Part 2 book “Introduction to occupation the art and science of living” has contents: The occupational nature of social groups, occupational justice, work, occupation, and leisure, occupational deprivation - understanding limited participation, occupations and places,… and other contents.
CHAPTER The Occupational Nature of Social Groups Charles H Christiansen and Elizabeth A Townsend OBJECTIVES Understand the occupational nature of communities and societies Describe the relationship between participation in occupation and a sense of connectedness Appreciate how participation in occupation shapes a social group, both positively and negatively Provide examples of various social occupations and their role in community building KEY WORDS Adaptation Allee effect Altruism Competition Connectedness Cooperation Diversity Division of labor Ecological niche Exaptation Free rider problem Game theory Exclusion/inclusion Interdependence Meme Memetics Norms Prisoner’s dilemma Sense of community Sociobiology Social capital Society Stigma Sustainability Tribe Virtual community www.prenhall.com/christiansen The Internet provides an exciting means for interacting with this textbook and for enhancing your understanding of humans’ experiences with occupations and the organization of occupations in society Use the address above to access the interactive Companion Website created specifically to accompany this book Here you will find an array of self-study material designed to help you gain a richer understanding of the concepts presented in this chapter 175 176 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups CHAPTER PROFILE This chapter describes the occupational nature of communities and societies from the standpoint of humans as a group-living species In doing so, it addresses the factors that contribute to group living and describes the advantages and challenges of occupational engagement in promoting the survival of humans as members of social groups It proposes that shared or cooperative occupations are a central feature of successful social groups and discusses the role of language in the evolution of group living Specific biological concepts influencing group living, including altruism, ecological niche, cooperation, and competition within species, are also discussed with reference to the occupational nature of communities The chapter continues with an examination of socio-cultural environment factors that contribute to the success of social groups, including social values; cultural rituals of exclusion and inclusion; shared history; tribal connections; art, magic, and religion; volunteerism; work; social sanctions; and sustainable, occupational practices The chapter profiles occupational characteristics of successful communities that build social as well as economic capital and occupational characteristics that fail to support success, such as the absence of trust and the lack of collective occupations for the common good (which together build social capital), as well as the presence of violence and injustices Throughout the chapter, it is emphasized that people doing things together with a common goal and values, such as compassion, connectedness, and resilience, are central features of fully flourishing social groups INTRODUCTION As a group-living species, humans have evolved occupations that not only contribute to their survival, but also have led to the formation of communities and societies In this chapter, we consider the occupational nature of social groups by examining the answers to three questions: What makes social groups inherently occupational? How and why did occupations that promote group living develop? How and why occupations determine a social group’s potential to flounder or flourish? WHAT MAKES SOCIAL GROUPS INHERENTLY OCCUPATIONAL? Human communities consist of groups of people who things together and individually People participate collectively through shared interests and activities (occupational pursuits) in work, sports, hobbies, volunteerism, home life, and civic involvement Bonds that draw and keep people thinking about each other and occupied together may include shared beliefs, shared geography, shared interests, shared experiences, shared traditions, or shared kinship (1) What Makes Social Groups Inherently Occupational? 177 Although the terms social groups, community, and society are closely linked, they represent distinct but interwoven structures and characteristics Social groups are usually identified by shared characteristics, such as age, gender, social class, or religion It is useful to think of a community as a bond among people with strongly similar backgrounds and interests and a society as a set of systems that govern connections between those groups Social groups, communities, and societies can be institutionalized in rules, laws, and shared conventions, but, generally speaking, societal connections are more often formal, whereas community connections tend to be more informal in nature Because their connections are more formal, societies can be described according to their economic, socio-cultural and political structures and complexity and include bands, tribes, chiefdoms, and state societies Societies are also organized according to their means of subsistence, providing clear evidence of the important link between human occupation and society as a structure that formally organizes social groups The earliest subsistence-based societal category is known as the hunter-gatherer society, followed by the nomadic pastoral, the simple farming or horticulture society, and the intensive agricultural society, also called civilizations The industrial and postindustrial societies are new additions to this classification, marking clearly different characteristics from the agricultural societies while again linking these categories to aspects of human occupation that are key to survival One characteristic of all societies is that they render aid or generate havoc in times of crisis depending on a society’s approach to a crisis They also confer status on their members for specific behaviors that are seen as valuable to the group, and they impose sanctions for behaviors that are considered contrary to the well-being of the group Michael Ignatieff, a Canadian historian and politician, describes himself as a citizen of the world He has written about the deep bonds of “blood and belonging” as the basis for the cultural and religious conflicts that have festered for years in some parts of the world, including the drive for distinct recognition of the (Frenchspeaking) heritage of the founding people of the province of Quebec, Canada (2) His insights emphasize the interdependence and reciprocity of kindness in everyday actions required for people to consider the “needs of strangers” as well as their own needs (3) His recent writings on the Rights Revolution highlight the importance of creating social groups, communities, and societies where bonds are based on both equality and differences He indirectly points to shared and individual occupations (decorating ourselves, dressing) in the communities through which we commit ourselves to a special way of thinking about the relationship between human equality and human difference What we have in common as human beings is the very way we differentiate ourselves—as peoples, as communities, and as individuals So it is not the naked body we share in common, but the astoundingly different ways in which we decorate, adorn, perfume, and costume our bodies in order to proclaim our identities as men, women, members of this tribe or that community (4, p 41) The earliest social groups were based on kinship, not unlike the blood relationships of families Because of their geographic proximity and close bonds, they were also communities Societies began historically as geographically and genetically defined 178 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups groups of people who shared the occupations of survival, such as hunting, gathering, and defense against enemies Today, without restriction to geographic boundaries or genetically linked clans or tribes, there are also societies of shared interests, such as musicians around the world, or societies that form through shared experiences (see Box 7-1) These social groups may be communities or societies, depending on their formal arrangements, that have formed because of bonds related to such diverse experiences as culture, disability, family life, geography, ethnicity, old age, race, religion, rural or urban living, or sexual orientation Clans and tribes are societies that draw on shared geographic history, heritage, and ancestry These social groups are now geographically scattered around the world Many people retain a sense of pride and belonging as members of clans or tribes who may engage in the shared occupations of cultural rituals and artistic expression wherever members may be Worldwide virtual groups are now connected in the shared occupations of e-mail correspondence, synchronous or asynchronous web group discussions, online blogs and journals, podcasting, shared videos placed on YouTube, and numerous “wikis.” A wiki is a collaborative Website, such as Wikipedia, an online multilingual encyclopedia with over one million entries that has been collaboratively developed by scholars and users all over the world More and more, the information age is creating networks of people whose shared occupations are the basis for creating virtual communities and societies These retain many of the characteristics of social groups in physical presence, but have additional features that add value while also creating new challenges For example, virtual groups make information sharing faster and more convenient, but they also must contend with problems related to factual accuracy, false identity, BOX 7-1 Clans as Places of Refuge and Barriers to Connectedness Alistair MacLeod (100), a Scottish-Canadian writer, wrote an award winning novel, No Great Mischief about the dilemma of clans being both a source of identity and a trap His main character, Calum, a member of “clan Chalum Ruaidh” of the MacDonald clan, finds himself both nurtured and stuck in his clannish connectedness with Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia Clan and occupation are intricately tied Calum chances losing his mining job in Ontario to drive for over 30 hours to participate in the clannish occupation that is his grandfather’s wake on Cape Breton Island Within the clan-strong communities and occupations of this island, language is used to search for connections in conversations that inevitably start with “What’s your name?” “What’s your father’s name?” “What’s your mother’s father’s name?” (p 28), and family remind each other, “Always look after your own blood” in finding each other jobs (p 204) The grandfather, who enjoyed his occupations of dancing as well as hard work, utters the essence of strong, nurturing, occupation and clan-based communities in his frequently repeated statement that ends the book, “All of us are better when we are loved” (p 283) What Makes Social Groups Inherently Occupational? 179 accountability, and potential exploitation Although these have always been social problems, the global environment of the digital world has made them more visible and more difficult to manage There are many kinds of social groups, but they have in common interaction through what they together, whether sharing interests, beliefs, knowledge, or the completion of functional and creative goal-directed projects The defining features of closely knit social groups include respect, connectedness, belonging, reciprocity, mutual aid, care for others, and often an altruism to both help and protect one another (3–7) Consider that the words community and society are from Latin words with roots in the concepts of friendship and altruism For example, the words community and communicate are from the Latin root word “commune,” which means to share Similarly, the word society is derived from French and Latin terms meaning companionship, or being in the company of others From earlier work, we might say that diverse “ways of knowing” (5) produce diverse ways of doing In other words, the occupational nature of social groups is characterized by gender, race, and many other differences in the ways people understand, accomplish, and speak about what they The struggle for rights to be equal, while also respecting difference, is universal Equality and difference are actually grounded in the ways people come to know and experience everyday life That is to say, the occupational nature of social groups is grounded in similarities while also confronting difference Where there are strong social groups based on shared experience, mutual interest, trust, respect, and common goals, differences may or may not be accommodated One prevailing view emphasizes the important role of strong social groups in balancing the interests of the individual with the interests of the larger group Progress occurs because groups adopt the innovations, or new ideas, of individuals who risk thinking about or doing things differently In fact, tolerance and reasonable accommodations for difference are essential to group harmony and progress (6) Indeed, Rubin (7) maintains that a community’s main function is to act as a go-between—between the individual and larger society Rubin asserted that individuals relate to their larger societies through both geographic and nongeographic substructures, or communities Prior to the establishment of modern communication technologies, social groups were, of necessity, primarily geographic and often based on kinship, such as in extended families But today, technology permits other kinds of groups to develop and serve the purposes of sharing traditions, values and goals Examples are professional societies, labor unions, or sports clubs that maintain themselves through a membership organization created through shared occupational interests These groups may meet face-to-face periodically and communicate regularly through non-face-to-face means with their members to establish ethical standards, enable professional communication, and represent the interests of members to the state or internationally Rubin developed his beliefs of community from the writings of French sociologist Emile Durkheim (8), who believed that if the state were the only organized structure available to people, the individual would become detached and the larger society would disintegrate Durkheim wrote: “A nation can be maintained only if, between 180 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups the State and the individual, there is [introduced] a whole series of secondary groups near enough to the individuals to attract them strongly in their sphere of action [emphasis added] and drag them, in this way, into the general torrent of social life (8, p 28) Furthermore, people need communities to “serve as buffers between the individual and the larger society” (p 60) From Durkheim’s work, Rubin (7) identified five structural characteristics for a community to mediate between an individual and society Each characteristic (size, focus, stability, social structure, and participation) makes it possible to experience shared occupations (see Table 7-1 ■) The implication here is that positive experiences of shared occupation are founded on discovering the just-right-size group, whether it is the result of geographic proximity, kinship, or a common interest Rubin advocated that a central focus will generate a sense of connectedness through what people are doing He highlighted the interconnectedness of communities, or the glue that keeps them together, as that sense of shared focus, purpose, mission, or project One might suppose that groups that fish together, that dance or generate art together, that protect the environment together, or that worship together all share a focus that makes belonging to that group worthwhile As Rubin noted, communities succeed when there is relative stability He cited the characteristics of having a shared history (stability over time) or a core nucleus of members (stability of persons) as strength-building features of communities The stability of community engagement might also be important in building community strength Stable community engagement refers to the ability of a group to maintain its focus on particular projects or actions over time, with sufficient attention to completion so that members experience the shared satisfaction of creative expression, work, or play that is done well Rubin’s characteristics of communities also include the need for both structure and participation In other words, a framework of habits, customs, policies, or regulations makes it possible for people to participate together with congeniality as they go about their shared occupations Interdependence is a fundamental experience in shared occupations, such as the traditional “barn raising” that brought families and communities together in a TABLE 7-1 Rubin’s Structural Characteristics of Communities (7) Characteristic Features Size Size should be intermediate—small enough to provide a sense of community and large enough to enable members to feel they are part of a larger social structure Focus Should address some of the important central problems of social life to help members feel connected to the larger society Relative stability Should have a history and core nucleus of members Concrete social structure People should be able to interact and identify with each other Participative and congenial social interactions Interactions should be primary and secondary and allow for social structure What Makes Social Groups Inherently Occupational? 181 common occupation (see Figure 7-1 ■) Condeluci describes interdependence as the expression and satisfaction of being and doing with others (9) Alternately, mutual dependence, sometimes referred to as codependence, may negatively draw people into collusion in harmful occupations Examples are groups who are negatively occupied interdependently, with a mutual dependence that is fraught with violence or codependent families caught in alcohol, drugs, gambling, or other addictions Positive interdependence, however, can generate mutual aid and reciprocal giving As Brown noted, interdependence is founded on mutual respect, acknowledgment, accommodation, and cooperation that both connect people and provide them with the independence to develop their communities (10) Interdependence engenders a spirit of social inclusion, mutual aid, moral commitment, and responsibility to recognize and support difference A common example is the sense of belonging and connectedness generated when groups grow, prepare, and eat food together Religious groups have long recognized the power of breaking bread or breaking a fast with others when there is a sense of purpose and focus Health and social programs have a long history of involving people in shared occupations to sustain collective farms, or community mental health programs (11–13) Intentional communities may support “independent living” by people with a disability, or activism against poverty, drugs, or crime (14, 15) Schools may seek to create a culture of inclusion so that students with diverse intellectual or physical abilities can all benefit from educational programs FIGURE 7-1 The concepts of community cooperation and interdependence are clearly exemplified in collective efforts to build a physical structure—either for the community-at-large or for individuals In this photo, the practice of “barn raising” is shown In rural areas, it is not uncommon for neighbors to collectively assist with harvesting or building barns, especially when a family or individual is facing misfortune, such as a fire, accident, or health crisis (© by Dennis L Hughes, 6/20/2002 Courtesy of Dennis L Hughes.) 182 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups To participate means to take part, or to share in the doing of something Historymaking and documentation are occupations that seem necessary for the continuity of groups, whether communities or societies Those who participate in recording or documenting historical events or who write stories about their shared experiences create public tools for generating connectedness and a sense of belonging The making of written histories, group photographs, visual documentaries, films, plaques, cemetery tombstones, logos, plaid tartans, uniforms, or ceremonial clothing are history-generating, shared occupations These are occupations that often spark a sense of recognition and reconnection within social groups Such occupations express group values, customs, rules, sanctions, and a shared identity When we visit a cemetery, we are instantly reminded of the times when we participated together in occupations such as building a house, celebrating an anniversary, or playing games When we read stories about the development of a shared project, the rebuilding of a town after a fire or flood, or the genealogy of a clan, we remember doing something in particular times and places and with particular people Historical as well as organizational documentation is fundamental, not only for sentimental reasons, but also in the organization of groups who are able to work together to attain desired aims for collective benefit (16) Individual identity is irrevocably connected with the occupational nature of social groups Ironically, the Internet and communication technologies have enabled occupations that create virtual communities at the same time that people around the world are experiencing an erosion of connectedness and moral responsibility in their daily occupations Many have noted this, such as American sociologist Amatai Etzioni, who has advocated what he refers to as communitarian practices Like other communitarian advocates, Etzioni proposed that we should more carefully balance individual rights with a community member’s responsibilities to the greater good (17) Social groups develop a sense of commitment and emotional support in times of need as members generate shared beliefs, traditions, and goals through shared occupations Feeling safe and supported by a group engenders feelings of loyalty and attachment McMillan (18) described four ways in which members generate a psychological “sense of community”: Create a sense of belonging, fulfill member needs, provide influence, and offer shared connections The occupations that foster individual identity also give rise to shared identity (19) Social groups can support or limit individual development of identity or selfhood Neither is separate from the other as identity emerges in two fundamental directions, each creating tension with the other (20–22) The first direction is to satisfy individual and shared needs for power, autonomy, status, and excitement The second is to satisfy individual and shared needs for love, intimacy, acceptance, respect, belonging, connectedness, and interdependence In his classic work, Bakan (23) described these two directions as agency and communion Agency refers to mastery, self-assertion, and the capacity of individuals to reason and exert power through thought, language, and action Communion refers to joining with others to become part of a larger whole Dan McAdams, a psychologist who studies life stories, has noted that the themes reflected in life stories tend to belong to one of agency (accomplishing significant tasks) or communion (developing strong relationships with others) (24) Considered together, agency and communion are both necessary to and are the results of participation in shared occupations Shared occupations are a platform for What Makes Social Groups Inherently Occupational? 183 individual experiences of power, autonomy, status, and excitement, as well as for the development of communal experiences of love, intimacy, respect, belonging, and connectedness Individual identity and group identity are intertwined As Page and Czuba highlighted, “the individual and community are fundamentally connected” in a multidimensional journey in which people learn either to dominate and disempower others, or to share power in the empowerment of everyone (25, p 3) The collective efficacy of a community appears to generate cohesion among neighborhood residents combined with shared expectations for informal social control of public space Collective efficacy is a concept that combines the efficient use of resources to achieve what a group defines as important Collective efficacy builds on the beliefs people have about themselves and the actions they take to address those beliefs Included in this concept are information and knowledge, skills to what people need and want done, and the ability to learn and apply new information and skills to develop their communities Consistent with the experiences of shared occupations already noted, collective efficacy emerges in supportive conditions that foster mutual respect, commitment, informational integration, mediation, compromise, and social cooperation (26, 27) Conditions that not foster these qualities result in scenarios that have led to the Broken Window Hypothesis that is presented in Box 7-2 BOX 7-2 The Broken Window Hypothesis One theory of violence and crime in cities is called the Broken Window Hypothesis (101) This theory suggests that when conditions called “structural disorder” occur in neighborhoods, there is a rise in crime (Figure 7-2 ■) Structural disorder results when neighborhoods are not maintained Participation declines, and people become less trusting (102) Fear may increase because crime is perceived as more common on the streets Structural disorder in neighborhoods is said to be caused by poverty and mixed land use—an example being where residential dwellings are combined with businesses and/or places of manufacturing Structural disorder in one neighborhood prompts residents to migrate to other neighborhoods The community that is abandoned experiences lower investment, economic decline, and higher rates of robbery as the most prevalent crime It is important to note that structural disorder does not directly promote crime, although the two are related Both structural disorder and crime are closely associated with poverty FIGURE 7-2 The broken window hypothesis suggests that when structural disorder occurs in a neighborhood, a rise in crime results (S Meltzer, Photolink/Getty Images.) 184 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups HOW AND WHY DID OCCUPATIONS THAT PROMOTE GROUP LIVING DEVELOP? Humans came to live in groups specifically because we are social and occupational beings who are genetically predisposed to exist and act together (28–30) Mutuality and reciprocity appear to be an evolutionary necessity for humans (31) Although the biological basis for humans living in groups is a complex topic, the field of neuroscience has provided some useful theories regarding why and how group living occurred A key event in group living was the incredible increase in human brain size over thousands of years Brain size has been closely related to the development of language Language to Communicate Ideas about Occupations One theory proposes that language evolved as a functional necessity for group living Interestingly, this theory directly relates language development to group occupations It seems that language development correlates with the greater amount of time humans spend in social grooming From observation of primates, it seems that social grooming, a basic occupation of self-care and care of others, enables social relationships to be established Social grooming requires individuals to be in close, physical proximity to each other for purposes other than procreation Social and physical proximity enable the development of social relationships, initially for mutual support Mutual support is necessary to protect one’s standing in the larger social group As social groups develop, social grooming extends to other shared occupations such as food gathering and play within groups and posturing or fighting with other social groups In other words, the interaction of shared occupations requires language, and language fosters more shared occupation A more widely accepted theory suggests that language was a consequence of group hunting or protection, which required that individuals be able to direct others to the location of threats or prey Pinker and Bloom (32) suggested that language evolved in humans for two reasons First, early humans cooperated in their endeavors, especially those related to protection and support Second, they had a need to share knowledge about the local environment and their ways of doing things with their family and group members to sustain the group over time As humans evolved beyond hunting and gathering to the development of agricultural communities, there was great benefit to dividing labor For example, cooperation in the division of labor enabled such innovations as the construction of irrigation systems Communities gain stability and a sense of belonging over time by transmitting customs, rules, and beliefs from one generation to the next This requires the use of language, which evolved to a point during the history of humankind where written symbols could be used to provide an enduring record Compared to other animal species, homo sapiens are not large, fast, or strong Humans, however, have used intellectual capacities to compete with other species and the forces of nature A key part of this intelligence and survival has been the development and use of language Social groups are possible because of the ability to communicate, and 420 Glossary Narrative methodology: An approach for studying human action that relies on a careful analysis of the themes found in personal accounts or stories (See Qualitative research.) Narrative plot: An analysis of how people organize, understand, and interpret their experience as revealed in their narratives, or storied accounts of their lives How experience is interpreted from the standpoint of its meaning to the participant Narrative slope: The direction, progressive or regressive, of a series of events as interpreted by the individual giving a personal account of what they experienced in a segment of their life story Narratives: The personal and collective stories through which individuals, families, groups, communities, organizations, and populations construct meaning through reflection and participation in occupations Naturalistic paradigm: A qualitative or experiential way of knowing and understanding phenomena, which recognizes that a researcher’s biases and values are part of the research process and emphasizes observation in naturalistic or “real-world” settings and conditions Necessary occupations: Term for describing those human endeavors aimed at meeting basic physiological and self-maintenance needs constituting necessary time Necessary time: Term credited to D Aas (1980) for time spent doing necessary activities [occupations] Obligatory time: Term credited to D Aas (1980) for time spent doing that which must be done Occupation: Engagement or participation in a recognizable everyday life endeavor Occupational adaptation: Adjustments and changes in the methods, tools, locations, and other forces that determine participation in occupations by individuals, groups, and communities Occupational alienation: Experiences devoid of meaning or purpose, a sense of isolation, powerlessness, frustration, loss of control, or estrangement from society or self that results from engagement in occupations that not satisfy inner needs related to meaning and/or purpose Occupational balance: A concept referring to the distribution of time for engagement in the habits and routines of everyday occupations; an interpretive concept for assessing time use with reference to health, well-being, and quality of life when the patterns of occupation are taken into account for individuals, groups, and communities; perceived state of satisfactory participation in valued, obligatory, and discretionary activities; occurs when the impact of occupations on one another is harmonious, cohesive, and under control (See Life balance) Occupational behavior: Human action produced by the combined efforts and expressions of mind, body, and spirit Occupational capacity: Ability (actual or potential) for occupational performance or engagement Occupational citizenship: Participation with choice and decision-making opportunities to realize one’s potential in the typical occupations of a society Occupational classification: Any systematic approach to describing or categorizing intentional human time use Occupational competence: Ability, skill, knowledge, and attitudes for engagement in occupations Occupational culture: A set of technical, social, and cultural characteristics and attributes associated with one’s place in the social division of labor and perception of one’s self in the system Occupational deprivation: A term credited to Wilcock and Whiteford (2000) referring to a state of prolonged preclusion from engagement in occupations of necessity or meaning due to factors outside the control of an individual, such as through geographic isolation, incarceration, or disability Occupational development: Change over the life span; development may be a systematic progression of growth and maturation for participation in a repertoire of occupations related to age; or development may be shaped by life circumstances that require a unexpected developmental path Occupational disruption: A transient or temporary condition of being restricted from participation in necessary or meaningful occupations, such as that caused by illness, temporary relocation, or temporary unemployment Occupational analysis: Analysis of the occupations according to features (e.g., meaning, choice, personal demands, purposes), environment (e.g., built, classification, economic, geographic, political, sociocultural), demands/ press (e.g., effort, performance requirements, mental and spiritual demands); occupational analysis is a core competency of occupational therapy; also known to occupational therapists and others as activity analysis, task analysis Occupational enrichment: Enhanced environmental resources to enable optimal participation in occupations Occupational apartheid: Term credited to Kronenberg and Algado (2005) to describe the deliberate, political exclusion of some populations from some occupational opportunities and resources Occupational grouping: An interconnected set of occupations Occupational habits: Recurring, largely automatic patterns of time use within the context of daily occupations Occupational engagement: Full participation in occupations for purposes of doing what one needs and wants to do, being, becoming who one desires to be, and belonging through shared occupations in communities Glossary Occupational history: The historical narrative of occupational development and engagement over the life span; a documented record of occupational participation Occupational identity: The socially constructed image of self as a participant in occupations Occupational imbalance: An individual or group experience in which health and quality of life are compromised because of being overoccupied or underoccupied Occupational issues (OI): Experiences that are challenging, problematic, exceptional, or otherwise profiled about engagement in occupations Occupational justice/injustice: Term credited to Townsend (Canada) and Wilcock (Australia) (2000) referring to justice related to opportunities and resources required for occupational participation sufficient to satisfy personal needs and full citizenship Occupational life course: The accumulated occupational repertoire of experiences, events, and conditions over the life span Occupational marginalization: Experiences of inequity from being outside the dominant or mainstream discourse and events of everyday occupations in a particular context; invisible, silent, on the edge of privilege and entitlement to occupational opportunities and resources Occupational mastery: Excelling in competence for participation in an occupation Occupational participation: The engagement of the individual’s mind, body, and soul in goal-directed pursuits Occupational pattern: Habits or routines in occupational engagement over time and in particular places Occupational performance: The task-oriented, completion, or doing aspect of occupations; often, but not exclusively, involving observable movement Occupational potential: A vision of future possibilities for engagement in occupations, or for structuring society to enable people to participate as fully as possible Occupational reasoning: Processes of thinking about, reflecting on, analyzing, and understanding occupations and participation in everyday life; includes conditional reasoning about the context for occupations, narrative reasoning about occupational experiences, and positivist reasoning based on empirical data on occupations Occupational repertoire: A person’s or community’s interwoven composition or patterns of occupations Occupational rhythm: The temporal pace or pattern of action or experience within a given occupation Occupational right: The idea that one has a moral entitlement to choose or have access to occupational pursuits that are necessary for health, well-being and social inclusion regardless of differences in ability, age, social class and other characteristics 421 Occupational role: Socioculturally defined expectations for participation in occupations Occupational routines: Recurring sequences of time use, such as the regimen repeated upon waking each day Occupational satisfaction: Contentment with occupations Occupational science: The study of the experiences and factors pertaining to human occupation; also known as occupationology Occupational therapist: A regulated professional who has special knowledge in understanding the influence of occupation on health and well-being Occupational therapy: A profession practiced in many nations Occupational therapy is based on knowledge about humans’ intrinsic needs and desires to explore the world and engage in occupational pursuits that are necessary, engaging, meaningful, and purposeful, and that the social, spiritual, physical, and psychological benefits of occupational engagement are essential to health, well-being and equitable social inclusion Occupational therapy support personnel: Persons who work as assistants with supervision by registered/licensed professional occupational therapists Occupational transitions: Circumstances creating a change in the nature or type of occupational engagement pursued by or available to an individual Such transitions may be the result of choice, changes in physical or mental status, life transitions, geographical change, geopolitical strife, or other factors (See Life transitions and Occupational deprivation.) Occupational well-being: Experiences of satisfaction and meaning derived from participation in occupations Occupationally just world: A utopian vision of a world that is governed in such a way as to enable individuals, families, communities and populations to flourish by doing what they decide is most meaningful, useful and environmentally sustainable to promote health, well-being and social inclusion for individuals, their families, communities, and nations Occupationology: A term attributed to Polatajko (Canada) to refer to the study of occupation (occupational science) Occupations: Things that people to occupy life for intended purposes such as paid work, unpaid work, personal-care, care of others, leisure, recreation, or subsistence Includes groups of activities and tasks of everyday life, named, organized, and given value and meaning by individuals and a culture Categories used by researchers and governments to track human participation in the labor market and society Ontology: In philosophy, the study of being or existence and diverse ways of knowing 422 Glossary Overemployment: A form of occupational deprivation that occurs when people are overoccupied either in the paid workforce or in other aspects of daily life Paradigm: A model or way of viewing the world or a given phenomenon Places: The physical surroundings or environments that are natural or built in which people occupy themselves and create shared meaning, and the meanings and cultural constructions that create a sense of ‘home,’ ‘community’ or other place in the mind, in actual reality, or in virtual reality Play: Occupations selected for amusement, recreation, diversion, sport, or frolic Political environments: Situations or places where sanctions by those in control influence behavior or opportunity Positivistic paradigm: A view of the world based on the belief that phenomena can be best understood through observation and measurement Postmodernism: In general, a term referring to ways of thinking that reject hierarchical or empirical explanations of phenomena in favor of views that acknowledge complexity, ambiguity, and interconnectedness Preformationist viewpoint: An early historical view of human development, dating to the Middle Ages, that considered children as miniature adults Prisoner’s dilemma: A specific example of game theory used for teaching purposes Purposive view of motivation: Emphasis on goal-directed or intentional action caused by anticipated benefit or a desire to avoid harm Qualitative research: Methods for understanding phenomena that allow an investigator to experience events, identify themes on the basis of that experience, and formulate theories Reductionistic: Reducing to parts; a way of explaining based on understanding the parts that make up a whole Refugeeism: The state of being forced to evacuate one’s home and community as the result of war, violence, natural disaster, famine, or fear of communicable disease Regulatory motivators: Physiological influences on behavior that resist conscious control such as hunger, pain, and fatigue Relativism: The idea that concepts about phenomena vary according to differences in situations and cultures Rest: The natural repose or relief from daily activity or occupation that is obtained by sleep or reduced physical activity Retirement: A sociological term referring to the period of life following completion of paid or unpaid work as a career or extended employment or participation in a worker role Ritual: An established pattern of actions in a prescribed or ordered manner often performed as part of a ceremony or observance and typically having an associated meaning beyond the action itself Role balance: Satisfactory fulfillment of all valued roles Role overload: Having too much to in the amount of time available; feeling time crunched and busycrazy Role strain: Distress or burden arising from excessive demands or insufficient capacity to fulfill the role; capacity includes personal knowledge and skills as well as available resources (financial, educational, social support) Routine: A regular or customary pattern of time use through activity and occupation Social Structure: Pertaining to patterns of behavior or relationships within a society, particularly as these pertain to groups Spillover: The influence or effect of work on other life domains Stress: The effect of challenge or threat on the body or the perception of threat or challenge Increasingly, distinction is made between the sources of threat or challenge (stressors) and their effects, now increasingly referred to as allostasis or allostatic load Sustainability: Use of natural resources in a manner that does not compromise the survival of future generations Symbolic interactionism: School of thought in psychology derived from the work of G H Mead It views behavior as influenced by one’s consideration of the image or thought of the self in relationship to others Tabula rasa: Concept credited to English philosopher John Locke in the 18th century, who viewed humans at birth as a blank slate whose life course would be written by life’s experiences Tasks: A means of accomplishing an activity Taxonomy: A classification used to distinguish between ideas, objects, events, or things based on their defined properties Technology: The study, development, or use of inventions for practical purposes Tele-immersion: The creation of virtual environments that facilitate scientific collaboration over distances Temporal: Pertaining to time Theory of occupational justice: A theory to define beliefs, principles, and other features that distinguish occupational from social justice (See Occupational justice.) Time pressure: The experience of expectation to perform or accomplish more within a defined or inadequate segment of time Time use: How humans allocate time through activity and occupation Glossary Traits: Tendencies to behave or act in particular ways Uchi: Japanese term for the inner group, or circle of immediate friends and acquaintances, which dictates customs of language and deference that guide social interaction with visitors or outsiders of the “soto,” or out-group (See Soto.) Underemployment: A form of occupational deprivation that occurs when people are underoccupied either in the paid workforce or in other aspects of daily life Unemployment: A form of occupational disruption (if short term) or occupational deprivation (if long term) caused by forces outside the individual, although individual responses to unemployment are important to consider Universalism: In general, applying to all persons and/or all things for all times and in all situations The term has different meanings in different fields Virtual places: Any nonphysical representation of a location, such as an electronic or digitally simulated environment created on the Internet Volition: Choice or will; intentionality 423 Well-being: The affect or emotion about one’s psychological, emotional, or physical state as perceived at a given moment Work: Labor or exertion; to make, construct, manufacture, form, fashion, or shape objects; to organize, plan, or evaluate services or processes of living or governing; committed occupations that are performed with or without financial reward Work-leisure relationship: The study of how a person’s choices and experiences of work influence their leisure and vice versa Work-life balance: Perceived ability to manage individual and family time, and perceived conflict in doing so.(see Life balance, Occupational balance) Work-life conflict: A condition characterized by demands of work and personal/family life Occurs when the cumulative demands of work and nonwork roles are incompatible such that participation in one role is made more difficult by participation in the other At least three subsets of work-life conflict have been articulated: role overload, interference from family demands to work life, and interference from work demands to family life (see Spillover) 424 Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions Chapter 1 b Seize (Occupatio is from the latin word meaning to Seize) a Simultaneous participation in more than one occupation d Habits are relatively automatic repeated patterns of behavior a True—Habits allow humans to conserve energy, but they can reduce vigilance and create difficulties when typical conditions change and such changes go unnoticed so that behaviors are not modified appropriately c Personality is not a biological factor, but rather a psychological influence on occupation Chapter b The Western world often adheres to objectivity and the scientific method in seeking knowledge a Relativism holds to the viewpoint that truth and criteria of judgment are relative to the circumstances, people, and contexts involved b False—The Japanese uphold a hierarchical structure within their society b Occupation and environment are considered together from the collective integrated unity of the whole c Postmodernism often takes a relativist view Chapter c Ways of understanding This definition of epistemological positions is based on the work of Perry a Ways of knowing are always unique to the discipline Ways of knowing are often specific to the discipline, but not necessarily unique to the discipline b Qualitative research The naturalistic paradigm is also described as qualitative research c Grounded theory studies Grounded theories studies are associated with the naturalistic paradigm or qualitative research d When Understanding “when” focuses on how occupations and time are related to each other Chapter a All occupations are viewed equally Viewpoints agree that some occupations are viewed more highly within a society than others d Sociology Durkheim is known as an important French sociologist 424 Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions 425 d Job The International Standard Classification of Occupations shows that at the top level are broad categories of employment, while at the bottom are very descriptive and more detailed descriptions of jobs or duties and responsibilities b Employers The focus of this chapter did not include the perspectives of employers c Turning right in a stressful situation This option described a suboccupation directly related to driving Chapter b Formal education would be considered contracted time a True b Roles are socially expected behaviors that are often situation specific b Social support and income are extrinsic factors; in comparison, physical and psychological traits would be considered intrinsic factors a Options b (control over an area or domain) and c (constraints related location timing and resources) respectively refer to authority and coupling constraints Chapter a The maturationist viewpoint believes a person’s genes dictate human development and that heredity alone influences the course of development b The Interactional Model of Occupational Development is based on the three variables of (1) occupational behavior, (2) time, and (3) interaction b The meso level of occupational development is at the level of the individual c Bronfenbrenner identified four aspects of the human environment to include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem More recently, the chronosystem was added to his General Ecological Model d None of the above The principle of multiple variation states that development is neither smooth nor unidirectional; it involves both growth and decline Chapter a Rubin did not include sharing Rubin’s five structural characteristics include size, focus, stability, social structure, and participation c McMillan and Chavis did not include social skills They described the following four ways to generate a psychological sense of community: sense of belonging, fulfillment of member needs, provide influence, and offer shared connections d Composting, recycling, and using natural resources are all behaviors consistent with a sustainable community c The definition of interdependence includes mutual dependence, aid, moral commitment and responsibility to recognize and support difference b An ecological niche is one in which a particular species can successfully adapt Chapter a Minor changes in occupational repertoire of activities Occupational transitions focus on major changes b False—Retirement involves a process of adaptation over time c Social contact and fellowship This factor was identified as the most positive aspect of work 426 Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions a Going from an imbalance of too many demands in work to an imbalance of too few demands in retirement The paradox is that there is imbalance in both work and retirement a True—The loss of the work routines increases awareness of the meaning of time and day Chapter d Occupational balance is multifaceted and dynamic, but there is agreement that it is beneficial to health and well being a True—Increasing numbers of peope are working more than 40 or less than 30 hours weekly c According to the author, depth of lifestyle refers to the need for an individual to create meaning in life b False—Leisure and work in some contexts may be considered overlapping concepts d Occupational balance Other listed terms refer to an aspect of balance across a person’s daily activities, but may be more limiting depending on how they are defined Chapter 10 c Place does shape how occupation is performed Occupations shape the meaning of a place Place influences why occupations are performed Place shapes the meaning of occupations, therefore occupations performed in different places have different meanings b An archetype is any object that is deeply rooted in human history and serves as a symbol or model for other objects The term semiotics refers to the study of anything in social life that stands for something else Habitus describes the behaviors of people a Habits are reinforced by the place in which they are performed on a regular basis, not new environments New places can provide a sense of refreshing change, may disrupt habits and routines, and can create a sense of stress d All are true Meanings of places are socially constructed in a variety of ways c Habitus describes the unconscious patterns of doing, thinking, speaking, and perceiving that people exhibit in familiar circumstances Chapter 11 a True, according to the authors and research as cited by Kabanoff a The spillover hypothesis suggests a congruent relationship between work and leisure b The W-O-L paradigm emphasizes that the effects of work on leisure participation is often mediated by cognitive processes or personality traits c This is the definition for occupational culture as provided by the author a True Chapter 12 a The contributing factors are typically beyond one’s control Occupational deprivation, in contrast, is defined as usually associated with “factors or situations over which the individual has some control, such as moving to a new town, or changing jobs.” d Geographic Although geography has been recently discussed in case examples of occupational deprivation, it was not proposed as one of the three determinants identified in Stadnyk, Townsend, and Wilcock’s exploratory theory of occupational justice It is likely that geography infuences occupational engagement, but less likely that it determines this Study Guide Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions 427 d Both of the above statements a and b are considered essential features of occupational deprivation b Motivation for work The primary factors influencing unemployment were identified as environmental or contextual factors, rather than internal factors c Recidivism Occupational deprivation was not identified as a factor increasing risk for recidivism Chapter 13 c Social justice involves the fair distribution of resources and opportunities in general Occupational justice describes fair access to opportunity for engagement in occupation d In the same way that social injustice is combated through many strategies, so too is occupational injustice addressed through activism and other strategies for increasing social awareness, policy changes, and enablement strategies (such as information and education) a Occupational preference is not an outcome of occupational injustice c Obviously, physical abilities cannot be distributed, since they are personal rather than social resources However, they can be developed through improved access to resources b The concept of occupational justice owes its origins to many people, but the impetus behind its development must be attributed to Elizabeth Townsend and Ann Wilcock Chapter 14 d All of the above Each of the listed ideas is a core assumption of occupational therapy c The reductionist approach is less holistic and more component based, emphasizing structure and function of the body b Occupation is the core of occupational science, and is interdisciplinary in nature As a formal discipline, occupational science did not predate occupational therapy c The latin translation of homo occupatio is “human who occupies”; as in seizing the day through purposeful action b False—Occupational therapy is the applied science, as it uses information from occupational science in an applied way within the profession Occupational science is devoted to understanding the nature and complexity of occupation as it engages and influences the lives of people Chapter 15 a Packaging chopsticks is a communal activity Experiencing valued work, sharing a common goal, and providing a venue for interdependence are all outcomes of participation in chopstick packaging Fostering a sense of independence is not a trait associated with packaging chopsticks c Age was described as the biggest indicator for Internet usage; the younger the population, the more they use the Internet d.The HIV/AIDS pandemic in South Africa has caused loss of employment and income, increase in number of child-headed households, and an increase in the cost of medical treatment c Democracy, apartheid, and language all shape occupational choices Homogeneous population was not named as a factor shaping occupational choice in South Africa, as the population is quite heterogeneous a The emphasis is on shared meal preparation and eating instead of on individualistic occupations a True—Hong Kong has made a huge commitment to technological development Index Ability requirements approach, 16 Active participation, 144, 146, 148–149 Activity, 69, 103, 108–109 daily life, role of, 102 electrical, 17 gender, 119–121 humans, goals of, 14–15 leisure, 18 occupation, roles of, 7, 108–109 occupational behavior, role of, 111 primary, 110, 123 secondary, 123–127 social, 21 Activity groups, 103 Adaptations, 26, 188 Affects, 108 Affordance, 22, 255 Age, 21 Agency, 182–183 Agrarian Age, 4–5 Alee effect, 187 Alfred the Great, Alienation, 349–350 Altruism, 187–188 Amae, 48–49 Analogues, 223 Antigonish Movement, 192 Apartheid Laws, 400 Apnea, sleep, 17 Archetypes, 252, 253–254 Aristotle, 4, 18, 198 Arnold, Matthew, 39 Aronowitz, Stanley, 50 Artistic expression, 194 ASCO, 20 Asian society, 36, 43–44 Aspirations, 159 Assessment, 363–364 Assistive technology, 320–321 As You Like It (Shakespeare), 136–137 Attitudes, 213–214 Australian international time-use study, 123–124, 127 Australian Standard Classification of Occupations (ASCO), 20 Australasian Occupational Science Centre, 369 428 Authority, 59–60, 113 Automaticity, 10 Automation, 285 Autonomous agents, 341–342 Avatar, 271 Balance, 234, 338 Bargh, John, 10 Basic duality, 60 Basic inquiry, 63–64 Baum, L Frank, 266 Beck, Harry, 257 Behavioral areas (activity groups), 103 Behavioral requirements approach, 16 Behavioral units (activities), 103 Behaviors, 11 Beliefs, 340–341 Benevolence principle, 405 Berger, Bennett, 282 Bing, Robert, Biological clock, 21, 117 Biological cooperation, 187–188 Biological factors, 21 Biological forces, 186–187 Birch, Margaret, 92 Boaz, Franz, 40 Bodily rhythms, 21 Body and place, 264–265 Bourdieu, Pierre, 261 Breaking out, 320 Broadband, 390 Broken Window Hypothesis, 183 Built environment, 22 Calvin, John, Calvin, William, 186 Canada, 121, 122, 125 Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists, 140 Canadian Statistics Act, 68 Capabilities, 333, 386 Capability constraints, 112–113 Capitalism, 310 Capone, Al, 136 Case study, 66 Casual leisure, 18, 19 Celebrations, 398, 401, 409 Census, 68–69 Ceremonies, 397–398 Childhood committed time to nurturing, 105 health, 24 motivation, 148–149 nursery rhymes referring to occupations, 82–83 occupational engagement, 156–157 play, role of, 24, 25 Choices, 338 Chosen occupations, 15 Chronobiology, 21 Chronosystem, 151 Circadian rhythms, 21, 70–71 Citizenship, 27 Civilizations, 177 Clans, 178 Clarity, 66 Classification, 42–43, 94 Coded data, 117 Cognitive development, 152 Collected efficacy, 183 Collective existence, 257, 262 Collective thinking, 198–199 Collectivism, 46, 48 Commerce, 22 Committed occupations, 105 Committed time, 104–105, 118, 121–122 Commonalities, 66 Communication Australia, 127 boundaries of, 82 Japan, use of, 390–391 occupation, language of, 184–186 signs, use of, 257 technologies, 127 Communion, 182–183 Community building, 200 Community development occupations, 399 Community engagement, 180 Compartmentalization, 283–286 Compensation, 283–286 Competition, 187 Computerization, 309 Conceptualizations, 286 Congruence hypothesis, 284 Index Connectedness, 178–183 Constructed knowledge, 60 Construction, 290 Contemplation, 13 Contemporary discourse, 234, 245 Contextual factors, 22–25 Contextual influences, 112–113 Contextual structures, 337 Continuity theory, 144, 145 Continuous patterns, 156 Contracted occupations, 104 Contracted time, 104, 105, 118 Contrast, 287 Contrast hypothesis, 284 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 318 Cooperation, 187, 189 Cooperative play, 24 Cosmological myth, 43–44 Coupling constraints, 113 Cross impact, 108 Cultural agency, 43 Cultural assumptions, 409 Cultural context of social environment, 151, 153–155 Cultural expectations, 106 Culturally associated expressions, 395, 397–398 Cultural norms, 304 Cultural perspectives on occupation, 35–51 Cultural phenomena, 42 Cultural rituals, 193 Cultural shifts, 41 Daily life, 102 Daily occupation, 70–71, 102–104, 113–114 Dawkins, Richard, 185 DCD, 72–73 Deep sleep, 17 Degraded, 284 Delta sleep, 17 Democracy in America (Tocqueville), 284 Deprivation, 349 Descriptive studies, 66 Determinants, 150, 154 Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), 72–73 Deviant doing, 106 Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 16 Digital subscriber lines (DSL), 390 Disability, 319–322 Disciplinary boundaries, 82 Disciplinary paradigms, 61–62 Disease, 338 Dislocation, 316–319 Displacement, 268–271, 316–319 Distance, 254 Distinctions, 66 Distributive justice, 331, 333 Diversity, 183, 196, 346–347 Division of labor cultural rituals and, 193 economic capital and, 200 gender issues, 94 Japan, 94 language, communication of, 184 occupational science and, 88, 89 strategy, 108 The Divisions of Labor in Society (Durkheim), 88 Doctrine of the mean, 405 Doi, Takeo, 48 Doing, concept of, 106, 123, 370 Dreaming, 17 DSL, 390 Duhl, Len, 197 Dumazedier, Joffre, 282 Durkeheim, Emile, 88, 179–180, 202 Duty time, 108 Earth Summit, 195 East Asia, 43–44 Eastern (Japanese) collectivist views, 43–49 Ecological Models of Human Development, 166 Ecological niche, 187 Economic capital, 200–201 Economic classification schemes, 94 Economic pressures, 318 Electrical activity, 17 Elias, Peter, 92 Embedded occupations, 8, 9, 18 Emotional well-being, 219 Empirical interpretations, 50 Empirical reality, 38 Empirical scientific inquiry, 41 Empirical support, 286–288 Empiricism, 37, 38 Employees, 290 Employment, 15, 308–312, 349 Empowerment, 343–344 Enablement, 332, 345–346 Engaged occupation, 221–223 Engagement, 232, 234, 242–244 Enjoyment influences, 112 Enlightenment, 39 Enothique, Dom Perignon, 39 Environment, 137–139, 150 Environmental affordances, 255 Environmental determinants, 150–151, 153–154 Environmentalist viewpoint, 138–139 Environmental press, 261-262 Epistemology, 59–62 Equal opportunity, 332–333 Ergonomics, 262 E.T., The Extraterrestrial (Spielberg), 266 Ethnic typing, 89 429 Ethnographic studies, 66 Ethnography, 66, 272 Ethos, 389 Etzioni, Amatai, 182 Evolutionary changes, 186 Evolutionary stable strategy, 189 Evolving theory, 334–347 Exaptation, 188–189 Exclusion, 176 Exosystem, 151 Expectations, 332, 349–350 Experimental studies, 66 The Experience of Place (Hiss), 256 Exploratory Theory of Occupational Justice, 348 Extension work-leisure, 284 Extreme conditions of employment, 308–312 Extrinsic factors, 109–110 Farmers, 290 Feelings of pressure, 291, 292 Field of study, 369–370 Finnish Quality of Working Life Survey, 292 Fish, Stanley, 50 Fishing, 18, 19 Folk taxonomy, 14–17, 19 Formal economy, 88 Formal workforce, 82 Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years (Perry), 59 For whom activity, 112 Freedom, 217–219 Free expression, 331 Free-flowing space, 320 Free rider problem, 187 Free time, 25, 105, 112, 118–119 Frieden, Betty, 14 Friedmann, Georges, 282 Functional play, 24 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 282 Game theory, 188–190 Garfinkle, Harold, 41 Geertz, Clifford, 40 Gender issues in culture and classification, 94 occupational allocation, 122 occupational deprivation, 315–316 occupational development, 156 roles, 315–316 time diary data, 119–121 ways of knowing, 59, 60 General Ecological Model, 151 General Social Survey (GSS), 69, 73 Canadian, 69, 288, 291–292 Genes, 146–147, 185 Genotype, 139 Geographical variations, 263–264 Geographic isolation, 306–308 Gergen, Kenneth, 41 Gesell, Arnold, 139 430 Index Gibson, J J., 255 Gieryn, Thomas F., 50 Globalization, 294, 386, 404–405 Global occupation watch, 387 Global Technology Report, 403 Goffman, Erving, 106 Governance, 332 Government statistics, 90–94 Grazia, Sebastian de, 282 Great Depression, Greer, Germaine, 14 Gretzky, Wayne, 58, 148 Gross, Paul, 50 Grounded theory, 66 Group living See Social groups, occupational nature of Habermas, Jürgen, 331 Habit, 9–11 Habitus, 261 Hancock, Trevor, 197 The Harried Leisure Class (Linder), 283 Hashi-ire, 388–389 Havighurst, Robert J., 159 Health system, 25 Healthy Communities Movement, 196–197 Healthy Towns movement, 197 Heredity, 146–147 Hide and seek games, 396 Hiss, Tony, 256 Historical context of social environment, 151, 153–155 “Historical particularism,” 40 Historical research, 66 Holland, John, 18 Home, 266–267, 399 Homelessness, 269–270 Homo Ludens (Huizinga), 24 Homo sapiens, 184–185, 341, 369 Hong Kong, occupational perspective from, 401–407 Horizontal social indexing, 46–47 Horticulture society, 177 Hubbard, Ruth, 50 Huizinga, Johan, 24 Human activities, 51 Human agency, 45 Human behavior, 9, 10, 11 Human occupation, 101–128 Hunter-gatherer society, 177 Ideal goals, 341 Ideas, 185 Identity, 304 Ignatieff, Michael, 177 IMOD, 136, 141–142, 167 Impairments, 319–322 Incarceration, 312–314 Inclusion, 176, 346–347 Inclusive classification, 345 Income-generating projects, 399 Incompatible occupations, 232 Independence, 391–392 Indexing, 45 Individual cultures Individual existence, 253, 270 Individual group, 140–141 Individual identity, 182 Individualized dynamic process, 232 Individual level, 140–141 Individual narrative, 13 Industrialized societies, 22 Industrial revolution, Industrial society, 177 Information Age, Injury, 23, 25 Inquiry, 63–64, 72 Insiders, 256 Instrumental behavior, 108 Intensity, 222 Intensive agricultural society, 177 Interaction determinants of, 154 human development, principle of, 144 occupational development, level of, 140–141, 186–187 Interactional Model of Occupational Development (IMOD), 136, 141–142, 167 Interactional occupational development, 141 Interaction determinants, 154–157 Interactionism, 13, 140–151, 166–167 Interactionist viewpoint, 138–139, 152 Interdependence, 48–49, 201, 342–343, 391–392 Intergenerational occupation, 160 International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, 109 International Labour Office, 90 International Occupation Science Think Tank, 369 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP), 69 International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO), 20, 90, 92 International time-use study Australian, 123–124, 127 Multinational, 116, 120, 122 Interpersonal goals, 15 Intersecting ideas, 334–335 Intervention strategies, 367 Intrinsic factors, 109–110 Inverted-U shape patterns, 156 ISCO, 20, 90, 92 ISSP, 69 Japan, occupational perspective from, 387–392 Japanese interdependency, 48–49 Japanese Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication, 387 Japanese society, 42, 43–44, 48 Jet lag, 21 Jonsson, Hans, Jordan, Michael, 58 Junk food, 14 Justice, principles of, 331–333 Just participation, 25–27 Karma, 44 Killing time, 108 Knowledge, 59–62, 67–74 Koertge, Noretta, 50 La Grande Dame, 39 Landscape, 22 Langer, Ellen, 273 Langford, Ruby, 307 Language, 3, 184–186 Laws, 344–345 Learning, 147, 264–266 Legislators, 91 Leisure, 281–296 Leisure and Work (Parker), 284 Leisure-poor, 343 Leisure-rich, 343 Levi-Strauss, 193 Levitt, Norman, 50 Lewin, Kurt, 143–144 Lewis, James, 146 Liberty, 331 Life, meaning of, 4, 107–108 Life-cycle squeeze, 290–294 Life projects, 107–108 Life satisfaction, 237–238, 240 Lifestyle balance, 11, 233, 240–241 Life transitions, 217–220 Life-world, 260–261 Linder, Stefan, 283 Location, 39–40, 111 Locke, John, 139 Longitudinal study, 69, 220–221 Loss of place, 268–271 Lotz, Jim, 192 Lundberg, George, 282 Lyotard, Jean Francois, 41 MacAulay, Scott, 192 MacLeod, Alistair, 178 Macrosystem, 141, 151, 161 Magic, 198–199 Mahjong, playing, 402–403 Make-believe play, 396 Managers, 91–92 Mannell, Roger, 290 Manufacturing, 290 Maps, 257–258 Marginalization, 348–349 Mass society, 202 Mastery, 140, 144, 155, 157–159 Index Maturationist viewpoint, 138–139 McAdams, Dan, 182 McDonald’s, 401 McLuhan, Marshall, 285 Mead, George Herbert, 41 Mead, Margaret, 151 Meaning, 215, 220, 256–258 Meaningfulness, 338 Meaningful occupations, 337 Meaning-making, 13 Meanings, 388, 407 Mechanical clock, 117 Media, 224–226 Meme, 185 Memetics, 185 Mesosystem, 143–151, 153–161 Messenter Lectures, 83 Metacognition, 72 Methods of inquiry, 63–64 Meyer, Adolf, 83 Microsystem, 141–142, 167 Mill, John Stuart, 39 Mind in Society (Vygotsky), 152 Model of Developmental Processes, 142–143 Model of Development of Child Occupations, 142 Model Principles of Sustainable Communities, 195 Moderation, 232 Morgenstern, Oskar, 188 Morning tea, 402 Moscow Psychological Institute, 152 Motivation, 148–149 Movement, 259–260 Mozart, 136 MTUS, 116–117, 122 Multinational Time-Use Study (MTUS), 116–117, 122 Multiple determinicity, 144, 146, 167 Multiple patternicity, 144, 155, 167 Multiple variation, 144, 155–157 Multiple worldviews, 38–39 Multiplicity, 60 Multivariate, 58 Murray, Henry, 261 Narrative methodology, 13, 216–217, 221 Narrative plot, 220–221 Narratives accounts of life with a physical disability, 320 Enlightenment, 39 individual, 28 retirement, 216–217, 220–221 Narrative slope, 220–221 National conditions, 22 National Geographic (magazine), 71–72 National Occupational Classification (NOC), 16, 20 National Population Health Survey, 292 National Society for the Promotion of Occupational Therapy, 360, 361 National Vocational Qualifications System (Great Britain), 16, 20 Naturalistic paradigm, 61 Nature cosmological myth and, 43 occupational development, 136 occupational roles, 106 places, 253 scientific debate on, 51 Necessary occupations, 15, 104, 112–113 Necessary time, 104–105, 118 Neighborhood, 266 Nested occupations, 8, 9, 18 Networked Readiness Index (NRI), 403 Neumann, John von, 188 Neural plasticity, 147 New Dawn Enterprises Limited, 192 NOC, 16, 20 Nomadic society, 177 Normal doing, 106 Norms, 201 NRI, 403 Nursery rhymes, 82–83 Nussbaum, Martha, 333 Objective science, 38 Objectivism, 37 Objects, availability of, 22 Obligation, 108 Obligatory occupations, 15 Observation, 116 Occupation biological factors, 21 complexity of, 2–6 context determining, 20–25 contextual factors, 22–25 create meaning, 12–13 defined, 2, 12–13, 86–87 folk system of describing, 14–20 history of, 3–5 influence on what people do, 12 psychological factors, 21–22 of time, ways of, 6–12 Occupation, cultural perspectives on See Cultural perspectives on occupation Occupation, human See Human occupation Occupational absurdity, 340 Occupational alienation, 338, 339–340 Occupational apartheid, 337 Occupational balance and well-being, 231–244 Occupational behavior, 141 Occupational beings, 88 Occupational careers, 290 Occupational categories, 8–9 Occupational choices, 20–25, 394–395 431 Occupational classifications, 14–17, 19, 20, 92–94 Occupational community, 223 Occupational competence, 140, 141–143 Occupational culture, 290, 294 Occupational deprivation, 305–323 Occupational determinants, 149–150, 336 Occupational development, 135–167 Occupational disruption, 305 Occupational engagement, 2, childhood, 156–157 occurance, 70–74 in retirement, 221–223 Occupational evolutionary development, 161–165 Occupational expectations, 149 Occupational experiences, 306 Occupational exposure, 149 Occupational forms, 337 Occupational habits, 6, 8, 9–11 Occupational health, 242–244 Occupational imbalance, 232, 338, 349 Occupational influences, 401–407 Occupational justice, 329–351 Occupational knowledge, 41–42 Occupational levels, 141–142, 143–151, 153–161 Occupational life course development, 143–161 Occupationally just society, 330, 333, 347 Occupational marginalization, 338, 339 Occupational nature, 176–183, 202–203 Occupational outcomes, 337–340 Occupational participation, 191 Occupational patterns, 71 Occupational performance, 138, 143 Occupational perspectives, 385–407 Occupational potential, 345–346 Occupational pursuits, 176 Occupational repertoire, 141 Occupational rhythm, 219 Occupational rights, 330, 336–337 Occupational rituals, 258–259 Occupational roles, 105–106, 107, 234 Occupational routines, 9–11 Occupational scaffolding, 87, 94 Occupational science, 368–375 Occupational structure, 89–90, 93 Occupational theory, 366–368 Occupational therapy, 360–368 Occupational transitions, 213–221 Occupational well-being, 242–244 Occupationology, 63 Occupations of understanding, 198 Official statistical agencies, 82 O*NET, 16 Ontario Roundtable on Environment and Economy, 195 Ontology, 39, 42 432 Index Opportunity, 332 Overabundant occupations, 232 Overemployment, 311–312 The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure (Schor), 283 Paid work citizens, role of, 27 classification of, 16 economic capital and, 201 everyday life and, 19 example of, leisure, 292 leisure and, 293 occupation, classification of, 15, 19 roles of, 106 time, use of, Panel survey, 69 Paradigm, 61–62 Parker, Stanley, 284 Participatory communities, 191 Partnership, 192 Patterns biological factors of, 21 contextual factors of, 22–25 human behavior and, 9, 10, 11 occupation, repetitive, 11, 26 psychological factors of, 21–22 sleep, 17 time use of, 10 Peirce, Charles Sanders, 257 Perceived time pressure, 292 Perry, William, 59 Person, influence of, 139 Personal gratification, 108 Personality, 21–22 Personal pleasure, 222 Personal roles, 107 Personal values, 159 Personal worldwide view, 37–38 Person-centered participatory communities, 191 Person determinants, 146–149 Phenomena, 41–42 Phenomenological studies, 66 Phenomenology, 66 Phenotype, 139, 143 Physical disabilities, 320 Physical maturation, 159 Physical space, 254, 264–265 Physical status, 21 Physical zeitgebers, 109–110 Physiological needs, satisfaction of, 108 Piaget, Jean, 24 Piercy, Marge, 310 Place, 251–274 Planning, 366 Plasticity, 147 Plato, 4, 18 Play, 24–25 everyday life, rhythm of, 16, history of, industrial revolution, role of, leisure, active, in neighborhoods, 266 Pleasure, personal, 222 Pleasure-seeking goals, 15 Polarization, 291–292 Policies, 336 Political environments, 322–323 Political occupation, 405–406 Popularized food, 14 Population survey, 68 Positivistic paradigms, 61 Possession, 332 Postindustrial Age, Post industrialized societies, 177, 259, 291 Postmodernism, 37, 50 Practical forces, 23 Preformationist viewpoint, 138–139 Prescriptive studies, 288 The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (Goffman), 106 Presses, 261–262 Primary activity, 110, 123 Primeau, Loree, 85 Priorities, 232, 237 Prisoner’s dilemma, 190 Problem of time, 290 Procedural justice, 331 Procedural knowledge, 60 Productive time, 121, 122 Professional boundaries, 82 Professional identity, 371, 373 Professional paradigm, 361 Promise of leisure, 290 Prototype time-use diary, 117 Psychological factors, 21–22 Pullman Company, Punishment, 312–313 Qualitative analysis, 12 Qualitative inquiry, 42 Qualitative paradigms, 65–66 Qualitative research, 61 Quality of life, 343 Quantitative inquiry, 67 Quantitative paradigms, 65–66 Questions/answers daily occupations, 113–114 Rapid eye movement (REM), 17 Rawls, John, 331 Reasonable accommodation, 322 Reasoning, process of, 335 Received knowledge, 60 Reciprocal altruism, 188, 189 Recycle occupation, 196 Reductionistic, 61 Refugeeism, 316–319 Regressive narrative, 217 Reinhold, K L., 143 Relativism, 38–42, 46, 50, 60 Relativism subordinate, 60 Relativist interpretations, 50 Relativist reality, 38 Religion, 198–199 REM, 17 Renovate occupation, 196 Repetitive motion, 23 Repetitive patterns, 11 Research, 370–373 Restorative justice, 331 Retirement, 211–226 Re-use occupation, 196 Rhythm of life, 219 Rituals, 198–199, 397, 409 Role balance, 233 Role overload, 233, 238–240 Roles, 105–107 Role strain, 233, 239 Routines, 9–11 Rules, 193 Ruth, Babe, 136 Safety, 264–266 Sample treatment plan, 368 Satisfaction influences, 112 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 257 Scaffolded play, 85 Scaffolding, 152 Scholarly inquiry, 58 Schor, Juliet, 283 Schultz, Vicki, 333 Science, 41–42, 198–199 Secondary activity and occupation, 123–127 Secondary time, 123 Segmentation, 286 Self, 49–50 Self-achievement goals, 15 Self-help projects, 399 The Selfish Gene (Dawkins), 185 Self-report time log, 70 Semiotics, 257 Senior officials, 91 Sense of community, 180, 182 Sense of place, 252, 257 Separate domains, 240, 287 Serious leisure, 18 Sex-role stereotyping, 315–316 Shakespeare, William, 136 Shared advantage, 346–347 Shared experience, 40–41 Shared identity, 182 Shared meaning, 261 Shared occupations, 180–181, 187–189 Shebeens, 397 Index Shifting demographics, 310 Sigerist, H E., 83 Signifiers, 257 Signs, 257 Silence, 60 Simple farming society, 177 Situational relativism, 46 Skilled workers, 290 Sleep, 10, 15, 17 Small business, 399 Smith, Tara, 331 Social activity, 21 Social advantage, 89 Social animals, 187 Social capital, 201, 386 Social class, 89, 288 Social clock, 106 Social constructionism, 41, 50 Social contract, 111 Social environment, 126–127 Social equity, 25–27 Social geography, 272 Social groups, occupational nature of, 175–204 adaptation and exaptation, 188 artistic expression, 194 biological cooperation and altruism, 187–188 biological forces prompting group living, 186–187 development of, 184 economic capital generated by, 200–201 floundering or flourishing, 191–203 game theory and shared occupations, 188–189 groups that flounder, 202–203 inherent nature of, 176–183 language to communicate ideas, 184–186 magic, 198–199 occupations that sustain social groups, 195–197 participation, 191–192 religion, 198–199 rituals and rites, 193 science, 198–199 social capital generated by, 201–202 volunteer occupations, 199–200 Social indexing, 1, 45–47 Social isolation, 318 Social justice, 331, 347–348 Social lens, 44 Socially constructed meaning, 255–256 Social meaning, 108 Social norms, 23 Social occupation, 187–188, 200 Social phenomena, 42 Social policies, 336 Social relativism, 389 Social safety net, 331–332 Social sanctions, 312–313 Social sciences, 88–90 Social world, 82 Social zeitgebers, 109–110 Societal changes, 336 Society, 36, 42–44, 177 Society for the Study of Occupation in Warm Springs, Oregon, 388 Sociobiology, 186 Sociocultural practices, 405–407 Sociocultural pressure, 159 Socioeconomic environment, 405–407 The Sociology of Leisure (Berger), 282 Sociooccupational status, 288–289 Sociopolitical occupation, 196 Socrates, Solidarity, 108 Soto, 46 South Africa, occupational perspective from, 392–401 Space and body, 264–265 Special needs, 304 Special Olympics, 199 Species level, 141, 161 Sphere of action, 180 Spielberg, Steven, 266 Spillover, 283–286 Springer, James, 146 Stability narrative, 217 Staged continuity, 144–145 Standard Industrial Classification, 290 Step patterns, 156 Stereotyping, 10, 94 Stir crazy, 313 Street scene, Stress, 237, 290–292, 311 Study of occupation, 57–74 Stylized questioning, 116 Subjective feelings of time pressure, 292 Subjective knowledge, 60 Suboccupation, 84, 87, 94 Subpopulations, 118, 121–123 Sustainability, 195 Symbols, 257 Systematic change, 141 Szalai, Alexander, 288 Tabula rasa, 139, 148 Tai Chi, 402 Tasks, 10, 21, 102–103 Tattersall, Ian, 186 Taxonomic Code for Occupational Performance (TCOP), 68 Taxonomy, 18 TCOP, 68 Technology 433 communication, 127 Hong Kong, use of, 403–404 Japan, use of, 390–391 occupation, advancement of, 399–400, 403–404 occupational behavior, influence of, 112 South Africa, modern influences of, 399–400 Telecommunications, 23 Tele-immersion, 271 Temporal pattern, 269 Temporary state, 305 Tension, 112 Territory, 256 Terry Waite Taken on Trust (Waite), 67 Theoretical foundations, 373 A Theory of Justice (Rawls), 331 Theory of occupational justice, 330, 334 Therapeutic planning, 364–366 Therapy, 363–368 Time activity, allocation of, 119 dimensions of, 111 gender issues, 119–121 health, influence of, 343 human occupational behavior, context of, 109 interactional occupational development, variable of, 141 occupational rituals, relationship with, 258–259 places and, 258–259 understanding of, 108–109 Time crunch, 290 Time pressure, 112, 292, 293 Time scarcity, 290 Time-space diaries, 111, 118 Time use, 118–123 activity, 21 culture, 39–40 health, 21 Japan, 390 leisure, use of, 289 occupation, 6–12 in occupational behavior, 109, 117–118, 121–127 occupational habits, 6, paid work, patterns of, 10, 291 place and, 258–259 sleep, 21 task, 21 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 284 Togetherness, 389, 398 Tonnies, Ferdinand, 202 Toohey, Paul, 308 Touching heart, 402 434 Index Trade, 290 Trajectories, 155 Transitions, 155, 212 Transportation, 260 Tribe, 177–178 Truth, 38, 59–60 Ubuntu, 389, 398 Uchi, 46 Understanding, 59, 67–74 Unemployment, 308–310, 349 United Nations Declaration of Human Rights, 333 U.S Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, 288 U.S Census Bureau, 68 U.S Department of Labor, 16 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 333 Universalism, 38, 44 Un-leisure, 282 U shape patterns, 156 Utilities, 290 VDT’s, 23 Veal, A J., 287 Vertical social indexing, 45–46 Video display terminals (VDT’s), 23 Vietnam, 322–323 Virtual community, 178, 182 Virtual place, 271–272 Virtual reality, 271 Volunteerism, 199–200 Volunteer occupation, 199–200 Vygotsky, Lev Semenovich, 151, 152 Waite, Terry, 67, 71 Weather, 22 Weber, Max, 202 Weddings, 199 Western culture, Western individualistic conceptualizations, 39–40 Wikipedia, 178 Wilcock, Ann, 305 Wilensky, Harold, 283 Wippler, Reinhard, 284 With whom activity, 111 Work, 3, 215 Work hours, 284, 290–292 Work-leisure relationship, 283–286, 290–294 Work-life balance, 236–240 Work-life conflict, 233, 236, 238–240 Work overload, 292 Work sharing strategy, 108 Works Progress Administration (WPA), World Health Organization, 109, 197 Worldview, 36 Yamcha, 402 Yerxa, Elizabeth, 62 Young, Iris Marion, 332 YouTube, 178 Zeitgebers, 109–110 Zone of proximal development, 152 ... Hughes, 6 /20 /20 02 Courtesy of Dennis L Hughes.) 1 82 Chapter The Occupational Nature of Social Groups To participate means to take part, or to share in the doing of something Historymaking and documentation... related to the occupation, and giving and taking advice from others about how to the occupation were part and parcel of the sense of community Even for those occupations, where most of the time... occupations The story line of the narrative was to the necessary occupations that one had to do, and the plot was to get time for other types of occupations As one woman said, her important occupations