134 Historical Context 135 Key Concepts 138 Deficiency Theory 140 www.downloadslide.net Contents The Dual Perspective 142 Bicultural Socialization 143 Ethnic, Racial/Cultural, and Minority Identity 145 A Multidimensional Transactional Model of Bicultural Identity 147 Transculturality 155 Cultural Competence 157 Contemporary Issues 159 Application to Social Work Practice 160 Critical Analysis 164 Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 166 Philosophical Underpinnings 167 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 167 Summary 168 Chapter Psychodynamic Theory 169 Historical Context 170 Key Concepts 170 Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 171 The Conscious, Preconscious, and Unconscious 171 Roads from Freud 177 The Freudian Mainstream 178 The Freudian Left 187 Contemporary Issues 189 Application to Social Work Practice 191 Critical Analysis 192 Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics 196 Philosophical Underpinnings 197 Methodological Issues and Empirical Support 198 Summary 200 Chapter Theories of Life Span Development 201 Historical Context 202 Key Concepts 202 Theoretical Knowledge About Physical Development 203 Theoretical Knowledge About Sexual Development 204 Theoretical Knowledge About Neurobiology and Neurotransmission 209 Theories of Psychosocial Development: The Life Span Approach 213 Roads from Erikson 218 Theories of Midlife Development 219 ix www.downloadslide.net 186 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory theorists, he held that models of psychological autonomy based on separation and individuation not reflect the reality of life Instead, the human condition is characterized by psychologically healthy interdependence (H Johnson, 1991) Perhaps his most profound divergence from most mainstream reformulators lies in his acknowledgment of the interrelationship between the social structure and personality development Kohut tied the character disorder of narcissism to societal changes of the 20th century and the isolated nature of the nuclear family He contrasted Freud’s “Guilty Man” (the product of sexual repression) with contemporary society’s “Tragic Man” (the product of alienation and isolation) In a Marxian sense he viewed pathology of the human condition as tied to specific historic and structural changes in society However, here is where the Marxian analogy ends as he shifted the specific blame for individual pathology to the unempathic mother and absent father (J K Gardiner, 1987; Kohut, 1984) Kohut proposed a model of personality development in which the infant’s drives and instincts are separate from the attainment of a cohesive self, which develops during the first few years of life He believed that children are born into empathic environments comprised of selfobjects The empathic environment is a warm, nurturing environment with a nurturing parent who assists the child’s development through “empathic mirroring.” This is a process in which the child is “confirmed in its vitality and assertiveness by the mirroring self-object” (Kohut, 1984, p 23) The term self-object denotes the child’s perception of other people (and objects) as part of self, inasmuch as the functions they perform are perceived to be the child’s own According to Kohut it is the self–self-object relationship rather than the self-object relationship that is at the core of psychological functioning throughout life Although the nature of the relationship with selfobjects changes, the need for them does not (H Johnson, 1991) During the process of development the child attains a cohesive self through transmuting internalizations This is a process whereby the child incorporates into self “the functions which the object used to perform for the child” (Kohut, 1971, p 50) This must be done gradually, and the child must shift attention from the whole person to the specific function to be internalized (Blank & Blank, 1974) In his work on narcissistic personality formation, Kohut diverged from Freud’s Oedipal focus Instead, he suggested two separate lines of development: “(1) from autoerotism to narcissism to object love, and (2) from autoerotism to narcissism to higher forms and transmutations of narcissism” (Blank & Blank, 1974, p 80) Clearly, he regarded narcissism as necessary in both normal and abnormal development Pathological narcissism occurs when the child is deprived of an empathic environment In the absence of empathic mirroring, the child is unable to integrate into a realistic self-image the early grandiose self-images and the idealized parent images J K Gardiner has noted that “although self-psychologists adopt non-sexist language, speaking of the ‘nurturing parent’ or the ‘child’s caretaker,’ they assume that the mother has the primary role in the infant’s life” (1987, p 226) Thus, deficiencies in a child’s self-structure are directly attributable to deficient and unempathic mothers Table 7.6 summarizes Kohut’s key concepts There are numerous other authors who have made substantial contributions to contemporary psychodynamic thought Greenspan (1989), for example, proposed a six-stage comprehensive theory of object relations Fairbairn (1952) and Guntrip (1961, 1969) have elaborated on the schizoid position and the depressive position Koenigsberg (1977) has suggested that racism, revolution, and nationalism can be explained by constructs used in ego psychology In addition, E G Goldstein (1984) and Polansky (1982) have made substantial contributions in relating ego psychology to social practice Strean has long been a leading proponent of traditional psychodynamic thought (L Freeman & Strean, 1987) www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory TABLE 7.6 Key Concepts of Heinz Kohut Developmental Phases Continuum Transmuting internalizations Self-structure Cohesive self ¡ ¯˚˚˚˚˚˘˚˚˚˚˚˚˙ Self-object ¡ Self as an outcome of empathic environments ¡ INTRAPSYCHIC PHENOMENA Infancy and Childhood Rest of Life ¡ ¡ ¡ THE FREUDIAN LEFT The “radical” reformulators, or Freudian Left, depart from mainstream thought in several ways Some, like Geza Roheim, believed that sexual permissiveness is an indicator and aim of human happiness In his reformulation, it is the repression of libidinal urges that leads to unhappiness and misery In essence, he rejected the antisocial nature of Eros as posited by Freud Others sought a form of synthesis between the works of Freud and Karl Marx Within this group there are two distinctive “camps” or orientations The Marxist Freudians, such as Wilhelm Reich and Erich Fromm, are primarily psychoanalysts, trained in the Freudian tradition, who attempted to incorporate Marxian concepts into Freudian theory In contrast, the Freudian Marxists, such as Herbert Marcuse (first discussed in Chapter 3), are primarily Marxian theorists attempting to explain the psychological dynamics of oppression in capitalist societies To this end, they incorporate Freudian concepts into Marxian theory The Freudian Left, however, has not gained great popularity among professional helpers Reich was discredited by a legal and political system, Roheim was isolated by most of his colleagues, and Marcuse became the chief ideologue of the student rebels in the United States during the 1960s Only Fromm attained credibility in Europe and America We discuss the ideas of Reich, Fromm, and Marcuse here Wilhelm Reich, a psychoanalyst and former active Marxist, believed that sexual energy (or libido) is at the core of human functioning and determines an individual’s character He theorized three levels of personality structure At the surface level was the “mask of self-control,” “politeness,” and “artificial sociality.” Immediately under the surface was the Freudian unconscious, with “sadism, greediness, lasciviousness, and envy.” At the third (and deepest) level was one’s “natural sociality and sexuality, spontaneous enjoyment of work, and capacity for love” (Reich, 1960, pp 2–4) Reich criticized Freud’s notion of the death instinct, which, according to Reich, “implied that human suffering was inevitable, under socialism as well as capitalism” (Robinson, 1969, 187 www.downloadslide.net 188 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory p 36) However, Reich argued that Freud and Marx shared some things in common: “The underlying dialectical theme in all of Freud’s work was the notion of psychic conflict As Marxism was a conflict sociology, so Freudianism was a conflict psychology” (Robinson, 1969, p 42) Reich was also keenly aware of the role of ideology on character For Reich, ideology of the external environment became anchored in the character structure (personality) and internalized by the individual Further, he held that the family is produced by a certain economic environment and political ideology It, in turn, helps nurture certain ideologies in the character structure of infants who later are supportive of that economic order and ideology Erich Fromm was a psychoanalyst who preferred the term humanist His work, Marx’s Concept of Man (1961), illustrated his admiration of Marx, and in Beyond the Chains of Illusions (1962) he compared Marx with Freud This theme was also articulated in Escape from Freedom (1941), in which he suggested that human beings, when finding themselves incapable of handling their freedom, escape to ideologies like fascism Fromm’s concern about the individual was, in most of his writings, centered on the concept of identity and need (1955) Identity is the process by which one’s personality is forged not by being someone, but by belonging to someone He also proposed that people have extra-biological needs: the need for creative outlets, for natural roots, to define one’s own identity, and for a frame of reference Fromm was responsible for the formulation of a new idea: It is not the individual who is sick, but a certain kind of society that makes people sick He argued that mental or emotional sickness in individuals is brought about by a sick society According to Fromm, social character is cultivated in an individual during childhood by the cultural prescriptions of child rearing He argued that social character is formed during the developmental phases and is structured by the interaction between psychological, cultural, macroeconomic, and technical bases of society When social character makes demands on the individual that are unfulfilling to his or her extra-biological needs, a “sickness” ensues Herbert Marcuse became interested in psychoanalytic theory later in life Trained in Hegelian and Marxist thought, he sought a synthesis between Marxism and Freudian psychoanalysis For Marcuse, the Freudian concept of the unconscious was important, given that his concern with human consciousness predated his interest in psychoanalysis The unconscious, he believed, could be used to view the fundamental conflicts in society Marcuse (1966) also extended the Freudian intrapsychic process of repression and the reality principle in his creation of two new concepts: surplus repression and performance principle Surplus repression was an extension of Marx’s concept of surplus value, which refers to profits made through the exploitation of a person’s labor Surplus repression is an intrapsychic process whereby repression is used to justify the domination of one group (class) over another In this he discussed the quantification of human relationships that facilitated a certain social order (capitalism) The performance principle, Marcuse’s term for Freud’s reality principle, is a process by which “body and mind are made into instruments of alienated labor” (Marcuse, 1966, p 46) In his discussion of the performance principle, Robinson (1969, pp 205–206) observed: (The) desexualization of the body resulted in a radical reduction of man’s potential for pleasure Libido became concentrated in one part of the body, namely the genitals, in order to have the rest of the body free for use as an instrument of labor In an earlier version of Eros and Civilization (1955), Marcuse also argued that the story of Oedipus became popular in the Western world because it sustained the patriarchal family, as did the story of Prometheus because it supported the performance principle The stories of Narcissus www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory TABLE 7.7 Areas of Difference Between the Marxians and the Freudians Conflicts Marxian Freudian Sources Class conflicts Ideological conflicts “Sick society” Society: Its class structure Intrapsychic conflicts Sexual conflicts “Sick individual” Individual: His or her psychic structure Social class Gender Main concern (alienated labor) Secondary concern Age Secondary concern Disability Another main concern (“from each according to his ability, to each according to his need”) Translated to problem of class— Is this a have or have-not group? Role in production process Ownership of means of production Ignored Primary concern (“anatomy is destiny”) Primary concern (identification and transference) An important concern (disturbances of body image—“sick individual”) Translated to disturbances of body image—problems of identification Psychosexual adjustment Focus Inequality, due to Race/ethnicity Origin of human problems (used by Freud to describe neurotic self-love called narcissism) and Orpheus “the voice that does not command but sings” were unpopular because they were too far from the “reality principle” that supports the work ethic (Marcuse, 1966, p 161) For most theorists in the Freudian mainstream, the pleasure principle is seen as undesirable and must be held in check by the reality principle For Marcuse, the pleasure principle is held in check by performance principle, which, in turn, is a source of human suffering The slogan “make love, not war,” used by student rebels in the 1960s, was based on Marcuse’s writing In their efforts to synthesize the works of Marx and Freud, the Freudian Left has drawn analogies between the two theorists Although both are, in fact, conflict theorists, there are numerous differences that we highlight here Table 7.7 summarizes the differences between the two theoretical orientations CONTEMPORARY ISSUES One of the most controversial and divisive debates in contemporary psychodynamic thought relates to the issue of repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse In Freud’s early clinical work with hysterical conversion, he became convinced that repressed memories were based on real experiences of sexual molestation by a parent, other adult, or older sibling Child sexual abuse, at that time, was not a topic that was openly discussed or acknowledged Some now contend that Freud’s retraction of his initial “seduction theory” was based on peer pressure rather than on his own misgivings that the “memories” of abuse were his own constructions 189 www.downloadslide.net 190 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory (S L Bloom, 1995; Rockwell, 1995) Others have clearly documented the basis for his doubts and, using Freud’s own writings, have demonstrated the coercive nature of the methods he used to elicit such memories (Crews, 1995; Esterson, 1983; MacMillan, 1991; Pendergrast, 1996; Schimek, 1987) His later revision portrayed the act of molestation as an incestuous fantasy rather than a real occurrence In his subsequent writings, he held that children fantasize about sex with their parents and repress, instead, this fantasy Articles and books by psychoanalyst Jeffrey Masson and others have charged that Freud turned his back on what he knew to be actual abuse because of censure from the psychoanalytic community (Masson, 1984, 1990) This debate initially created major rifts within the fields of social work, psychology, and psychiatry, with both clinicians and researchers often finding themselves polarized by their strongly held personal beliefs Due to our growing awareness of the reality of childhood sexual abuse, many have uncritically accepted the claim that memories of such abuse are routinely repressed or dissociated (Bass & Davis, 1995; Benatar, 1995; Blume, 1990; Bradshaw, 1992) Despite this belief, there is little if any scientific evidence to support this position In a thorough review of the literature, Robbins (1995, 2002, 2007); found that theories of repressed trauma are supported only by retrospective case studies, similar to those used by Freud Case studies, although valuable in their own right, should not be confused with validated scientific findings The few studies that initially were believed to provide evidence of repression (Briere & Conte, 1993; Herman & Schatzow, 1987; Loftus, Polonsky, & Fullilove, 1994; Williams, 1994) are restricted by serious methodological limitations (Robbins, 1995) A number of studies (Grassian & Holtzen, 1996; Herman & Harvey, 1996; Kluft, 1996; Whitfield, 1996) claimed to provide scientific evidence of repression or dissociation These claims are questionable, however, due to the methodological limitations inherent in the retrospective nature of the research (Robbins, 1995, 2002) This does not mean, however, that childhood abuse cannot be forgotten and later remembered; clearly, in some cases, it can The question that remains to be answered is whether forgotten memories of abuse are due to processes involving repression or dissociation, as proposed by contemporary traumatologists, or if they are due to a variety of more common processes related to delayed recall Significantly, in a review of 60 years of research, Holmes (1990) was unable to find any controlled studies that supported the concept of repression Although we cannot yet rule out the possibility of repression, neither can we confirm its existence To test the repression/dissociation hypothesis, we need well-designed studies that are conducted with methodological rigor Unfortunately, those who voiced skepticism about widespread repression were often accused of being in denial (in the true Freudian sense) and of engaging in antifeminist backlash that seeks to deny the reality of childhood abuse Robbins (1995), however, has pointed out that the issue of child sexual abuse and the debate about recovered memories are, in fact, two distinct issues: one is about the reality of abuse that has now been widely documented, whereas the other is about the existence of repression and the reliability of memories that are “recovered” through abreactive techniques or spontaneous environmental cues This debate was fueled by hundreds of retractors who claim that their therapists used suggestive and coercive methods to evoke false memories of abuse Perhaps even more troubling is the fact that a growing number of women claimed that their therapists ignored their accounts of remembered abuse, while digging for repressed memories This has been damaging not only to the clients themselves but also to their families The False Memory Syndrome Foundation, a support and advocacy organization that promotes and sponsors scientific research on memory, has been a source of support to families who claim that they have been falsely accused www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory Due to the emotionally charged nature of this controversy, as well as the numerous lawsuits that it spawned, it is critical that social workers learn about memory and avoid the use of techniques that are likely to evoke specious memories Significantly, a 1996 National Association of Social Workers’ (NASW) policy on recovered memories cautioned social work practitioners that the therapist’s opinions, suggestions, and techniques can have a significant influence on their clients’ impressions and beliefs During the last decade, much of the research in this field has taken a different approach, and researchers are now examining the ways in which false memories can be created (Bjorklund, 2000; Gallo & Seamon, 2004; Schacter, 1999; A K Thomas & Loftus, 2002) It is essential that social workers be familiar with the most current research in this area as there is now a growing consensus that therapy aimed at recovering memory is not scientifically sound Issuing a cautionary note, Robbins, paraphrasing D B Klein (1977), suggested that “we must avoid confusing what a theorist has merely claimed or believed with what s/he has actually proved or demonstrated” (1995, p 483) A contemporary application of object relations theory can be seen in the field of addictions Efforts to explain alcoholism, other forms of substance abuse, adult children of alcoholics, as well as a variety of bad habits and compulsive behaviors that are now termed addictive disorders, have led to a widening popularity of object relations theory (Wood, 1987) The popular (albeit simplistic) notions of the “dysfunctional family” and “codependency” fit well with theories that trace current illnesses and pathologies back to the family of origin and failures in pre-Oedipal development In the last two decades, contemporary psychodynamic theory has been embraced by addiction specialists and persons in recovery who seek insight into the genesis of their “damaged selves” (Wood, 1987) Consequently, theoretical concepts derived from psychodynamic thought have become enmeshed in self-help ideology and popular psychology Kaminer (1993) has argued that the willingness to label all life problems as symptoms of a disease and to attribute bad parenting as its cause, seriously impedes efforts to identify and address serious patterns of abuse and human suffering We point out that such ideology is not only reductionistic and deterministic but also antithetical to the strengths perspective in social work practice Finally, there has been a renewed interest in the relational paradigm, and Borden (2000) has suggested that despite its problematic aspects, there is potential to “enlarge the concepts of the person, relationship, social environment and psychosocial intervention in continued development of theory, research and practice methods” (pp 370–371) Groundbreaking work by Siegel (2001) is likely to generate a continued interest in further development and refinement of attachment theory APPLICATION TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE Psychodynamic theory has provided a substantial core of knowledge about intrapsychic and interpersonal behavior that has been applied to social work practice for more than half a century Emphasis on the individual and on Freudian psychoanalysis led to the embracing of diagnostic casework and functional casework in the late 1920s and mid-1930s, respectively Diagnostic casework rested on the metaphor of “diagnosis and treatment,” while functional casework rejected the illness metaphor and believed in the human capacity for problem solving and the capacity for growth By the 1950s the newer concepts of ego psychology broadened our theoretical base More recent contributions of object relations theory and self-psychology continue to add to this rich 191 www.downloadslide.net 192 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory heuristic tradition Although it is no longer the predominant theory used in practice, psychodynamic theory, alone and in combination with other theories, has produced enduring practice models One does not have to embrace psychodynamic theory as a basic paradigm to acknowledge its contributions, such as knowledge about defense mechanisms and stages of human development In addition, much of the information that we gather in contemporary psychosocial histories is a direct outgrowth of these theories Definition of the Helping Situation The theories presented here offer five potential definitions of helping The theories of Freud and most mainstream theorists (both traditional and contemporary) rely on the definition of the patient as sick In their focus on the pathologies of psychosis, neurosis, narcissism, borderline personality, and other character disorders, they are based on the medical model of illness that mandates treatment by an expert therapist In contrast, ego psychology most often leads to a definition of problem or growth, inasmuch as people are seen as inherently adaptive and able to change their situations through their own will or creative self, if provided the opportunity The Freudian Left, on the other hand, is primarily based on a social issues definition While specific individuals may have problems, they are usually defined within the context of the larger society Thus, it is the “sick society” or social structure that creates the sick individual We note here that some ideas from the Freudian Left were embraced by the feminist movement in the 1970s and 1980s and led, in part, to the development of “gender consciousness,” resulting, for example, in feminist support groups and shelters for battered women However, the definition here partially switches from social issues to one of self-help Flowcharts 7.1 and 7.2 demonstrate applications of contemporary psychodynamic theory and theories of the Freudian Left Assessment, Practice Strategies, and Methods Clinical assessment derived from these theories would include detailed psychosocial histories emphasizing family history and constellation, developmental history, sibling relationships, emotional development, memories of early childhood, and current functioning, at a minimum Dreams and projective tests may also be used Treatment is generally a form of insight-oriented therapy with individuals, small groups, and families, and the primary focus is on uncovering unconscious feelings and motives for behavior In recent times, techniques such as hypnosis and guided imagery have been used to evoke abreaction of childhood traumas Transference is typically used as a therapeutic device to counter resistance Depending on the therapist’s specific orientation, free association and dream analysis may be used Some approaches may also include an educational focus aimed at the adaptation of social demands and needs In self-psychology, empathic mirroring is used to help the client attain a cohesive self Table 7.8 illustrates a variety of settings and applications of psychodynamic theory CRITICAL ANALYSIS Biological, Psychological, and Spiritual Factors Psychodynamic theories are primarily concerned with internal psychological processes Although these theories largely stem from biological foundations (drives of sex and aggression), they ignore current empirical knowledge about the infant’s biological development As Rossi (1981) has www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory Definition of the helping situation: sick Presenting problem(s) Intake Terminate Referral to another place? Yes No Can helper remedy this? No In the present Source of the problem? In the past Yes Redefine the cause of the problem to be in the past Treat the helprecipient’s resistance and trace the problem to earlier developmental phase Facilitate helprecipient’s “working through” problems of authority and sexuality, and needs for attention, inclusion, and control Work with helprecipient’s transference and the helper’s countertransference Maintain simultaneous focus on past and present Person keeps repeating mistakes from the past? Yes Help person “work through” unresolved problems of past (as taught by Klein, Mahler, and Bowlby) No “Acting Out” Person “acting out” or “working through”? “Working Through” Terminate Maintain simultaneous focus on past and present FLOWCHART 7.1 An example of pathways in contemporary psychodynamic treatment © 2004, S P Robbins, P Chatterjee, & E R Canda 193 www.downloadslide.net 194 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory Definition of the helping situation: social issues Presenting problem(s) Intake Terminate Can helper remedy this? No Yes Make help-recipient see that the problem really originates in “sick society” Provide further ideas and metaphors so the person does not “escape from freedom” Yes Helprecipient active in a social movement? In the Person Source of the problem? In Society Support the person to stand up to society’s injustice Provide ideas and metaphors to the person to question “illegitimate authority” structures No Terminate Try again to link help-recipient to support groups FLOWCHART 7.2 An example of pathways from the Freudian Left © 1998, S P Robbins, P Chatterjee, & E R Canda www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory 195 TABLE 7.8 Various Settings and Applications of Psychodynamic Theories Type of Presenting Problem(s) Type of Program Definition(s) of the Helping Situation Type(s) of Activities Private practice Intense sense of shame and guilt Individual psychotherapy Problem, Deviance Crisis Personal history taking; talk therapy; catharsis Mental health center Anxiety disorder Individual psychotherapy Problem, Deviance Crisis Medication as needed; psychoanalysis of repressed impulses; talk therapy Mental health center Low self-esteem Group psychotherapy Problem Deviance Mutually reflective dialogue; esteembuilding group exercises; dissolving defense mechanisms Family services agency Parent–child conflict Family therapy Problem Growth Family dialogue; ventilation of feelings; analysis of family psychodynamics Type of Agency pointed out, the neurological connections necessary for representational thought are not present in the pre-Oedipal stage Physiological factors such as myelinization of brain matter must be considered when evaluating the validity of intrapsychic theories Thus, constructs such as “ego” and emotions of “envy” are inconsistent with empirical evidence about brain development in early infancy Rossi argued that an ego or sense of self, cannot exist in the absence of cortical functioning The emphasis in most psychodynamic theory is on the unconscious, on intrapsychic structures and processes, and on developmental tasks in infancy and early childhood Most also emphasize pathology rather than normalcy There is some variation, however, as ego psychologists as well as theorists writing in the Adlerian and Jungian tradition emphasize adaptation and competence Despite the internal focus, there is little attempt among the theorists discussed here (with the exception of Jung) to address spiritual concerns In Future of an Illusion (1961), Freud argued against what he considered to be the irrational and unverifiable beliefs of religious systems He held that religious ideas develop as a psychological defense against anxiety aroused by the awesome and sometimes destructive power of nature as well as by the problems generated by society itself He astutely observed, however, that such beliefs can promote immaturity of development, irrationality, and justification for social problems and prejudices He recommended rationality and scientific inquiry as healthy alternatives to religion Although these insights are important, there are serious flaws in his arguments that demonstrate an underlying Eurocentric bias and a superficial and insulting portrayal of tribal and totemic belief systems First, his concept of religion was limited to a narrow interpretation of the Judeo-Christian context Because of this, he failed to recognize that not all religious claims are held beyond question Mystical traditions, for example, emphasize that faith be rooted in direct www.downloadslide.net 196 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory experiential confirmation We discuss this in more detail in Chapter 13 Second, in his position that rationality is the highest form of cognition, he ignored other cognitive modes such as intuition and holistic thinking Finally, he reduced all religious behavior and experience to defense mechanisms based on childish feelings of helplessness and anxiety Recognizing these limitations, Jung, in fact, had criticized Freudian and Adlerian theories for being one-sided: “It is psychology without the psyche, and thus it suits people who think they have no spiritual needs or aspirations” (Jung, 1984, p 198) Some contemporary trends in psychoanalytic thought, however, are more congenial to religion and spirituality Author M Scott Peck, for example, has written a series of popular books that combine insights from Freudian theory with his own version of nondenominational Christianity His first book, The Road Less Traveled (1978), set a record for number of weeks on the best-seller list Social, Cultural, and Economic Forces Due to the heavy emphasis on intrapsychic processes, most mainstream reformulators not adequately address social, cultural, or economic forces There is slight variation, however, with A Adler’s and Horney’s focus on structural aspects of gender inequality and status superiority, Chodorow’s focus on power disparities, H S Sullivan’s interpersonal focus, and Kohut’s recognition of societal changes Despite this, psychodynamic theories retain a largely psychological focus, with primary attention paid to developmental tasks in childhood or infancy In contrast, the Freudian Left places its primary emphasis on the impact of the social, economic, and political structure on individual personality The Marxian influence adds the economic dimension that is usually absent in psychodynamic thought Relevance to Individuals, Groups, Families, Organizations, Institutions, and Communities The primary focus in most psychodynamic theory is on the individual Specific contextual focus is placed on the mother-child dyad Theorists acknowledge the contextual setting of society to varying degrees but focus primarily on the individual within that context Despite this, psychodynamic thought has been widely applied to small groups, particularly in the context of group therapy It has also been applied to organizations and societies in an attempt to explain pathology at the macro level In contrast, the Freudian Left often focuses simultaneously on the society and the individual within the context of a specific economic and political order (capitalistic democracy) and social structure (patriarchy) CONSISTENCY WITH SOCIAL WORK VALUES AND ETHICS Psychodynamic theory has made some important contributions that are consistent with social work values Freud, for example, emphasized the importance of psychosexual development at a time when “polite society” wished to keep sexuality from public view and discussion Countering the prevailing view that human behavior is rational and volitional, Freud pointed out that people not often fully understand their own motivations Further, when Christians sought religious hegemony over the world, Freud criticized the hypocrisy, confused thinking, and irrational dogmatism of religion in general and Christianity in particular www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory Despite these contributions, mainstream Freudian thought is riddled with problems that run counter to many social work values The overriding focus of most psychodynamic theory is on pathology rather than well-being and on deficiency rather than strengths H Johnson (1991) for example, has noted the tendency in psychodynamic theory to adultomorphize and pathomorphize She argued that theorists incorrectly use characteristics of adults as their basis for inferred infant experiences and ascribe to normal infants the later states of adult pathology Further, the prescribed role of the expert therapist, especially the power imbalance that is endemic to maintaining expert authority in the helping relationship, does not fit well with client selfdetermination Similarly, it does not fit well with empowerment practice In addition, the Freudian view of women is not, to say the least, a very positive one Freud characterized women as deficient—biologically, morally, and interpersonally He attributed their failures in life to their biology, and their failure as mothers to their weak personality structure (rooted in their biology) While most contemporary theorists reject his ideas about female deficiency, some have tried to defend him by arguing that he was merely reflecting, in his analysis, the prevailing views of women at that period in time (Freeman & Strean, 1987; Mitchell, 1974) We note here that while Freud may indeed have been a product of his time, and that his views were shared by many, other theorists writing in the same time period were able to shed the blinders of sexism that so constrained his view of women Although there have been corrective efforts with the advent of ego psychology and feminist reformulations, there is little evidence that most psychodynamic theorists adhere to a pro-feminist stance The tendency to pathologize women— particularly mothers—remains a central problem for psychodynamic theory Surprisingly, perhaps, Freud’s view of homosexuality was not as negative as his view of femininity Inasmuch as he fully accepted the bisexual nature of the infant, he saw homosexuality as a developmental fixation that resulted in the retention of polymorphous perversity Freud defined homosexuality in terms of unresolved Oedipal conflict and, in the case of male homosexuality, possible anal fixation (J Mills, 1990) He did not, however, necessarily equate this with neuroses or psychological disorder Contemporary psychoanalytic views of homosexuality attempt to integrate the conclusion that homosexuality is (a) a normal, adaptive behavior with (b) the view that homosexuality is, nonetheless, a product of “conflicted libidinal wishes and deficiencies due to early developmental disturbance in object relations” (J Mills, 1990, p 916) Importantly, psychodynamic theories not adequately address diversity Due to their inherently intrapsychic and interpersonal focus, issues of diversity in race, ethnicity, culture, and social class (to name a few) are largely ignored The exceptions here are the theories derived from the Freudian Left These theories, however, have not received much attention in the social work literature Clearly, from a social work perspective, the complexity of human behavior and the internal, interactional, and environmental factors that shape the individual cannot and should not be reduced to intrapsychic processes and early childhood experiences However, in the dialectical sense, we also argue that they cannot be ignored as they are part of the larger puzzle of both normal and pathological development PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS Despite the wide variety of theorists writing from a psychodynamic perspective, shared philosophical assumptions are apparent throughout While authors may give varying weight to the role of the environment, their focus is primarily intrapersonal That is, they believe that human behavior can be best understood through the study of psychological phenomena such as intrapsychic 197 www.downloadslide.net 198 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory structures, drives transformed into psychological needs, psychical processes, and so on Further, most attribute adult pathology to developmental failures in early childhood In doing so, they promote a deterministic and reductionistic view of people, one that leaves little room for growth and change without professional help Some, such as Freud and Kernberg, are even more narrowly deterministic, suggesting that “biology is destiny.” Determinism can be found, however, at many levels The interpersonal focus of self-psychology and most object relations theorists place blame on the mother–child relationship and vilifies mother for her inability to meet the child’s needs In fact, most of the theories in this group simultaneously reify and vilify mother They bestow on her almost omnipotent powers in shaping the child, then blame her for failing to a good job This, perhaps, is not surprising as ambivalence toward mother is an intrinsic feature of, perhaps, both the theories and the theorists We have suggested previously that theories are often extensions of the histories, attitudes, and beliefs of their authors Although some theorists implicitly assume a rather dismal view of the human infant (greedy, aggressive, self-serving), others are more optimistic about the nature of self and the potential for free will Most, however, implicitly assume that intrapersonal conflict or struggle is a necessary part of development—especially the development of morality (superego) Finally, there is an underlying assumption that the problems people encounter create a state of illness that requires professional help In the context of this professional help, incremental changes based on insight are considered to be desirable Sudden change is not trustworthy and may be seen as a prelude to another form of acting out or regression Although it is rarely addressed in the social work literature, there is a coercive nature embedded in traditional psychodynamic thought Because the analyst or therapist has the expertise (i.e., power) to reinterpret and define our true motivations (which are hidden to us), any attempt at disavowing, disproving, or criticizing their constructs is defined as denial or pathology on our part Given the power superior position of the therapist, the patient’s ability to question the validity of the concepts being applied is nullified In traditional psychoanalysis it is further assumed that all psychoanalytic practitioners must go through analysis themselves to become aware of their own unconscious conflicts that may impact their therapeutic relationships Traditional psychoanalysis is assumed to be a lifelong process, as the unconscious conflict is lifelong as well METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES AND EMPIRICAL SUPPORT Rooted in positivism and the scientific method, psychodynamic theory presents numerous methodological problems, not the least of which are the ideas of unconscious motivation and repression Although empirical evidence of the unconscious has been found in post-hypnotic suggestion and parapraxes (Freudian “slips of the tongue”) (Corsini & Marsella, 1983), the influence of the unconscious on behavior has yet to be proved In a thorough review of recent empirical studies on psychoanalytic theory, H Johnson (1991) looked at two types of studies—those on defense mechanisms and those on subliminal psychodynamic activation Studies on defense mechanisms have yielded mixed results, at best, and they have not demonstrated that unconscious processes work to constrain our impulses Rather, the methodological constraints of psychodynamic constructs render them difficult, if not impossible, to measure Inasmuch as they are unobservable processes, they must be inferred and are not available for empirical verification H Johnson noted that while adaptive mechanisms www.downloadslide.net Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory may be used in coping, “the study of such psychological mechanisms does not require the theoretical framework of psychoanalysis” (1991, p 416) Studies of subliminal techniques are often referred to as Oneness Studies based on their stimulus message “Mommy and I are One.” Reviewing the results of more than seventy studies of this type, H Johnson concluded that while “the notion of an unconscious mental life (is supported) it would be stretching this finding to infer that particular unresolved conflicts give rise to specific kinds of clinical pathology” (1991, p 414) Further, the concept of repression has failed to find support in any controlled studies (Holmes, 1990) Historically, validation from clinical observations was considered sufficient by the analytic community Well-constructed empirical studies were rare and, when conducted, would often yield little if any support for the efficacy of analytically oriented therapy Despite this, most mainstream theorists remain committed to the psychodynamic paradigm and some contend that case studies are sufficient for the purpose of validation In his later years Freud himself eschewed scientific support and believed that “his theory needed no validation” (cited in Torrey, 1993, p 216) H Johnson’s (1991) review of empirical studies in developmental psychology, however, raised serious questions about the validity of psychodynamic constructs In contrast to the narcissistic omnipotence, fusion, and nondifferentiation of pre-Oedipal infants portrayed in contemporary psychodynamic literature, current research shows them to be perceptually complex, active initiators with distinct preferences who are responsive to their environment at an early age In addition, H Johnson noted that “far from being ‘fused,’ they appear to sense their ability to alter the behavior of others” (p 418) A related but perhaps more basic issue is the fact that there is little if any empirical evidence to support the existence of the proposed stages A Kohn (1991) has also noted that research has demonstrated that personality is not necessarily formed at an early age Overriding problems cited in most empirical studies on psychodynamic constructs are serious methodological flaws, including problems in experimental design, inconsistent results, questionable measurement procedures and instruments, a failure to consistently establish interrater reliability, and problems with operational definitions (H Johnson, 1991) Masson’s resurrection of Freud’s seduction theory has created a burgeoning literature on repressed trauma It has also led to several works that evaluate the scientific basis of Freudian theory (Crews, 1995; S Fisher & Greenberg, 1996; MacMillan, 1991; Pendergrast, 1996; Torrey, 1993) Not surprisingly, studies have consistently failed to support most of Freud’s main ideas about the centrality of childhood experiences in determining adult personality and psychopathology Although S Fisher and Greenberg (1977, 1996) have claimed to find support for several Freudian concepts, a close examination of their methodology and data suggests that these claims cannot be taken for granted Many of the studies cited are based solely on clinical validation of psychoanalytic concepts and involve subjective judgments made by psychoanalytically oriented therapists who are predisposed to provide confirmatory evidence More recently, limited empirical support has been found for transference-focused therapy and mentalization-based therapy, both of which utilize psychodynamic principles (Bateman & Fonagy, 2008, 2009; Clarkin, Levy, Lenzenweger, & Kernberg, 2007; Levy et al., 2006) In addition, a few meta-analytic studies have found lasting positive changes that increased with time in patients who underwent psychodynamic therapy (de Maat, de Jonghe, Schoevers, & Dekker, 2009; Shedler, 2010) Given the lengthy history of psychodynamic therapy and the limited empirical support that it has garnered over the last 100 years, additional research is needed to support the efficacy of these methods 199 www.downloadslide.net 200 Chapter • Psychodynamic Theory All of the theories discussed here are better at explanation than prediction; better at a probabilistic level of explanation than a deterministic level; and better suited for explaining properties of individuals than properties of groups, with the exception of the Freudian Left, whose theories are well suited for both In addition, deviant case analysis is often necessary for explanation of cases that run contrary to theoretical propositions Summary Early psychodynamic theory found broad appeal in diagnostic and functional casework and group work Although this appeal has waned in recent years, the contemporary offshoots of object relations and selfpsychology have again gained acceptance, primarily in the field of addictions and in some psychiatric settings Given the diversity among the theorists writing from a psychodynamic stance, we anticipate a strong appeal for specific theorists, if not for the group of theories as a whole Jungian psychology, for example, has had a small but steady following for years and has been an important influence on transpersonal theory (discussed in more detail in Chapter 13) Although the Freudian Left has not received much attention in social work practice, the fusion of Marx and Freud may appeal to those with a more sociological orientation Their combined emphasis on personality and social structure parallels, in some ways, Chodorow’s concerns With her psychoanalytic feminist synthesis, Chodorow has been a seminal influence in the growth of “gender difference” theories and may appeal to many who are interested in women’s psychology or in the genesis of the “gendered personality.” J K Gardiner (1987) suggested that feminists may also find Kohut’s self-psychology appealing as it “points to empathy, creativity, love, and humor as characteristics of the mature self” (p 245) Finally, the creative, adaptive self in ego psychology may likely appeal to many H Hartmann’s definition of adaptation is a foundation concept in Germain and Gitterman’s ecosystems theory (Chapter 2), widely used in contemporary social work practice ... Empirical Support 10 5 Summary 10 6 Chapter Feminist Theory 10 7 Historical Context 10 8 Key Concepts 11 0 Feminist Theories 11 8 Contemporary Thought in Feminist Theory 11 9 Contemporary Issues 12 6 Application... 3 61 dc22 2 010 053558 10 [DOH] 13 12 11 ISBN -10 : 0-205-03 312 -1 ISBN -13 : 978-0-205-03 312 -6 www.downloadslide.net There is nothing so practical as a good theory —Kurt Lewin There is no theory that... X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 10 X X X X X X 11 X X X X X X 12 X X X X X X 13 X X X X X X X X X 14 X X X X X X X X X X Total Chapters 14 14 7 14 14 13 13 www.downloadslide.net Chapter •