When Wheat Was King This page intentionally left blank W hen W heat W as K ing the rise and fall of the canada-uk wheat trade André Magnan © UBC Press 2016 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior written permission of the publisher, or, in Canada, in the case of photocopying or other reprographic copying, a licence from Access Copyright, www.accesscopyright.ca 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 54321 Printed in Canada on FSC-certified ancient-forest-free paper (100% post-consumer recycled) that is processed chlorine- and acid-free Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Magnan, André, author When wheat was king : the rise and fall of the Canada-UK wheat trade / André Magnan Includes bibliographical references and index Issued in print and electronic formats ISBN 978-0-7748-3113-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3115-4 (pdf) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3116-1 (epub) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3117-8 (mobi) 1. Wheat trade – Prairie Provinces – History. 2. Wheat trade – Great Britain – History. 3. Wheat trade – Government policy – Canada – History. 4. Wheat trade – Government policy – Great Britain – History. 5. Canada – Commerce – Great Britain – History. 6. Great Britain – Commerce – Canada – History. 7. Canadian Wheat Board – History. I. Title HD9049.W5M34 2016 382.413110971 C2015-908568-3 C2015-908569-1 UBC Press gratefully acknowledges the financial support for our publishing program of the Government of Canada (through the Canada Book Fund), the Canada Council for the Arts, and the British Columbia Arts Council This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Awards to Scholarly Publications Program, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada UBC Press The University of British Columbia 2029 West Mall Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2 www.ubcpress.ca Contents Figures and Tables Introduction vii chapter one Forging the Canadian-UK Wheat Trade: Experimentation and Crisis, 1870–1945 28 chapter two Regulating the Wheat Sector: Consensus and Contradiction, 1945–95 62 chapter three Reinventing Industrial Bread: Wheat as Food Commodity and Premium Product, 1995– 105 chapter four Transforming the Wheat Sector: Conflicts over the CWB, GM Wheat, and Local Bread, 1995– 134 vi contents Conclusion 163 Notes 179 References 186 Index 198 Figures and Tables Figures 1.1 British wheat imports by country, 1860–1914 / 33 1.2 Total Canadian wheat exports (not including flour), 1868–1914 / 34 1.3 Total British wheat imports, 1840–1914 / 38 1.4 London bread prices, 1870–1913 / 42 2.1 Canadian wheat exports to the Soviet Union and China, 1955–73 / 70 2.2 Purchased quantities of bread in British households, 1974–2006 / 80 2.3 Canadian wheat exports to the United Kingdom, 1952–91 / 85 2.4 Seeded areas of wheat, barley, and canola in the Prairie provinces, 1945–75 / 86 2.5 Farm size and total number of farms in Saskatchewan, 1941–71 / 87 2.6 Total cash receipts and realized net farm income in Saskatchewan, 1971–2006 / 93 3.1 World wheat price, 1990–2005 / 108 3.2 Canadian wheat exports to the Soviet Union as a proportion of total exports, 1972–92 / 111 vii viii figures and tables 3.3 Canadian wheat exports to selected countries, 1972–2010 / 112 4.1 Annual exports of wheat from Canada to the United States, five-year averages / 147 Tables I.1 Key features of historical food regimes / 10 1.1 Value of Canadian wheat and flour exports, 1896–1915 / 35 1.2 Number of flour mills in the United Kingdom / 41 2.1 British food consumption by category, 1942–81 / 81 2.2 In-store bakeries in British supermarkets, 1990 / 101 2.3 Value of the British bread market, 1986–90 / 102 3.1 Warburtons’ expansion, 1990–2008 / 122 3.2 Warburtons’ annual revenues and profits in select years, 1986–2010 / 123 4.1 Organizations/actors for and against the single-desk system in the 1990s / 140 4.2 Growth of Canadian Wheat Board Producer Payment Options, 2001–07 / 143 4.3 Support for the Canadian Wheat Board / 144 When Wheat Was King 192 references Konefal, Jason, Carmen Bain, Michael Mascarenhas, and Lawrence Busch 2007 “Supermarkets and Supply Chains in North America.” In Supermarkets and Agri-Food Supply Chains: Transformations in the Production and Consumption of Food, ed David Burch and Geoffrey Lawrence, 268–88 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Kraft, D.F., W.H Furtan, and E.W Tyrchniewicz 1996 Performance Evaluation of the Canadian Wheat Board Winnipeg: Canadian Wheat Board Kristjanson, R.L 1967 “Problems and Prospects of Canadian Wheat Sales to China and the USSR.” Journal of Farm Economics 49 (5): 1345–51 http://dx.doi org/10.2307/1237025 Kuyek, Devlin 2007 Good Crop/Bad Crop: Seed Politics and the Future of Food in Canada Toronto: Between the Lines Lang, Tim 1999 “The Complexities of Globalization: The UK as a Case Study of Tensions within the Food System and the Challenge to Food Policy.” Agriculture and Human Values 16 (2): 169–85 http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1007542605470 Lawrence, Geoffrey, and David Burch 2007 “Understanding Supermarkets and Agri-Food Supply Chains.” In Supermarkets and Agri-Food Supply Chains: Transformations in the Production and Consumption of Foods, ed David Burch and Geoffrey Lawrence, 1–26 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Lawrence, Geoffrey, and Hugh Campbell 2014 “Neoliberalism in the Antipodes: Understanding the Influence and Limits of the Neoliberal Political Project.” In The Neoliberal Regime in the Agri-Food Sector: Crisis, Resilience, and Restructuring, ed Steven A Wolf and Alessandro Bonanno, 263–83 New York: Routledge Leacy, F.H., ed 1983 Historical Statistics of Canada 2nd ed Ottawa: Statistics Canada Lipset, Seymour Martin 1971 Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan Berkeley: University of California Press MacGibbon, Duncan Alexander 1932 The Canadian Grain Trade Toronto: Macmillan Magnan, André 2007 “Strange Bedfellows: Contentious Coalitions and the Politics of GM Wheat.” Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology/La revue canadienne de sociologie et d’anthropologie 44 (3): 289–317 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755 -618X.2007.tb01187.x – 2011a “The Limits of Farmer-Control: Food Sovereignty and Conflicts over the Canadian Wheat Board.” In Food Sovereignty in Canada: Creating Just and Sustainable Food Systems, ed Annette Desmarais, Hannah Whitman, and Nettie Wiebe, 114–33 Winnipeg: Fernwood Books – 2011b “Bread in the Economy of Qualities: The Creative Reconstitution of the Canada-UK Commodity Chain for Wheat.” Rural Sociology 76 (2): 197–228 – 2012a “New Avenues of Farm Corporatization in the Prairie Grains Sector: Farm Family Entrepreneurs and the Case of One Earth Farms.” Agriculture and Human Values, July 10 (published online) http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10460-011-9327-9 – 2012b “Food Regimes.” In The Oxford Handbook of Food History, ed Jeffrey Pilcher, 370–88 Toronto: Oxford University Press – 2014 “The Rise and Fall of a Prairie Giant: The Canadian Wheat Board in Food Regime History.” In The Neoliberal Regime in the Agri-Food Sector: Crisis, Resilience, and Restructuring, ed Steven Wolf and Alessandro Bonanno, 73–90 New York: Routledge The Mail on Sunday 2007 “Warburtons Toasts Record £50 Million Profits.” February 25, 25f Marketing 1989 “Marketing Case Study: RHM, Bread Winner.” August 10 Marketing Week 1983 “Tesco Has Launched a Range of over 60 Own Label Bread Products.” September 23 Marsden, Terry, Andrew Flynn, and Neil Ward 1994 “Food Regulation in Britain: A National System in an International Context.” In From Columbus to ConAgra: The references 193 Globalization of Agriculture and Food, ed Alessandro Bonanno, Lawrence Busch, William H Friedland, Lourdes Gouveia, and Enzo Mingione, 105–24 Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas Marsden, Terry, and Neil Wrigley 1996 “Retailing, the Food System and the Regulatory State.” In Retailing, Consumption and Capital: Towards the New Retail Geography, ed Neil Wrigley and Michelle Lowe, 90–103 Harlow, UK: Longman Group Maslowska, Sally 1991 “SuperMarketing 20th Anniversary Review: The Bread Market.” SuperMarketing, December 13, 71 McCann, Blair 2011 “Canada’s Image for Quality Wheat Bound to Suffer.” Saskatoon Star Phoenix, August 26, A11 McCreary, Ian 2007 “Grain Transportation and the Canadian Wheat Board.” In Our Board, Our Business: Why Farmers Support the Canadian Wheat Board, ed Terry Pugh and Darrell McLaughlin, 74–85 Halifax: Fernwood Publishing McDougalls 2008 “About Us.” McDougalls Accessed July 30, 2008 http://www mcdougalls.com/f_about.htm McFarlane, Nigel 2007 “The Rise and Rise of Warburtons.” Bolton News, May McMichael, Philip 1990 “Incorporating Comparison within a World-Historical Perspective: An Alternative Comparative Method.” American Sociological Review 55 (3): 385–97 http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2095763 –, ed 1994 The Global Restructuring of Agro-Food Systems Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press – 2005 “Global Development and the Corporate Food Regime.” In New Directions in the Sociology of Global Development, ed Frederick Buttel and Philip McMichael, 265–99 Oxford: Elsevier – 2009a “A Food Regime Geneaology.” Journal of Peasant Studies 36 (1): 139–69 http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150902820354 – 2009b “A Food Regime Analysis of the ‘World Food Crisis.’” Agriculture and Human Values 26 (4): 281–95 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10460-009-9218-5 – 2012 “The Land Grab and Corporate Food Regime Restructuring.” Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (3–4): 681–701 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2012.661369 – 2014 Food Regimes and Agrarian Questions Halifax: Fernwood Publishing McMichael, Philip, and Harriet Friedmann 2007 “Situating the ‘Retailing Revolution.’” In Supermarkets and Agri-Food Supply Chains: Transformations in the Production and Consumption of Foods, ed David Burch and Geoffrey Lawrence, 291–319 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Menzies, M.W 1971 Report of the Canadian Grain Marketing Review Committee Winnipeg: n.p Merriman, Jane 1999 “UK Superstore Wars Give Sheep a Taste for Bread.” Reuters News, March Meyer, Harriet 2009 “British Farmers to Get More than a Slice of the Hovis Flour Market.” The Guardian, November 21, 41 Mitchell, B.R 1993 International Historical Statistics: The Americas 1750–1993 New York: Stockton Press Mitchell, B.R., and Phyllis Deane 1962 Abstract of British Historical Statistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mitchell, Don 1975 The Politics of Food Toronto: James Lorimer MMC (Mergers and Monopolies Commission, UK) 1977 Flour and Bread: A Report on the Supply in the United Kingdom of Wheat Flour and of Bread Made from Wheat Flour London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office MMC https://www.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/235328/0412.pdf 194 references Mollett, John A 1960 “The Wheat Act of 1932 a Forerunner of Modern Farm Price Support Programmes.” Agricultural History Review (1): 20 –35 Morriss, William E 1987 Chosen Instrument Winnipeg: Canadian Wheat Board – 2000 Chosen Instrument, vol Winnipeg: Canadian Wheat Board Murmis, Miguel, and Maria Murmis 2012 “Land Concentration and Foreign Land Ownership in Argentina in the Context of Global Land Grabbing.” Canadian Journal of Development Studies 33 (4): 490 –508 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2 012.745395 O’Donahue, Jim, Carol McDonnell, and Martin Placek 2006 “Consumer Price Inflation, 1947–2004.” Economic Trends 626 (January) UK Office of National Statistics Accessed July 30, 2008 http://www.statistics.gov.uk/articles/economic_ trends/ET626_CPI.pdf Offer, Avner 1989 The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation Oxford: Clarendon Press Oleson, Brian 1979 “Price Determination and Market Share Formation in the International Wheat Market.” PhD dissertation, University of Minnesota – 1999 “The CWB in Today’s Regulatory and Trading Environment: Adaptation To-Date, Building Blocks for the Future.” Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics/Revue canadienne d’agroeconomie 47 (4): 509–18 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-7976.1999 tb00473.x Pechlaner, Gabriela, and Gerardo Otero 2008 “The Third Food Regime: Neoliberal Globalism and Agricultural Biotechnology in North America.” Sociologia Ruralis 48 (4): 351–71 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2008.00469.x – 2010 “The Neoliberal Food Regime: Neoregulation and the New Division of Labor in North America.” Rural Sociology 75 (2): 179–208 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1549 -0831.2009.00006.x Perren, R 1990 “Structural Change and Market Growth in the Food Industry: Flour Milling in Britain, Europe, and America, 1850–1914.” Economic History Review 43 (3): 420–37 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1990.tb00538.x Phillips, Peter 2004 “Seeds of Doubt over the Monsanto Decision.” Globe and Mail, May 12, A19 Pirness, Arvin, M Rose Olfert, Mark D Partridge, and William Hartley Furtan 2011 “Assessing the Impact of State Trading Enterprises.” International Economic Journal, August 24 (published online) DOI:10.1080/10168737.2011.578145 Polanyi, Karl 1957 The Great Transformation Boston: Beacon Press Pollan, Michael 2008 In Defence of Food: An Eater’s Manifesto New York: Penguin Press Pratt, Sean 2010 “EU Taking Canadian Canola Again.” Western Producer, February http://www.producer.com/2010/02/eu-taking-canadian-canola-again Preece, Cathy 1993 “Bread’s Great White Hope?” SuperMarketing, June 4, 33 Pritchard, Bill 2009a “Food Regimes.” In International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, ed R Kitchin and N Thrift, 221–25 London: Elsevier http://dx.doi org/10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00165-6 – 2009b “The Long Hangover from the Second Food Regime: A World-Historical Interpretation of the Collapse of the WTO Doha Round.” Agriculture and Human Values 26 (4): 297–307 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10460-009-9216-7 Quark, Amy 2013 Global Rivalries: Standard Wars and the Transnational Cotton Trade Chicago: University of Chicago Press Rampton, Roberta 1999 “CWB Prepares for GMO Wheat.” Western Producer, December 23 http://www.producer.com/1999/12/cwb-prepares-for-gmo-wheat/ – 2001 “RoundUp Use May Jeopardize Wheat Premiums.” Western Producer, February http://www.producer.com/2001/02/roundup-use-may-jeopardize-wheat-premiums references 195 Reynolds, John 2010 “Warburtons Plots Push to Fend Off Rival Hovis.” Marketing, February 10, Riley, Lisa 2010 “Warburtons Will Not Follow Hovis to Go All-British.” The Grocer, May 8, 26 Rossett, Peter 2006 Food Is Different: Why We Must Get the WTO Out of Agriculture Black Point, NS: Fernwood Publishers Salgo, Karl, and Tim Gauthier 2012 Case Study: The Governance Continuum and the Canadian Wheat Board: 1965–2017 Ottawa: Institute on Governance http://iog.ca/ wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Case-Study-The-Governance-Continuum-and -the-Canadian-Wheat-Board-1965-2017.pdf Schmitz, Andrew, and Hartley Furtan 2000 The Canadian Wheat Board: Marketing in the New Millennium Regina: Canadian Plains Research Center Schurman, Rachel, and William Munro 2003 “Making Biotech History: Social Resistance to Agricultural Biotechnology and the Future of the Biotechnology Industry.” In Engineering Trouble: Biotechnology and Its Discontents, ed Rachel Schurman and Dennis Kelso, 111–29 Los Angeles: University of California Press – 2008 “Targeting Capital: A Cultural Economy Approach to Understanding the Efficacy of Two Anti-Genetic Engineering Movements.” Paper presented to the American Sociological Association meetings, Boston Scott, James 1998 Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Senate of Canada 2011a Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry Issue http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2012/sen/yc27/ YC27-2011-7.pdf – 2011b Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry Issue http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2012/sen/yc27/YC27 -2011-8.pdf – 2011c Proceedings of the Standing Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry Issue http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2012/sen/yc27/YC27-2011-9.pdf Sharpe, R., D Barling, and T Lang 2008 “Ethical Traceability in the UK Wheat-Flour -Bread Chain.” In Ethical Traceability and Communicating Food, ed Christian Coff, David Barling, Michiel Korthals, and Thorkild Nielsen, 125–65 Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Shaw, G., L Curth, and A Alexander 2004 “Selling Self-Service and the Supermarket: The Americanisation of Food Retailing in Britain, 1945–60.” Business History 46 (4): 568–82 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0007679042000231847 Sinclair, Scott, and Jim Grieshaber-Otto 2009 Threatened Harvest: Protecting Canada’s World-Class Grain System Ottawa: Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives Skogstad, Grace 2005 “The Dynamics of Institutional Transformation: The Case of the Canadian Wheat Board.” Canadian Journal of Political Science 38 (3): 529–48 http:// dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0008423905040588 – 2007 “The Two Faces of Canadian Agriculture in a Post-Staples Economy.” Canadian Political Science Review (1): 26–41 – 2008 Internationalization and Canadian Agriculture: Policy and Governing Paradigms Toronto: University of Toronto Press Smyth, Stuart, and Peter W.B Phillips 2002 “Product Differentiation Alternatives: Identity Preservation, Segregation and Traceability.” AgBioForum (2): 30 –42 Sommerville, Melanie, and André Magnan 2015 “‘Pinstripes on the Prairies’: Examining the Financialization of Farming Systems in the Canadian Prairie Provinces.” Journal of Peasant Studies, January 12 (published online) http://dx.doi org/ 10.1080/03066150.2014.990894 196 references Staggenborg, Suzzane 2012 Social Movements 2nd ed Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press Stam, Jerome M 1964 “The Effects of Public Law 480 on Canadian Wheat Exports.” Journal of Farm Economics 46 (4): 805–19 http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1236514 Stanford, Lois 2002 “Constructing ‘Quality’: The Political Economy of Standards in Mexico’s Avocado Industry.” Agriculture and Human Values 19 (4): 293–310 http:// dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1021196219849 Steers, Barry 1990 Report of the Review Panel to the Canadian Wheat Board Winnipeg: n.p SuperMarketing 1988 “Recovery in Bread Sales.” August 26, – 1991 “In-Store Bakeries Feel the Heat.” October 11, p 12 Factiva, retrieved July 23, 2008 – 1992 “SuperMarketing Reports on Packaged Grocery Trends – Bread; the Uncut Version.” September 18, – 1998 “Bread Winners.” April 17, 19 Tann, Jennifer, and R Glyn Jones 1996 “Technology and Transformation: The Diffusion of the Roller Mill in the British Flour Milling Industry, 1870–1907.” Technology and Culture 37 (1): 36–69 http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3107201 Trentmann, Frank 2001 “Bread, Milk, and Democracy: Consumption and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Britain.” In The Politics of Consumption: Material Culture and Citizenship in Europe and America, ed Martin Daunton and Matthew Hilton, 129–63 New York: Berg Publishers Troughton, Michael 1989 “The Role of Marketing Boards in the Industrialization of the Canadian Agricultural System.” Journal of Rural Studies (4): 367–83 http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/0743-0167(89)90063-6 Varty, John F 2005 “Growing Bread: Technoscience, Environment and Modern Wheat at the Dominion Grain Research Laboratory, Canada, 1912–1960.” PhD dissertation, Queen’s University Visser, Oane, and Max Spoor 2011 “Land Grabbing in Post-Soviet Eurasia: The World’s Largest Agricultural Reserves at Stake.” Journal of Peasant Studies 38 (2): 299–323 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2011.559010 Wainwright, Martin 2007 “The Quiet Rise and Rise of Warburtons.” The Guardian, February 24 http://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/feb/24/2 Waldie, Paul 2012 “After Wheat Monopoly’s Demise, Grain Sellers See Better Profits.” Globe and Mail, January 1, B1 Wallop, Harry 2007a “Family Recipe Is National Breadwinner.” Daily Telegraph, March 28 http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2806423/Family-recipe-is-national-breadwinner html – 2007b “Soaring Cost of Wheat Slices Profits of Baker Warburtons Despite Sales Rise.” Daily Telegraph, July 31 Warburtons 1976 One-Hundred Years of Good Baking Bolton, UK: Warburtons – 1988 Bakers Born and Bred: The Story of Warburtons London: James and James – 2010 “Farmers in Derbyshire Benefit from Warburtons Investment in British Wheat Industry.” Press release, July 29 Warburtons Accessed February 3, 2012 http:// www.warburtons.co.uk/press/latest_news.php?p=27&id=874&offset=24&amount= 12&nty=&nre=45&nord= Watts, Michael, and David Goodman 1997 “Agrarian Questions: Global Appetite, Local Metabolism: Nature, Culture, and Industry in Fin-de-Siecle Agro-Food Systems.” In Globalising Food: Agrarian Questions and Global Restructuring, ed David Goodman and Michael Watts, 1–32 New York: Routledge Weaver, Dominic 2005 “Close Up: Jonathan Warburton, Chairman, Warburtons – Slicing It Right.” talkingretail.com, December http://www.talkingretail.com/ references 197 category-news/supermarket/close-up-jonathan-warburton-chairman-warburtons -slicing-it-right/ Weis, Tony 2007 The Global Food Economy: The Battle for the Future of Farming Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing – 2010 “The Accelerating Biophysical Contradictions of Industrial Capitalist Agriculture.” Journal of Agrarian Change 10 (3): 315–41 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471 -0366.2010.00273.x Welsh, Rick 1997 “Vertical Coordination, Producer, Response, and the Locus of Control over Agricultural Production Decisions.” Rural Sociology 62 (4): 491–507 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1549-0831.1997.tb00661.x Western Grain Marketing Panel 1996 Grain Marketing Final Report Winnipeg: n.p Western Producer 1999 “Chrétien Fights GMO Battle on Diplomatic Front.” September 16 http://www.producer.com/1999/09/chrtien-fights-gmo-battle-on-diplomatic -front/ Whalley, Susie 1998 “Stores’ Own-Label Loaves under Fire.” SuperMarketing, January 16, 15 White, Ed 2013 “Small Grain Trader Says Open Market Has Less Competition than Expected.” Western Producer, August 8, Whitley, Andrew 2006 Bread Matters: The State of Modern Bread and a Definitive Guide to Baking Your Own Toronto: HarperCollins Canada – 2007 “The Bread We Eat.” Seedling, April, 16–22 Wiebe, Nettie 2012 “Crisis in the Food System: The Farm Crisis.” In Critical Perspectives in Food Studies, ed Mustafa Koỗ, Jennifer Sumner, and Anthony Winson, 155–70 Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press Wilkinson, John 2010 “The Globalization of Agribusiness and Developing World Food Systems.” In Agriculture and Food in Crisis: Conflict, Resistance, and Renewal, ed Fred Magdoff and Brian Tokar, 155–72 New York: Monthly Review Press Wilson, C.F 1978 A Century of Canadian Grain Saskatoon: Western Producer Books – 1979 Grain Marketing in Canada Winnipeg: Canadian International Grains Institute Winders, Bill 2009 The Politics of Food Supply: US Agricultural Policy in the World Economy New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Winson, Anthony 1992 The Intimate Commodity: Food and the Development of the AgroIndustrial Complex in Canada Toronto: Garamond Press Inde x Note: GM stands for “genetically modified.” accumulation, 5, 19, 181n13; power and, 26, 62, 163 acreage: cereal, 39; production controls and, 64; reduction program, 86, 89; wheat, 24, 34, 58, 156 Agriculture Act (1947), 75, 98 agri-food sector: capitalist relations in, 4, 21; commodities, 166; corporations, 17, 66, 105, 107–8; deregulation, 24; economic output and exports, 110; global restructuring, 6–7, 107; industrialization, 66–67; international, 5; private standards in, 18–19, 24, 105 See also domestic agriculture; farming sector Aldi, 119 Allied Bakeries, 76, 83, 99–101; establishment, 57; Warburtons competition, 118–21 Anglo-American Council on Productivity, 82 animal feed, 15–16, 40, 55, 111, 181n13; Canadian Wheat Board monopoly on, 86–87 antitrust laws, 96 anti-wheat board coalition, 149 Associated British Foods, 76–77 See also Allied Bakeries Australia, 76, 90, 107, 135 baking industry: Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP), 75, 77, 84–85, 90; crisis, 99; discounts, 99; governmentfunded research, 63; in-store bakeries, 24, 83, 100–2, 182n15; local wheat sourcing, 158, 162; multipleshop bakeries, 44, 57, 83; plant bakeries, 57, 76–77, 121–22; technologies, 22, 44 See also Warburtons barley, 86–87, 91, 116, 171; marketing, 139, 141, 145 Beard, Bob, 129, 154 Bennett, R.B., 51, 52 Bill C-18, 146, 149 biofuels, 174 biotechnologies, 20, 135 See also genetically modified (GM) crops Board of Grain Supervisors, 48 Boer War, 181n14 198 index bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), 98, 154, 184n10 branding: Canadian Wheat Board, 116–17, 161, 166, 173; by farmers, 176; Warburtons, 122, 126, 159 Brandon (MB) testing facility, 128, 130 Brazil, 112, 115, 183n8 bread consumption: in Britain, 38, 41–42, 55, 61, 63, 168; brown bread demand, 43–44, 100, 181n16; of premium products, 100, 102, 104, 106, 119–20, 167–68; standards, 43–44; totals per household, 79–80; white bread preference, 79, 104, 119, 132, 167 bread manufacturing: chemical additives, 77, 182n4; crises, 95, 104, 118; distribution, 57–58; industrial technologies, 22; local wheat sourcing, 158–59; nutritional requirements, 55, 58, 61, 100, 104, 167, 181n14; own-brand bread, 100–1, 118–21; prices, 42–43, 78, 118; sales, 44, 99, 101–2, 118; standardization and regulation, 43–44; in supermarkets, 24, 83, 118–19; white bread demand, 28, 38, 41, 61, 79, 100 See also baking industry; flour; milling industry Bread Reform League, 43–44, 61 British Bakeries, 76, 83, 99–101 British market, 3, 38, 60, 77, 80 Broadacre Agriculture, 176 Burch, David, 21 Cairns Group, 17–18, 92, 148 Campbell, Hugh, 21 Canada Grain Act (1912), 35 Canada Seeds Act (1923), 35–36 Canada-US relations, 74, 102–3, 181n11; communist countries and, 70–71, 169; trade challenges, 147–48, 151, 170, 184n6 Canadian Co-operative Wheat Producers, 50 Canadian Grain Commission, 2, 27, 35, 157 Canadian Grain Marketing Review Committee (Menzies report), 89–90 Canadian International Grains Institute, 90–91 Canadian Wheat Board: agricultural liberalization and, 135, 138–39; borrowing rates, 148, 184n8; 199 commercial strategy, 114–17, 131, 160; crisis of legitimacy of, 24, 138; domestic and international conflicts, 146–51; establishment of, 48–49, 51; farmercontrolled, 136–37, 141–42, 160–61; governance reforms, 141–43, 149; historical roles, 2–3, 23, 26–27, 52, 67–69, 164–65; price setting, 73–74; Producer Payment Options (PPOs), 142–43; selling strategy, 89–91, 103, 166–67; stance on GM wheat, 25, 153–57, 161; Steers Report, 114; trade with China, 69–72; Warburtons sourcing program, 25, 106, 123–27, 131–32; wheat agreements, 62, 67–68; wheat deliveries, 51, 53–54, 74 See also singledesk system Canadian Wheat Board Act (1998), 141, 145–46 canola, 24, 86, 137, 171; Roundup Ready, 151–53 capital, 1, 12, 120, 184n8; Eastern Canadian, 30, 37; private, 19; retail, 21 capitalism, Centaur Grain, 127, 158, 183n11 cereal, 182n8; acreage, 39; breakfast, 80, 182n5 China: Canada trade relations, 70–72, 84, 110; US embargo against, 66 class: capitalist, 4; consumer, 20; diet and, 56; farmers as a, 87; markets and, 16; white bread and, 41 See also working class Cold War: grain surpluses and, 88; Soviet wheat demand, 17, 83; trade embargo, 15, 70–71, 169 Collins, Jane, 179n6 commodities, 7, 27, 29, 165–66; cheap food, 19–20, 21, 168; grading grain and, 32; industrialization of, 67; key export, 107, 174; production contracting of, 128; seeds, 129 commodity agreements, 14, 65 commodity programs, 13, 14, 64, 164 See also supply management Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 65, 75, 84 competition: in agri-food sector, 105; among plant bakers, 99, 120; export, 17, 74, 92, 103, 131, 176; in farming operations, 172–73; market share, 69, 73; 200 in milling industry, 115; supermarket, 18–19, 24; trade, 12; wheat quality, 89, 103 Conservative government (Canada), 51, 94, 172, 184n4; Canadian Wheat Board and, 2, 137, 141, 145–46, 149, 171 consumers: call for state intervention, 46, 78; farmers and, 106; GM foods and, 135–36, 153; high-quality food demand, 100, 102; interests, 55–56, 95; movement, 8, 43–44, 61; rights, 98 consumption, 166; changing patterns of, 38, 100; mass, 76; meat, 15, 111; milk, 56; regulation of, 62; totals by food category, 80–81 See also bread consumption Cooperative Wholesale Society, 57 cooperatives: agricultural, 13; consumer interest, 55–56; grain, 36–37, 127–28, 158, 177, 183n9; grocery, 58; multi-shop bakeries, 44; wheat pools, 49–52 corn, 182n8 Corn Laws, 12, 38 corporations: agri-food, 17, 66, 105, 107–8; food manufacturing, 16, 76–77, 98, 104, 167–68; food regimes and, 18–21; megafarms, 175–76; seed and chemical, 135 cotton trade, 6, 65 Cronon, William, 31 crop diversification, 86–87 Crow’s Nest Pass Agreement, 94, 109 CWB (formerly Canadian Wheat Board), 171–72 dairy industry, 53, 55, 131 Depression era See Great Depression Diefenbaker, John, 70 diplomatic relations, 181n11 dispossession, 20, 30 domestic agriculture: British, 5, 38, 56; Canadian, 23, 54, 84; European, 17; liberalization of, 109, 135; subsidies, 18; US policy and regulation on, 6, 13–14, 64–65, 74 Drummond, J.C., 58 “dual market” system, 138–141, 145 durable foods, 16, 75, 77, 104 Dust Bowl (1930s), 13, 45 Eaton, Emily, 152 elevators, grain, 35, 172, 174; farmerowned, 36; US, 139 index embargoes: British export, 47; Cold War, 15, 70–71, 83, 169 European Union: agricultural policy, 65, 75, 84; export subsidies, 18, 92, 103, 107, 170, 180n8; rejection of GM crops, 138, 153 expansion: of Canadian wheat frontier, 22, 28, 30; retail, 82, 97; of US agriculture production, 13, 17; US western, 30, 33; Warburtons, 118, 120, 121–22, 125 export subsidies: competition, 92; criticism of, 17, 107; direct production of, 69; US and EU, 14, 65, 73, 84, 89, 170, 180n8; WTO and, 18 exports, wheat: Canada-communist countries, 69–72, 83–84, 110–12, 169; Canada-UK, 22–23, 39, 47–49, 67–68, 84–85; Canada-US, 147–48; by country, 32–33; quality and grading of, 73, 90; Red Fife, 31; Second World War, 52–53; total Canadian wheat/flour, 34–35 Fairbairn, Madeleine, 21 farm movements, 8, 36, 49, 51, 68; GM wheat campaign, 153–56; plebiscites, 3, 141–42, 145–46 Farmers for Justice, 141 farming sector: annual sales, 175, 185n7; auditing and monitoring, 129; capitalist development, 4, 105; competition, 172–73; concentration and consolidation in, 175–76; corporate relations, 98; debt, 17, 92–93, 174; division in, 16–17; “dual market” system, 138–41, 145; farm size and total numbers, 87, 96, 110, 174, 183n3; market control, 136–37, 141–44, 150–51; mechanization, 15; organic operations, 177; policy organizations, 95; politics, 17, 134–36, 160; price premiums, 127, 129, 132; wheat varieties and, 117, 124 See also income, farm Federal Court of Canada, 145–46 fertilizers, 15, 67 First World War: food crisis, 55; grain prices, 45; public nutrition, 54–55, 181n14; raw materials and, 46–47; trade, 15; wheat exports, 47–49 flour: extraction rates, 55, 58, 61, 78–79, 181n15; fortification, 78–79, 182n14; gluten content, 180n1; imports and exports, 35, 40; prices, 78; processing, index 39–40; sourcing of, 76; UK production, 40–41, 56–57 food aid, 14–15, 17, 74, 169; market share and, 69–70; surplus disposal and, 66, 88, 92 food crises, 16, 21, 63, 95; bread sector, 99, 104; postwar, 28; retailers and, 98; rising prices and, 174, 177; from US-Soviet grain deal, 17, 88–89; wartime, 45–46, 55 food manufacturing, 16, 165; emergence in UK, 75–76; old and new innovations in, 80–81; prices, 97–98, 104; private interest regulation, 97–98; state involvement in, 78–79; US grocery stores, 82 See also supermarkets food regimes: agricultural and food politics of, 134–35, 160; Canada-UK wheat trade and, 21–23, 103, 163, 166, 168–70; comparative analysis, 4–6, 8–9; corporate or neoliberal, 18–21, 105–10, 134–36, 160–61, 170; global restructuring of, 6–7; historical, 9–11, 179n6; mercantile-industrial, 14–18, 54, 62–67, 74–75, 102–4; national contexts and institutions, 163–65; UK-centred, 12–14, 28–30, 59–61, 166 food safety: crises, 95; environmental practices, 168; quality assurance, 129; regulation, 43, 59, 77–79, 98, 104; standards, 18–19, 46, 109; wartime campaigns, 55, 61 Food Safety Act (1990), 98 food sovereignty, 177–78 Food Standards Committee, 77–78 food supply: British control of, 29, 54–56, 58–59; chains, 20, 97; postwar, 67–68; wartime, 23, 45–46 Foreign Assets Control Regulations, 71 free trade, 18, 105, 151, 180n7; Britain’s policy, 12, 29, 38, 56; Canada-US, 109; Canadian Wheat Board and, 24, 88, 114; consumerism and, 43 See also North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Friedmann, Harriet, 14, 19, 179n4, 180n9, 183n2 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 18, 92, 106–7, 184n7; exclusion of agriculture from, 14, 65–66 genetically modified (GM) crops: canola, 137, 151–53; market rejection of, 135, 153, 201 161; wheat controversy, 25, 34, 137, 153–57 global food system, 21, 26, 114, 117; food regimes and, 4, 8, 20 Global South, 18, 20, 107, 113, 157 gold standard system, 12, 13 Goodale, Ralph, 141–42 Grain Growers’ Grain Company (GGGC), 36 grain industry: bulk handling, 32, 114, 124, 180n3; corporate concentration, 107–8; crisis, 92–94; deliveries, 35, 50–51, 53–54, 74, 171; European production, 84; grading and weighing, 31–32, 35, 166, 182n9; prices, 13–14, 45, 49, 92–93, 142–43; regulation, 2, 35–37, 59; shortages, 58, 61; storing, 73; supply and demand, 14, 17, 31, 37, 47, 64–65 See also animal feed; wheat production grain pooling, 22, 36, 49, 171–72, 180n4 See also wheat pools Grainfarmers, 158, 183n11 grain-handling system, 139, 149–50, 171–73 Great Depression, 28, 52, 61, 64; British diet and, 46, 56, 59; commodity programs, 14, 52, 65 Greenpeace, 155 G3 Global Grain Group, 172 hard wheat: exporter competition, 89; grades, 32, 90; Marquis, 34, 35, 45; milling of, 38, 40–41; protein content and quality, 31, 40, 63, 115, 166; Red Fife, 31–34, 177; US red winter, 85 health foods, 43, 100, 119–20, 168 hegemony: British, 12–13, 22–23, 60; power, 6, 7; US, 14, 23, 62–64, 164, 169 households, farming, 1, 13, 28, 36 Hovis McDougall, 43, 76–77, 158–59, 181n10 See also Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM) identity preservation program: British, 162; Canadian Wheat Board’s, 127, 167, 183n10; spread of niche, 130–31; traceability of, 158, 184n11; Warburtons, 124–26, 127–28, 158, 165 imperial bond, 45, 47, 60 Imperial Oil, 71 imports: British flour/wheat, 22, 32–33, 38–40, 56, 75; British policy, 37–38; cheap food, 12, 23, 45, 60; discounted 202 rates, 15; European bans, 153; monopolies, 110, 112–13; Russian wheat, 110–11; substitutions, 63–64, 75, 166 income, farm: Canadian Wheat Board and, 51, 68–69, 73, 90, 103; commodity programs and, 13, 14; crisis, 17, 92–93, 110; net increases, 174–75; support programs, 94–95, 109; US government and, 64 industrialization: agricultural, 13, 67, 75, 87; British, 28, 37; European, 12; of milling and baking industries, 22, 28; Third World, 15 international cooperation, 148, 169; grain/ wheat agreements, 67–68, 73–74, 84; wheat conferences, 51–52 International Grains Agreement (1968), 84 International Monetary Fund, 111 international trade: British influence over, 12; Canada and US roles in, 74; political constructions of, 62, 66; rules and regulations, 2, 7, 65, 92 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) International Wheat Advisory Committee, 52 International Wheat Agreement (IWA), 23, 66, 73, 169; Canada-UK (1946), 67–68, 84, 181n2; First (1933), 52 Japan, 69, 71 labels, food, 8, 177 labour, division of, 16, 70; geographic and social, 4, 7; international, 12, 28, 29, 30 Lawrence, Geoffrey, 21 Liberal government (Canada), 51, 67, 141–42, 144 liberalization: of agri-food sector, 2, 17, 18, 20, 105; of American grains policy, 182n8; farmers and, 134–35, 138, 149; of grain sector, 150–51; trade, 107, 109, 114, 138, 146, 170, 180nn7–8; of world markets, 24 Lipton, 44 livestock sector, 15–16, 86, 111 local food sourcing, 136–37, 157–60, 162 Manitoba Grain Act (1900), 35 market power: Canada, 85, 169–70; Canadian Wheat Board, 5, 60, 69, 73–74, index 103; corporate, 107–8; farmer, 4, 36, 37, 131, 150, 160; food retailers, 19; supermarket, 99, 118; US-Canada combined, 169 marketing: barley, 139, 141; of British sourced wheat, 158–59; brown bread, 43; Canadian Wheat Board strategy, 89–92, 116–17; centralized/state, 29, 49, 51, 60, 91, 160, 171; collective, 5, 36, 45, 48–49, 60, 131, 177; cooperative, 49–52; farmer-controlled, 136–37, 141–44; monopoly, 29, 48, 60, 67, 141; standards and certifications, 18–19; Warburtons, 126, 159 See also branding Marshall Plan, 14, 68, 82 McFarland, John, 50–51 McMichael, Philip, 8, 20–21, 107, 174, 179n4 meat production, 15–16, 67 milling industry: in Britain, 40–41, 56–57, 76–77, 103–4; competition, 115; imported wheat and, 63; new technology, 22; production processes, 113; protein grading, 90; roller vs stone milling, 31, 39–40, 42, 180n9 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (UK), 78, 97–98 Ministry of Food (UK), 54–55, 58, 78 monoculture, 45, 168 monopolies: British food, 47, 55; Canadian Wheat Board, 2, 54, 67–68, 86, 138, 145–46, 179n1; farmer-controlled, 131; Global South, 111; government marketing, 48–49, 60; importing, 110, 112–13, 115 Monopolies and Mergers Commission and the Office of Fair Trading, 96 Monsanto, 135; Roundup Ready canola, 151–53; wheat controversy, 153–57, 161 Mutual Aid, 53 National Farmers Union: Britain, 98, 159; Canada, 95, 139, 150, 155 neoliberalism: agricultural reform and, 135; farmers and, 144, 149; food regimes and, 18–21, 131; free trade and, 88, 105, 107; governments and, 17, 24, 93–95, 97–98; states and, 20; structural adjustment programs and, 112; supermarket power and, 96 New Deal, 6, 13, 64 index New Zealand, 131, 135; Dairy Marketing Board, 182n10 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 24, 112, 139; Canada-US disputes, 147–48, 170 no-till farming, 137, 152, 183n2 Oberg, Allen, 150 On Farm Food Safety, 129 One Earth Farms, 175–76 open market: farmers selling into, 2, 149–50, 172; single-desk system vs, 139, 141, 144, 150; wheat prices, 47, 51, 52–53 Openfield, 158–59 Operation LIFT, 86, 89 “orderly marketing,” 23, 36, 49, 68, 180n5 organic operations, 177, 184n1 Otero, Gerardo, 20, 135 Pechlaner, Gabriela, 20, 135 physical fitness, 181n14 plant breeding, 34, 37, 152 policy: British import, 37–38; Canada’s agricultural, 5, 67, 90, 93–95; domestic farm, 67–68, 74; European Union’s agricultural, 65, 75, 84; food aid, 69; foreign, 66, 69–70, 74, 88; industrial, 75; nutrition, 58, 79, 104; supply management, 6, 17, 64–65, 160; twoprice wheat, 84, 94; US agricultural, 6, 13, 64–65, 70, 74, 182n8; wartime food, 46, 56, 58, 61 political economy: of agriculture, 4, 6; of British food sector, 5, 54, 56, 61; liberal, 45 Pollan, Michael, 168 power: accumulation and, 5, 26, 62, 163; bargaining, 13; of Canadian Wheat Board, 68–69; corporate, 24, 105, 107, 175; economic, 47, 88, 95, 97; hegemonic, 6, 7, 23, 60; imperial, 12; inequality, 36; supermarket, 19, 95–96, 99; US agricultural, 62, 64 See also market power Prairie Red Fife Wheat Organic Growers Co-op, 177 Prairies: climate, 22; land investment, 176; settlements, 1, 30, 32–34; soil erosion, 45; transformation of landscape, 1, 30 prices, wheat: British, 39; caps, 49, 60; differences, 175; open market, 47, 51, 52–53; 203 by quality, 85; setting of, 23, 73, 94; stability, 63, 68, 74; US domestic, 89; wartime, 47–48, 53; wheat pools and, 50–51; world, 30, 33, 50–51, 73, 107–8, 181n2 Pritchard, Bill, 183n2 private grain trade: collapse, 53–54; farmers struggles with, 22, 35, 36; postwar context, 48; prices, 49; regulation, 27 private standards, 167; in agri-food sector, 18–19, 24, 105; of supermarkets, 19, 108–9, 165 processed foods, 16, 63, 76 production contracts, 124, 128–31 provenance, food, 136; in British bread sector, 25, 137, 157–60, 162, 168 Public Law 480, 15, 66, 69 quality of wheat: Canada’s reputation for, 35, 63, 88, 89–91, 102, 114–17, 173; changing definitions of, 6, 27, 31, 106, 131, 167; consistency and differentiation, 113–14, 116–17, 123–24, 167; control of, 32, 35, 37, 132–33, 167; exports and, 3, 23–24, 90–91; GM wheat and, 25; grading, 73, 90, 166; lower qualities, 173; monitoring, 128–29; nutritional levels, 42–45, 46, 55, 61; price setting, 85; protein content, 22, 23, 31, 90, 180n1 Quark, Amy, 5–6 railways, 33, 48, 143, 150, 174 Rank, 41, 57, 76–77 Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM): merger, 76–77; Warburtons competition, 118–21 See also Hovis McDougall rationing, 55, 58, 79 raw materials, 16, 46–47 retailers/retailing: British food, 81–83, 97; control, 97; cooperatives, 44; global integration, 107–8; influence on quality, 106; market concentration, 96; private interest regulation, 97–98; resale price maintenance, 76, 96, 104 See also supermarkets riots, 174 Ritz, Gerry, 146, 149 Roundup Ready crops: application, 151–52; canola, 152–53; wheat controversy, 153–57, 161 204 Royal Commission on Wheat Supplies, 47 Russia See Soviet Union Safeway, 101 Sainsbury, 44, 57–58, 101, 158–59 Saskatchewan Grain Growers’ Association (SGGA), 36 Second World War: trade, 15; UK food controls, 58–59; wheat demand, 52–54, 60 seeds: certified, 129, 183n12; farmer control over, 21, 177; regulation, 35–36; Roundup Ready, 152 self-service stores, 45, 82, 182n6 settler-states, 12–13, 29–30, 168 shipping and transportation, 47, 53, 71, 73; block shipping system, 91; costs, 32–33, 147, 174; freight rates, 33, 94, 109, 143; illegal, 141; logistics, 125, 173–74; US regulations, 83–84 single-desk system: Canadian government and, 67–68; demise of, 2, 133, 145–46, 149; deregulation of, 171–73; establishment of, 54, 164; farmer control and, 160–61; high-quality grain and, 125; price premiums and, 132; principles, 48; supporters and opponents of, 2–3, 94–95, 103, 138–41, 144, 150–51; US dispute with, 148 Skogstad, Grace, 5, 142 social movements, 8, 22, 179n3 See also farm movements soft wheat, 40, 72, 91 sourcing: British wheat, 26, 157–60, 162; Canada-Warburtons program, 25, 106, 123–27, 131–32; flour, 76 Soviet Union: Canada trade relations, 69–70, 110; embargo against, 66, 69; grain demand, 17, 83–84; US grain deal, 88–89, 182n7 Spillers, 41, 57, 76–77, 99 Standard Bread, 43 state trading enterprises, 115, 140, 184n7, 184n9 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), 112 subsidies See export subsidies supermarkets: in-store bakeries, 24, 83, 100–2, 182n15; own-brand bread, 100–1, 118–19; private standards, 19, 108–9, 165; index rise of, 16, 45, 81–82, 95–97; top global chains, 108 supply chains: British food, 97, 165; coordination, 91, 124–25, 129, 167, 170; farmer integration into, 127, 129, 130, 150, 157; quality and standards, 19, 25, 132; UK-based wheat/bread, 127; wheat varieties and, 113, 117 supply management: definition, 14; US policy, 17, 64–65, 160 surpluses: Canadian wheat, 50–52, 60; disposal of, 65–66, 88; European food, 17; grain, 17, 64–65; US food, 14–15, 64, 73 tariffs, 12, 18, 184n6; wheat, 38, 52, 56, 75, 147 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Task Force on Agriculture (1970), 93 Temporary Wheat Reserves Act (1956), 74, 84 Tesco, 100–1, 108 Thatcher government, 96, 98, 182n14 Third World: food aid, 15, 88; markets and trade, 16–17, 24, 69, 74 trade relations: Canada-China, 70–72, 84, 110; Canada-Soviet Union/Russia, 69–70, 83–84, 110–11, 169; Canada-US, 147–48, 169–70, 184n6; Cold War embargo and, 15, 66, 83; Global South, 107; postwar, 62–63; Third World countries, 17 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); World Trade Organization (WTO) tropical agriculture, 16 unemployment, 59, 96–97 unions, 66, 181n1 United Grain Growers, 139, 183n9 US dollar, 64, 71 US-Canada relations See Canada-US relations varieties of wheat See hard wheat; soft wheat variety registration system, 36, 117, 132, 157 Viterra, 124, 146, 172, 183n9 “volunteer” plants, 152–53 wage food, 10, 12, 29, 30, 38 Warburtons: British sourcing program, 157–60; Canadian sourcing program, index 25, 106, 123–26, 162; Centaur program, 127–28; corporate strategy, 120–21; establishment, 117–18; expansion and profits, 121–23; farmers and, 126–27; marketing strategy, 126, 159; opposition to GM wheat, 154, 157; premium products, 119–20, 131–32, 165; production contracts, 128–31, 132; quality standards, 130 Western Barley Growers Association, 139, 149 Western Canadian Wheat Growers Association, 139, 149 western frontier, 32, 33 Western Grain Elevators Association, 149–50 Weston, Garfield, 57 wheat agreements See International Wheat Agreement (IWA) wheat economy: Canada-UK relations, 3–4, 47–49, 62–64, 67–68; Canadian Wheat Board and, 2, 21; concessional sales, 66, 71; crisis, 45–46, 60, 92–94; establishment of, 30–37; institutions, 3, 26, 60, 164; key dilemmas of, 22; regulation, 1, 37; stocks, 53, 68, 73–74; US expansion, 66 wheat pools, 36, 66, 139, 141; establishment of, 49–52; Producer 205 Payment Options (PPOs), 142–43; Warburtons program and, 125–27 wheat production: canola vs, 152–53; geographic expansion of, 28; growing conditions, 30–31; organic, 177, 184n1; surpluses, 64–65; varieties, 31–32, 34, 113, 123–24, 129 See also hard wheat; quality of wheat Wigmore Farms, 176 Winders, Bill, 5–6, 182n8 Winnipeg Grain Exchange, 47–48, 53 Women’s Cooperative Guild, 43 working class: bread consumption of, 3, 37, 41, 45; cheap food for, 15, 23, 38; European, 12 World Bank, 111 World Food Board (WFB), 65 world markets: Canada and US shares in, 66, 69–70, 102–3; Canada’s integration in, 22, 25, 106, 164, 170; grain quality and, 63, 88, 167, 173; prairie farmers and, 2, 3, 46, 137, 149–50; Soviet collapse and, 110–11; US expansion in, 66, 169; world wheat prices, 30, 33, 73, 84, 89, 181n2 World Trade Organization (WTO), 20, 24, 105, 135; Agreement on Agriculture, 18, 106–7; Canada-US disputes, 147–48, 170 world-systems analysis, 5–6 Printed and bound in Canada by Friesens Set in Trajan & Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC Copy editor: Francis Chow Indexer: Celia Braves ... Magnan, André, author When wheat was king : the rise and fall of the Canada- UK wheat trade / André Magnan Includes bibliographical references and index Issued in print and electronic formats.. .When Wheat Was King This page intentionally left blank W hen W heat W as K ing the rise and fall of the canada- uk wheat trade André Magnan © UBC Press 2016 All rights reserved No part of this... specifically on the wheat trade between Canada and the United Kingdom for several reasons The United Kingdom was by far the largest outlet for Canadian exports in the early history of the prairie wheat