When wheat was king the rise and fall of the canada UK grain trade

When Wheat Was King This page intentionally left blank W hen W heat W as K ing the rise and fall of the canada-uk wheat trade André Magnan © UBC Press 2016 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior written permission of the publisher, or, in Canada, in the case of photocopying or other reprographic copying, a licence from Access Copyright, www.accesscopyright.ca 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 54321 Printed in Canada on FSC-certified ancient-forest-free paper (100% post-consumer recycled) that is processed chlorine- and acid-free Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Magnan, André, author When wheat was king : the rise and fall of the Canada-UK wheat trade / André Magnan Includes bibliographical references and index Issued in print and electronic formats ISBN 978-0-7748-3113-0 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3115-4 (pdf) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3116-1 (epub) – ISBN 978-0-7748-3117-8 (mobi) 1. Wheat trade – Prairie Provinces – History.  2. Wheat trade – Great Britain – History.  3. Wheat trade – Government policy – Canada – History.  4. Wheat trade – Government policy – Great Britain – History.  5. Canada – Commerce – Great Britain – History.  6. Great Britain – Commerce – Canada – History.  7. Canadian Wheat Board – History.  I. Title HD9049.W5M34 2016 382.413110971 C2015-908568-3 C2015-908569-1 UBC Press gratefully acknowledges the financial support for our publishing program of the Government of Canada (through the Canada Book Fund), the Canada Council for the Arts, and the British Columbia Arts Council This book has been published with the help of a grant from the Canadian Federation for the Humanities and Social Sciences, through the Awards to Scholarly Publications Program, using funds provided by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada UBC Press The University of British Columbia 2029 West Mall Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2 www.ubcpress.ca Contents Figures and Tables Introduction vii chapter one Forging the Canadian-UK Wheat Trade: Experimentation and Crisis, 1870–1945 28 chapter two Regulating the Wheat Sector: Consensus and Contradiction, 1945–95 62 chapter three Reinventing Industrial Bread: Wheat as Food Commodity and Premium Product, 1995– 105 chapter four Transforming the Wheat Sector: Conflicts over the CWB, GM Wheat, and Local Bread, 1995– 134 vi ƒ contents Conclusion 163 Notes 179 References 186 Index 198 Figures and Tables Figures 1.1 British wheat imports by country, 1860–1914 / 33 1.2 Total Canadian wheat exports (not including flour), 1868–1914 / 34 1.3 Total British wheat imports, 1840–1914 / 38 1.4 London bread prices, 1870–1913 / 42 2.1 Canadian wheat exports to the Soviet Union and China, 1955–73 / 70 2.2 Purchased quantities of bread in British households, 1974–2006 / 80 2.3 Canadian wheat exports to the United Kingdom, 1952–91 / 85 2.4 Seeded areas of wheat, barley, and canola in the Prairie provinces, 1945–75 / 86 2.5 Farm size and total number of farms in Saskatchewan, 1941–71 / 87 2.6 Total cash receipts and realized net farm income in Saskatchewan, 1971–2006 / 93 3.1 World wheat price, 1990–2005 / 108 3.2 Canadian wheat exports to the Soviet Union as a proportion of total exports, 1972–92 / 111 vii viii ƒ figures and tables 3.3 Canadian wheat exports to selected countries, 1972–2010 / 112 4.1 Annual exports of wheat from Canada to the United States, five-year averages / 147 Tables I.1 Key features of historical food regimes / 10 1.1 Value of Canadian wheat and flour exports, 1896–1915 / 35 1.2 Number of flour mills in the United Kingdom / 41 2.1 British food consumption by category, 1942–81 / 81 2.2 In-store bakeries in British supermarkets, 1990 / 101 2.3 Value of the British bread market, 1986–90 / 102 3.1 Warburtons’ expansion, 1990–2008 / 122 3.2 Warburtons’ annual revenues and profits in select years, 1986–2010 / 123 4.1 Organizations/actors for and against the single-desk system in the 1990s / 140 4.2 Growth of Canadian Wheat Board Producer Payment Options, 2001–07 / 143 4.3 Support for the Canadian Wheat Board / 144 When Wheat Was King 192 ƒ references Konefal, Jason, Carmen Bain, Michael Mascarenhas, and Lawrence Busch 2007 “Supermarkets and Supply Chains in North America.” In Supermarkets and Agri-Food Supply Chains: Transformations in the Production and Consumption of Food, ed David Burch and Geoffrey Lawrence, 268–88 Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Kraft, D.F., W.H Furtan, and E.W Tyrchniewicz 1996 Performance Evaluation of the Canadian Wheat Board Winnipeg: Canadian Wheat Board Kristjanson, R.L 1967 “Problems and Prospects of Canadian Wheat Sales to China and the USSR.” Journal of Farm Economics 49 (5): 1345–51 http://dx.doi org/10.2307/1237025 Kuyek, Devlin 2007 Good Crop/Bad Crop: Seed Politics and the Future of Food in Canada Toronto: Between the Lines Lang, Tim 1999 “The Complexities of Globalization: The UK as a Case 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Winders, Bill 2009 The Politics of Food Supply: US Agricultural Policy in the World Economy New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Winson, Anthony 1992 The Intimate Commodity: Food and the Development of the AgroIndustrial Complex in Canada Toronto: Garamond Press Inde x Note: GM stands for “genetically modified.” accumulation, 5, 19, 181n13; power and, 26, 62, 163 acreage: cereal, 39; production controls and, 64; reduction program, 86, 89; wheat, 24, 34, 58, 156 Agriculture Act (1947), 75, 98 agri-food sector: capitalist relations in, 4, 21; commodities, 166; corporations, 17, 66, 105, 107–8; deregulation, 24; economic output and exports, 110; global restructuring, 6–7, 107; industrialization, 66–67; international, 5; private standards in, 18–19, 24, 105 See also domestic agriculture; farming sector Aldi, 119 Allied Bakeries, 76, 83, 99–101; establishment, 57; Warburtons competition, 118–21 Anglo-American Council on Productivity, 82 animal feed, 15–16, 40, 55, 111, 181n13; Canadian Wheat Board monopoly on, 86–87 antitrust laws, 96 anti-wheat board coalition, 149 Associated British Foods, 76–77 See also Allied Bakeries Australia, 76, 90, 107, 135 baking industry: Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP), 75, 77, 84–85, 90; crisis, 99; discounts, 99; governmentfunded research, 63; in-store bakeries, 24, 83, 100–2, 182n15; local wheat sourcing, 158, 162; multipleshop bakeries, 44, 57, 83; plant bakeries, 57, 76–77, 121–22; technologies, 22, 44 See also Warburtons barley, 86–87, 91, 116, 171; marketing, 139, 141, 145 Beard, Bob, 129, 154 Bennett, R.B., 51, 52 Bill C-18, 146, 149 biofuels, 174 biotechnologies, 20, 135 See also genetically modified (GM) crops Board of Grain Supervisors, 48 Boer War, 181n14 198 index bovine spongiform encephalitis (BSE), 98, 154, 184n10 branding: Canadian Wheat Board, 116–17, 161, 166, 173; by farmers, 176; Warburtons, 122, 126, 159 Brandon (MB) testing facility, 128, 130 Brazil, 112, 115, 183n8 bread consumption: in Britain, 38, 41–42, 55, 61, 63, 168; brown bread demand, 43–44, 100, 181n16; of premium products, 100, 102, 104, 106, 119–20, 167–68; standards, 43–44; totals per household, 79–80; white bread preference, 79, 104, 119, 132, 167 bread manufacturing: chemical additives, 77, 182n4; crises, 95, 104, 118; distribution, 57–58; industrial technologies, 22; local wheat sourcing, 158–59; nutritional requirements, 55, 58, 61, 100, 104, 167, 181n14; own-brand bread, 100–1, 118–21; prices, 42–43, 78, 118; sales, 44, 99, 101–2, 118; standardization and regulation, 43–44; in supermarkets, 24, 83, 118–19; white bread demand, 28, 38, 41, 61, 79, 100 See also baking industry; flour; milling industry Bread Reform League, 43–44, 61 British Bakeries, 76, 83, 99–101 British market, 3, 38, 60, 77, 80 Broadacre Agriculture, 176 Burch, David, 21 Cairns Group, 17–18, 92, 148 Campbell, Hugh, 21 Canada Grain Act (1912), 35 Canada Seeds Act (1923), 35–36 Canada-US relations, 74, 102–3, 181n11; communist countries and, 70–71, 169; trade challenges, 147–48, 151, 170, 184n6 Canadian Co-operative Wheat Producers, 50 Canadian Grain Commission, 2, 27, 35, 157 Canadian Grain Marketing Review Committee (Menzies report), 89–90 Canadian International Grains Institute, 90–91 Canadian Wheat Board: agricultural liberalization and, 135, 138–39; borrowing rates, 148, 184n8; ƒ 199 commercial strategy, 114–17, 131, 160; crisis of legitimacy of, 24, 138; domestic and international conflicts, 146–51; establishment of, 48–49, 51; farmercontrolled, 136–37, 141–42, 160–61; governance reforms, 141–43, 149; historical roles, 2–3, 23, 26–27, 52, 67–69, 164–65; price setting, 73–74; Producer Payment Options (PPOs), 142–43; selling strategy, 89–91, 103, 166–67; stance on GM wheat, 25, 153–57, 161; Steers Report, 114; trade with China, 69–72; Warburtons sourcing program, 25, 106, 123–27, 131–32; wheat agreements, 62, 67–68; wheat deliveries, 51, 53–54, 74 See also singledesk system Canadian Wheat Board Act (1998), 141, 145–46 canola, 24, 86, 137, 171; Roundup Ready, 151–53 capital, 1, 12, 120, 184n8; Eastern Canadian, 30, 37; private, 19; retail, 21 capitalism, Centaur Grain, 127, 158, 183n11 cereal, 182n8; acreage, 39; breakfast, 80, 182n5 China: Canada trade relations, 70–72, 84, 110; US embargo against, 66 class: capitalist, 4; consumer, 20; diet and, 56; farmers as a, 87; markets and, 16; white bread and, 41 See also working class Cold War: grain surpluses and, 88; Soviet wheat demand, 17, 83; trade embargo, 15, 70–71, 169 Collins, Jane, 179n6 commodities, 7, 27, 29, 165–66; cheap food, 19–20, 21, 168; grading grain and, 32; industrialization of, 67; key export, 107, 174; production contracting of, 128; seeds, 129 commodity agreements, 14, 65 commodity programs, 13, 14, 64, 164 See also supply management Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 65, 75, 84 competition: in agri-food sector, 105; among plant bakers, 99, 120; export, 17, 74, 92, 103, 131, 176; in farming operations, 172–73; market share, 69, 73; 200 ƒ in milling industry, 115; supermarket, 18–19, 24; trade, 12; wheat quality, 89, 103 Conservative government (Canada), 51, 94, 172, 184n4; Canadian Wheat Board and, 2, 137, 141, 145–46, 149, 171 consumers: call for state intervention, 46, 78; farmers and, 106; GM foods and, 135–36, 153; high-quality food demand, 100, 102; interests, 55–56, 95; movement, 8, 43–44, 61; rights, 98 consumption, 166; changing patterns of, 38, 100; mass, 76; meat, 15, 111; milk, 56; regulation of, 62; totals by food category, 80–81 See also bread consumption Cooperative Wholesale Society, 57 cooperatives: agricultural, 13; consumer interest, 55–56; grain, 36–37, 127–28, 158, 177, 183n9; grocery, 58; multi-shop bakeries, 44; wheat pools, 49–52 corn, 182n8 Corn Laws, 12, 38 corporations: agri-food, 17, 66, 105, 107–8; food manufacturing, 16, 76–77, 98, 104, 167–68; food regimes and, 18–21; megafarms, 175–76; seed and chemical, 135 cotton trade, 6, 65 Cronon, William, 31 crop diversification, 86–87 Crow’s Nest Pass Agreement, 94, 109 CWB (formerly Canadian Wheat Board), 171–72 dairy industry, 53, 55, 131 Depression era See Great Depression Diefenbaker, John, 70 diplomatic relations, 181n11 dispossession, 20, 30 domestic agriculture: British, 5, 38, 56; Canadian, 23, 54, 84; European, 17; liberalization of, 109, 135; subsidies, 18; US policy and regulation on, 6, 13–14, 64–65, 74 Drummond, J.C., 58 “dual market” system, 138–141, 145 durable foods, 16, 75, 77, 104 Dust Bowl (1930s), 13, 45 Eaton, Emily, 152 elevators, grain, 35, 172, 174; farmerowned, 36; US, 139 index embargoes: British export, 47; Cold War, 15, 70–71, 83, 169 European Union: agricultural policy, 65, 75, 84; export subsidies, 18, 92, 103, 107, 170, 180n8; rejection of GM crops, 138, 153 expansion: of Canadian wheat frontier, 22, 28, 30; retail, 82, 97; of US agriculture production, 13, 17; US western, 30, 33; Warburtons, 118, 120, 121–22, 125 export subsidies: competition, 92; criticism of, 17, 107; direct production of, 69; US and EU, 14, 65, 73, 84, 89, 170, 180n8; WTO and, 18 exports, wheat: Canada-communist countries, 69–72, 83–84, 110–12, 169; Canada-UK, 22–23, 39, 47–49, 67–68, 84–85; Canada-US, 147–48; by country, 32–33; quality and grading of, 73, 90; Red Fife, 31; Second World War, 52–53; total Canadian wheat/flour, 34–35 Fairbairn, Madeleine, 21 farm movements, 8, 36, 49, 51, 68; GM wheat campaign, 153–56; plebiscites, 3, 141–42, 145–46 Farmers for Justice, 141 farming sector: annual sales, 175, 185n7; auditing and monitoring, 129; capitalist development, 4, 105; competition, 172–73; concentration and consolidation in, 175–76; corporate relations, 98; debt, 17, 92–93, 174; division in, 16–17; “dual market” system, 138–41, 145; farm size and total numbers, 87, 96, 110, 174, 183n3; market control, 136–37, 141–44, 150–51; mechanization, 15; organic operations, 177; policy organizations, 95; politics, 17, 134–36, 160; price premiums, 127, 129, 132; wheat varieties and, 117, 124 See also income, farm Federal Court of Canada, 145–46 fertilizers, 15, 67 First World War: food crisis, 55; grain prices, 45; public nutrition, 54–55, 181n14; raw materials and, 46–47; trade, 15; wheat exports, 47–49 flour: extraction rates, 55, 58, 61, 78–79, 181n15; fortification, 78–79, 182n14; gluten content, 180n1; imports and exports, 35, 40; prices, 78; processing, index 39–40; sourcing of, 76; UK production, 40–41, 56–57 food aid, 14–15, 17, 74, 169; market share and, 69–70; surplus disposal and, 66, 88, 92 food crises, 16, 21, 63, 95; bread sector, 99, 104; postwar, 28; retailers and, 98; rising prices and, 174, 177; from US-Soviet grain deal, 17, 88–89; wartime, 45–46, 55 food manufacturing, 16, 165; emergence in UK, 75–76; old and new innovations in, 80–81; prices, 97–98, 104; private interest regulation, 97–98; state involvement in, 78–79; US grocery stores, 82 See also supermarkets food regimes: agricultural and food politics of, 134–35, 160; Canada-UK wheat trade and, 21–23, 103, 163, 166, 168–70; comparative analysis, 4–6, 8–9; corporate or neoliberal, 18–21, 105–10, 134–36, 160–61, 170; global restructuring of, 6–7; historical, 9–11, 179n6; mercantile-industrial, 14–18, 54, 62–67, 74–75, 102–4; national contexts and institutions, 163–65; UK-centred, 12–14, 28–30, 59–61, 166 food safety: crises, 95; environmental practices, 168; quality assurance, 129; regulation, 43, 59, 77–79, 98, 104; standards, 18–19, 46, 109; wartime campaigns, 55, 61 Food Safety Act (1990), 98 food sovereignty, 177–78 Food Standards Committee, 77–78 food supply: British control of, 29, 54–56, 58–59; chains, 20, 97; postwar, 67–68; wartime, 23, 45–46 Foreign Assets Control Regulations, 71 free trade, 18, 105, 151, 180n7; Britain’s policy, 12, 29, 38, 56; Canada-US, 109; Canadian Wheat Board and, 24, 88, 114; consumerism and, 43 See also North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Friedmann, Harriet, 14, 19, 179n4, 180n9, 183n2 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 18, 92, 106–7, 184n7; exclusion of agriculture from, 14, 65–66 genetically modified (GM) crops: canola, 137, 151–53; market rejection of, 135, 153, ƒ 201 161; wheat controversy, 25, 34, 137, 153–57 global food system, 21, 26, 114, 117; food regimes and, 4, 8, 20 Global South, 18, 20, 107, 113, 157 gold standard system, 12, 13 Goodale, Ralph, 141–42 Grain Growers’ Grain Company (GGGC), 36 grain industry: bulk handling, 32, 114, 124, 180n3; corporate concentration, 107–8; crisis, 92–94; deliveries, 35, 50–51, 53–54, 74, 171; European production, 84; grading and weighing, 31–32, 35, 166, 182n9; prices, 13–14, 45, 49, 92–93, 142–43; regulation, 2, 35–37, 59; shortages, 58, 61; storing, 73; supply and demand, 14, 17, 31, 37, 47, 64–65 See also animal feed; wheat production grain pooling, 22, 36, 49, 171–72, 180n4 See also wheat pools Grainfarmers, 158, 183n11 grain-handling system, 139, 149–50, 171–73 Great Depression, 28, 52, 61, 64; British diet and, 46, 56, 59; commodity programs, 14, 52, 65 Greenpeace, 155 G3 Global Grain Group, 172 hard wheat: exporter competition, 89; grades, 32, 90; Marquis, 34, 35, 45; milling of, 38, 40–41; protein content and quality, 31, 40, 63, 115, 166; Red Fife, 31–34, 177; US red winter, 85 health foods, 43, 100, 119–20, 168 hegemony: British, 12–13, 22–23, 60; power, 6, 7; US, 14, 23, 62–64, 164, 169 households, farming, 1, 13, 28, 36 Hovis McDougall, 43, 76–77, 158–59, 181n10 See also Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM) identity preservation program: British, 162; Canadian Wheat Board’s, 127, 167, 183n10; spread of niche, 130–31; traceability of, 158, 184n11; Warburtons, 124–26, 127–28, 158, 165 imperial bond, 45, 47, 60 Imperial Oil, 71 imports: British flour/wheat, 22, 32–33, 38–40, 56, 75; British policy, 37–38; cheap food, 12, 23, 45, 60; discounted 202 ƒ rates, 15; European bans, 153; monopolies, 110, 112–13; Russian wheat, 110–11; substitutions, 63–64, 75, 166 income, farm: Canadian Wheat Board and, 51, 68–69, 73, 90, 103; commodity programs and, 13, 14; crisis, 17, 92–93, 110; net increases, 174–75; support programs, 94–95, 109; US government and, 64 industrialization: agricultural, 13, 67, 75, 87; British, 28, 37; European, 12; of milling and baking industries, 22, 28; Third World, 15 international cooperation, 148, 169; grain/ wheat agreements, 67–68, 73–74, 84; wheat conferences, 51–52 International Grains Agreement (1968), 84 International Monetary Fund, 111 international trade: British influence over, 12; Canada and US roles in, 74; political constructions of, 62, 66; rules and regulations, 2, 7, 65, 92 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) International Wheat Advisory Committee, 52 International Wheat Agreement (IWA), 23, 66, 73, 169; Canada-UK (1946), 67–68, 84, 181n2; First (1933), 52 Japan, 69, 71 labels, food, 8, 177 labour, division of, 16, 70; geographic and social, 4, 7; international, 12, 28, 29, 30 Lawrence, Geoffrey, 21 Liberal government (Canada), 51, 67, 141–42, 144 liberalization: of agri-food sector, 2, 17, 18, 20, 105; of American grains policy, 182n8; farmers and, 134–35, 138, 149; of grain sector, 150–51; trade, 107, 109, 114, 138, 146, 170, 180nn7–8; of world markets, 24 Lipton, 44 livestock sector, 15–16, 86, 111 local food sourcing, 136–37, 157–60, 162 Manitoba Grain Act (1900), 35 market power: Canada, 85, 169–70; Canadian Wheat Board, 5, 60, 69, 73–74, index 103; corporate, 107–8; farmer, 4, 36, 37, 131, 150, 160; food retailers, 19; supermarket, 99, 118; US-Canada combined, 169 marketing: barley, 139, 141; of British sourced wheat, 158–59; brown bread, 43; Canadian Wheat Board strategy, 89–92, 116–17; centralized/state, 29, 49, 51, 60, 91, 160, 171; collective, 5, 36, 45, 48–49, 60, 131, 177; cooperative, 49–52; farmer-controlled, 136–37, 141–44; monopoly, 29, 48, 60, 67, 141; standards and certifications, 18–19; Warburtons, 126, 159 See also branding Marshall Plan, 14, 68, 82 McFarland, John, 50–51 McMichael, Philip, 8, 20–21, 107, 174, 179n4 meat production, 15–16, 67 milling industry: in Britain, 40–41, 56–57, 76–77, 103–4; competition, 115; imported wheat and, 63; new technology, 22; production processes, 113; protein grading, 90; roller vs stone milling, 31, 39–40, 42, 180n9 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF) (UK), 78, 97–98 Ministry of Food (UK), 54–55, 58, 78 monoculture, 45, 168 monopolies: British food, 47, 55; Canadian Wheat Board, 2, 54, 67–68, 86, 138, 145–46, 179n1; farmer-controlled, 131; Global South, 111; government marketing, 48–49, 60; importing, 110, 112–13, 115 Monopolies and Mergers Commission and the Office of Fair Trading, 96 Monsanto, 135; Roundup Ready canola, 151–53; wheat controversy, 153–57, 161 Mutual Aid, 53 National Farmers Union: Britain, 98, 159; Canada, 95, 139, 150, 155 neoliberalism: agricultural reform and, 135; farmers and, 144, 149; food regimes and, 18–21, 131; free trade and, 88, 105, 107; governments and, 17, 24, 93–95, 97–98; states and, 20; structural adjustment programs and, 112; supermarket power and, 96 New Deal, 6, 13, 64 index New Zealand, 131, 135; Dairy Marketing Board, 182n10 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 24, 112, 139; Canada-US disputes, 147–48, 170 no-till farming, 137, 152, 183n2 Oberg, Allen, 150 On Farm Food Safety, 129 One Earth Farms, 175–76 open market: farmers selling into, 2, 149–50, 172; single-desk system vs, 139, 141, 144, 150; wheat prices, 47, 51, 52–53 Openfield, 158–59 Operation LIFT, 86, 89 “orderly marketing,” 23, 36, 49, 68, 180n5 organic operations, 177, 184n1 Otero, Gerardo, 20, 135 Pechlaner, Gabriela, 20, 135 physical fitness, 181n14 plant breeding, 34, 37, 152 policy: British import, 37–38; Canada’s agricultural, 5, 67, 90, 93–95; domestic farm, 67–68, 74; European Union’s agricultural, 65, 75, 84; food aid, 69; foreign, 66, 69–70, 74, 88; industrial, 75; nutrition, 58, 79, 104; supply management, 6, 17, 64–65, 160; twoprice wheat, 84, 94; US agricultural, 6, 13, 64–65, 70, 74, 182n8; wartime food, 46, 56, 58, 61 political economy: of agriculture, 4, 6; of British food sector, 5, 54, 56, 61; liberal, 45 Pollan, Michael, 168 power: accumulation and, 5, 26, 62, 163; bargaining, 13; of Canadian Wheat Board, 68–69; corporate, 24, 105, 107, 175; economic, 47, 88, 95, 97; hegemonic, 6, 7, 23, 60; imperial, 12; inequality, 36; supermarket, 19, 95–96, 99; US agricultural, 62, 64 See also market power Prairie Red Fife Wheat Organic Growers Co-op, 177 Prairies: climate, 22; land investment, 176; settlements, 1, 30, 32–34; soil erosion, 45; transformation of landscape, 1, 30 prices, wheat: British, 39; caps, 49, 60; differences, 175; open market, 47, 51, 52–53; ƒ 203 by quality, 85; setting of, 23, 73, 94; stability, 63, 68, 74; US domestic, 89; wartime, 47–48, 53; wheat pools and, 50–51; world, 30, 33, 50–51, 73, 107–8, 181n2 Pritchard, Bill, 183n2 private grain trade: collapse, 53–54; farmers struggles with, 22, 35, 36; postwar context, 48; prices, 49; regulation, 27 private standards, 167; in agri-food sector, 18–19, 24, 105; of supermarkets, 19, 108–9, 165 processed foods, 16, 63, 76 production contracts, 124, 128–31 provenance, food, 136; in British bread sector, 25, 137, 157–60, 162, 168 Public Law 480, 15, 66, 69 quality of wheat: Canada’s reputation for, 35, 63, 88, 89–91, 102, 114–17, 173; changing definitions of, 6, 27, 31, 106, 131, 167; consistency and differentiation, 113–14, 116–17, 123–24, 167; control of, 32, 35, 37, 132–33, 167; exports and, 3, 23–24, 90–91; GM wheat and, 25; grading, 73, 90, 166; lower qualities, 173; monitoring, 128–29; nutritional levels, 42–45, 46, 55, 61; price setting, 85; protein content, 22, 23, 31, 90, 180n1 Quark, Amy, 5–6 railways, 33, 48, 143, 150, 174 Rank, 41, 57, 76–77 Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM): merger, 76–77; Warburtons competition, 118–21 See also Hovis McDougall rationing, 55, 58, 79 raw materials, 16, 46–47 retailers/retailing: British food, 81–83, 97; control, 97; cooperatives, 44; global integration, 107–8; influence on quality, 106; market concentration, 96; private interest regulation, 97–98; resale price maintenance, 76, 96, 104 See also supermarkets riots, 174 Ritz, Gerry, 146, 149 Roundup Ready crops: application, 151–52; canola, 152–53; wheat controversy, 153–57, 161 204 ƒ Royal Commission on Wheat Supplies, 47 Russia See Soviet Union Safeway, 101 Sainsbury, 44, 57–58, 101, 158–59 Saskatchewan Grain Growers’ Association (SGGA), 36 Second World War: trade, 15; UK food controls, 58–59; wheat demand, 52–54, 60 seeds: certified, 129, 183n12; farmer control over, 21, 177; regulation, 35–36; Roundup Ready, 152 self-service stores, 45, 82, 182n6 settler-states, 12–13, 29–30, 168 shipping and transportation, 47, 53, 71, 73; block shipping system, 91; costs, 32–33, 147, 174; freight rates, 33, 94, 109, 143; illegal, 141; logistics, 125, 173–74; US regulations, 83–84 single-desk system: Canadian government and, 67–68; demise of, 2, 133, 145–46, 149; deregulation of, 171–73; establishment of, 54, 164; farmer control and, 160–61; high-quality grain and, 125; price premiums and, 132; principles, 48; supporters and opponents of, 2–3, 94–95, 103, 138–41, 144, 150–51; US dispute with, 148 Skogstad, Grace, 5, 142 social movements, 8, 22, 179n3 See also farm movements soft wheat, 40, 72, 91 sourcing: British wheat, 26, 157–60, 162; Canada-Warburtons program, 25, 106, 123–27, 131–32; flour, 76 Soviet Union: Canada trade relations, 69–70, 110; embargo against, 66, 69; grain demand, 17, 83–84; US grain deal, 88–89, 182n7 Spillers, 41, 57, 76–77, 99 Standard Bread, 43 state trading enterprises, 115, 140, 184n7, 184n9 Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs), 112 subsidies See export subsidies supermarkets: in-store bakeries, 24, 83, 100–2, 182n15; own-brand bread, 100–1, 118–19; private standards, 19, 108–9, 165; index rise of, 16, 45, 81–82, 95–97; top global chains, 108 supply chains: British food, 97, 165; coordination, 91, 124–25, 129, 167, 170; farmer integration into, 127, 129, 130, 150, 157; quality and standards, 19, 25, 132; UK-based wheat/bread, 127; wheat varieties and, 113, 117 supply management: definition, 14; US policy, 17, 64–65, 160 surpluses: Canadian wheat, 50–52, 60; disposal of, 65–66, 88; European food, 17; grain, 17, 64–65; US food, 14–15, 64, 73 tariffs, 12, 18, 184n6; wheat, 38, 52, 56, 75, 147 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Task Force on Agriculture (1970), 93 Temporary Wheat Reserves Act (1956), 74, 84 Tesco, 100–1, 108 Thatcher government, 96, 98, 182n14 Third World: food aid, 15, 88; markets and trade, 16–17, 24, 69, 74 trade relations: Canada-China, 70–72, 84, 110; Canada-Soviet Union/Russia, 69–70, 83–84, 110–11, 169; Canada-US, 147–48, 169–70, 184n6; Cold War embargo and, 15, 66, 83; Global South, 107; postwar, 62–63; Third World countries, 17 See also General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); World Trade Organization (WTO) tropical agriculture, 16 unemployment, 59, 96–97 unions, 66, 181n1 United Grain Growers, 139, 183n9 US dollar, 64, 71 US-Canada relations See Canada-US relations varieties of wheat See hard wheat; soft wheat variety registration system, 36, 117, 132, 157 Viterra, 124, 146, 172, 183n9 “volunteer” plants, 152–53 wage food, 10, 12, 29, 30, 38 Warburtons: British sourcing program, 157–60; Canadian sourcing program, index 25, 106, 123–26, 162; Centaur program, 127–28; corporate strategy, 120–21; establishment, 117–18; expansion and profits, 121–23; farmers and, 126–27; marketing strategy, 126, 159; opposition to GM wheat, 154, 157; premium products, 119–20, 131–32, 165; production contracts, 128–31, 132; quality standards, 130 Western Barley Growers Association, 139, 149 Western Canadian Wheat Growers Association, 139, 149 western frontier, 32, 33 Western Grain Elevators Association, 149–50 Weston, Garfield, 57 wheat agreements See International Wheat Agreement (IWA) wheat economy: Canada-UK relations, 3–4, 47–49, 62–64, 67–68; Canadian Wheat Board and, 2, 21; concessional sales, 66, 71; crisis, 45–46, 60, 92–94; establishment of, 30–37; institutions, 3, 26, 60, 164; key dilemmas of, 22; regulation, 1, 37; stocks, 53, 68, 73–74; US expansion, 66 wheat pools, 36, 66, 139, 141; establishment of, 49–52; Producer ƒ 205 Payment Options (PPOs), 142–43; Warburtons program and, 125–27 wheat production: canola vs, 152–53; geographic expansion of, 28; growing conditions, 30–31; organic, 177, 184n1; surpluses, 64–65; varieties, 31–32, 34, 113, 123–24, 129 See also hard wheat; quality of wheat Wigmore Farms, 176 Winders, Bill, 5–6, 182n8 Winnipeg Grain Exchange, 47–48, 53 Women’s Cooperative Guild, 43 working class: bread consumption of, 3, 37, 41, 45; cheap food for, 15, 23, 38; European, 12 World Bank, 111 World Food Board (WFB), 65 world markets: Canada and US shares in, 66, 69–70, 102–3; Canada’s integration in, 22, 25, 106, 164, 170; grain quality and, 63, 88, 167, 173; prairie farmers and, 2, 3, 46, 137, 149–50; Soviet collapse and, 110–11; US expansion in, 66, 169; world wheat prices, 30, 33, 73, 84, 89, 181n2 World Trade Organization (WTO), 20, 24, 105, 135; Agreement on Agriculture, 18, 106–7; Canada-US disputes, 147–48, 170 world-systems analysis, 5–6 Printed and bound in Canada by Friesens Set in Trajan & Sabon by Apex CoVantage, LLC Copy editor: Francis Chow Indexer: Celia Braves ... Magnan, André, author When wheat was king : the rise and fall of the Canada- UK wheat trade / André Magnan Includes bibliographical references and index Issued in print and electronic formats.. .When Wheat Was King This page intentionally left blank W hen W heat W as K ing the rise and fall of the canada- uk wheat trade André Magnan © UBC Press 2016 All rights reserved No part of this... specifically on the wheat trade between Canada and the United Kingdom for several reasons The United Kingdom was by far the largest outlet for Canadian exports in the early history of the prairie wheat