Histology a text and atlas - With correlated cell and molecular biology (7th edition): Part 2

(BQ) Part 2 book Histology a text and atlas - With correlated cell and molecular biology presents the following contents: Nerve tissue, cardiovascular system, digestive system I - oral cavity and associated structures, lymphatic system, digestive system II - Esophagus and gastrointestinal tract, respiratory system, respiratory system,...

12 Nerve Tissue OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM / 356 COMPOSITION OF NERVE TISSUE / 357 THE NEURON / 357 Cell Body / 358 Dendrites and Axons / 360 Synapses / 361 Axonal Transport Systems / 367 SUPPORTING CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE NEUROGLIA / 368 Peripheral Neuroglia / 368 Schwann Cells and the Myelin Sheath / 368 Satellite Cells / 371 Central Neuroglia / 371 Impulse Conduction / 378 ORIGIN OF NERVE TISSUE CELLS / 378 ORGANIZATION OF THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM / 379 Peripheral Nerves / 379 Connective Tissue Components of a Peripheral Nerve / 379 Afferent (Sensory) Receptors / 381 ORGANIZATION OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM / 381 Enteric Division of the Autonomic Nervous System / 383 A Summarized View of Autonomic Distribution / 384 ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM / 385 Cells of the Gray Matter / 385 Organization of the Spinal Cord / 385 Connective Tissue of the Central Nervous System / 386 Blood–Brain Barrier / 388 RESPONSE OF NEURONS TO INJURY / 389 Degeneration / 389 Regeneration / 391 Folder 12.1 Clinical Correlation: Parkinson’s Disease / 362 Folder 12.2 Clinical Correlation: Demyelinating Diseases / 370 Folder 12.3 Clinical Correlation: Reactive Gliosis: Scar Formation in the Central Nervous System / 391 HISTOLOGY 101 / 392 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System / 382 outside the CNS called ganglia; and specialized nerve endings (both motor and sensory) Interactions between sensory (afferent) nerves that receive stimuli, the CNS that interprets them, and motor (efferent) nerves that initiate responses create neural pathways These pathways mediate reflex actions called reflex arcs In humans, most sensory neurons not pass directly into the brain but instead communicate by specialized terminals (synapses) with motor neurons in the spinal cord O V E R V I E W O F T H E NER V O U S SYSTEM The nervous system enables the body to respond to continuous changes in its external and internal environment It controls and integrates the functional activities of the organs and organ systems Anatomically, the nervous system is divided into the following: • • The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which are located in the cranial cavity and spinal canal, respectively The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of cranial, spinal, and peripheral nerves that conduct impulses from (efferent or motor nerves) and to (the afferent or sensory nerves of ) the CNS; collections of nerve cell bodies Functionally, the nervous system is divided into the following: • The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of somatic [Gr soma, body] parts of the CNS and PNS The SNS controls functions that are under conscious voluntary control with the exception of reflex arcs It provides 356 Pawlina_CH12.indd 356 9/29/14 7:02 PM • Nerve tissue consists of two principal types of cells: neurons and supporting cells • • • • • • physical support (protection) for neurons; insulation for nerve cell bodies and processes, which facilitates rapid transmission of nerve impulses; repair of neuronal injury; regulation of the internal fluid environment of the CNS; clearance of neurotransmitters from synaptic clefts; and metabolic exchange between the vascular system and the neurons of the nervous system In addition to neurons and supporting cells, an extensive vasculature is present in both the CNS and the PNS Pawlina_CH12.indd 357 The nervous system evolved from the simple neuroeffector system of invertebrate animals In primitive nervous systems, only simple receptor–effector reflex loops exist to respond to external stimuli In higher animals and humans, the SNS retains the ability to respond to stimuli from the external environment through the action of effector cells (such as skeletal muscle), but the neuronal responses are infinitely more varied They range from simple reflexes that require only the spinal cord to complex operations of the brain, including memory and learning The autonomic part of the nervous system regulates the function of internal organs The specific effectors in the internal organs that respond to the information carried by autonomic neurons include the following: • • • Smooth muscle Contraction of smooth muscle modi- fies the diameter or shape of tubular or hollow viscera such as the blood vessels, gut, gallbladder, and urinary bladder Cardiac conducting cells (Purkinje fibers) located within the conductive system of the heart The inherent frequency of Purkinje fiber depolarization regulates the rate of cardiac muscle contraction and can be modified by autonomic impulses Glandular epithelium The autonomic nervous system regulates the synthesis, composition, and release of secretions THE NEURON The neuron or nerve cell is the functional unit of the nervous system It consists of a cell body, containing the nucleus, and several processes of varying length Nerve cells are specialized to receive stimuli from other cells and to conduct electrical impulses to other parts of the system via their processes Several neurons are typically involved in sending impulses from one part of the system to another These neurons are arranged in a chain-like fashion as an integrated communications network Specialized contacts between neurons that provide for transmission of information from one neuron to the next are called synapses Supporting cells are nonconducting cells that are located close to the neurons They are referred to as neuroglial cells or simply glia The CNS contains four types of glial cells: oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells (see page 371) Collectively, these cells are called the central neuroglia In the PNS, supporting cells are called peripheral neuroglia and include Schwann cells, satellite cells, and a variety of other cells associated with specific structures Schwann cells surround the processes of nerve cells and isolate them from adjacent cells and extracellular matrix Within the ganglia of the PNS, peripheral neuroglial cells are called satellite cells They surround the nerve cell bodies, the part of the cell that contains the nucleus, and are analogous to Schwann cells The supporting cells of the ganglia in the wall of the alimentary canal are called enteric neuroglial cells They are morphologically and functionally similar to central neuroglia (see page 371) Functions of the various neuroglial cell types include: The nervous system allows rapid response to external stimuli 357 Nerve Tissue C O M P O S I T I O N O F NER V E TISSUE The blood vessels are separated from the nerve tissue by the basal laminae and variable amounts of connective tissue, depending on vessel size The boundary between blood vessels and nerve tissue in the CNS excludes many substances that normally leave blood vessels to enter other tissues This selective restriction of blood-borne substances in the CNS is called the blood–brain barrier, which is discussed on page 388 CHAPTER 12 sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body except viscera, smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of autonomic parts of the CNS and PNS The ANS provides efferent involuntary motor innervation to smooth muscle, the conducting system of the heart, and glands It also provides afferent sensory innervation from the viscera (pain and autonomic reflexes) The ANS is further subdivided into a sympathetic division and a parasympathetic division A third division of ANS, the enteric division, serves the alimentary canal It communicates with the CNS through the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibers; however, it can also function independently of the other two divisions of the ANS (see page 381) The regulation of the function of internal organs involves close cooperation between the nervous system and the endocrine system Neurons in several parts of the brain and other sites behave as secretory cells and are referred to as neuroendocrine tissue The varied roles of neurosecretions in regulating the functions of the endocrine, digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems are described in subsequent chapters TH E NEU R O N The neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system The human nervous system contains more than 10 billion neurons Although neurons show the greatest variation in size and shape of any group of cells in the body, they can be grouped into three general categories • Sensory neurons convey impulses from receptors to the CNS Processes of these neurons are included in somatic afferent and visceral afferent nerve fibers Somatic afferent fibers convey sensations of pain, temperature, touch, and pressure from the body surface In addition, these fibers convey pain and proprioception (nonconscious sensation) from organs within the body (e.g., muscles, tendons, and joints) to provide the brain with information 9/29/14 7:02 PM related to the orientation of the body and limbs Visceral afferent fibers transmit pain impulses and other sensa- THE NEURON 358 • Neurons are classified on the basis of the number of processes extending from the cell body Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as the following: • The functional components of a neuron include the cell body, axon, dendrites, and synaptic junctions The cell body (perikaryon) of a neuron contains the nucleus and those organelles that maintain the cell The processes extending from the cell body constitute the single common structural characteristic of all neurons Most neurons have only one axon, usually the longest process extending from the cell, which transmits impulses away from the cell body to a specialized terminal (synapse) The synapse makes CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CHAPTER 12 Nerve Tissue • tions from internal organs, mucous membranes, glands, and blood vessels Motor neurons convey impulses from the CNS or ganglia to effector cells Processes of these neurons are included in somatic efferent and visceral efferent nerve fibers Somatic efferent neurons send voluntary impulses to skeletal muscles Visceral efferent neurons transmit involuntary impulses to smooth muscle, cardiac conducting cells (Purkinje fibers), and glands (Fig 12.1) Interneurons, also called intercalated neurons, form a communicating and integrating network between the sensory and motor neurons It is estimated that more than 99.9% of all neurons belong to this integrating network contact with another neuron or an effector cell (e.g., a muscle cell or glandular epithelial cell) A neuron usually has many dendrites, shorter processes that transmit impulses from the periphery (i.e., other neurons) toward the cell body • cell body dendrites synapse Nissl bodies axon hillock oligodendrocyte initial segment axon myelin PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM node of Ranvier Schwann cell myelin dendrites (Fig 12.2) The direction of impulses is from dendrite to cell body to axon or from cell body to axon Functionally, the dendrites and cell body of multipolar neurons are the receptor portions of the cell, and their plasma membrane is specialized for impulse generation The axon is the conducting portion of the cell, and its plasma membrane is specialized for impulse conduction The terminal portion of the axon, the synaptic ending, contains various neurotransmitters—that is, small molecules released at the synapse that affect other neurons as well as muscle cells and glandular epithelium Motor neurons and interneurons constitute most of the multipolar neurons in the nervous system Bipolar neurons have one axon and one dendrite (see Fig 12.2) Bipolar neurons are rare They are most often associated with the receptors for the special senses (taste, smell, hearing, sight, and equilibrium) They are generally found within the retina of the eye and the ganglia of the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII) of the ear Some neurons in this group not fit the above generalizations For example, amacrine cells of the retina have no axons, and olfactory receptors resemble neurons of primitive neural systems in that they retain a surface location and regenerate at a much slower rate than other neurons Pseudounipolar (unipolar) neurons have one process, the axon that divides close to the cell body into two long axonal branches One branch extends to the periphery, and the other extends to the CNS (see Fig 12.2) The two axonal branches are the conducting units Impulses are generated in the peripheral arborizations (branches) of the neuron that are the receptor portions of the cell Each pseudounipolar neuron develops from a bipolar neuron as its axon and dendrite migrate around the cell body and fuse into a single process The majority of pseudounipolar neurons are sensory neurons located close to the CNS (Fig 12.3) Cell bodies of sensory neurons are situated in the dorsal root ganglia and cranial nerve ganglia motor end plate Cell Body skeletal muscle The cell body of a neuron has characteristics of a proteinproducing cell FIGURE 12.1 ▲ Diagram of a motor neuron The nerve cell body, dendrites, and proximal part of the axon are within the CNS The axon leaves the CNS and, while in the PNS, is part of a nerve (not shown) as it courses to its effectors (striated muscle) In the CNS, the myelin for the axon is produced by, and is part of, an oligodendrocyte; in the PNS, the myelin is produced by, and is part of, a Schwann cell Pawlina_CH12.indd 358 • Multipolar neurons have one axon and two or more The cell body is the dilated region of the neuron that contains a large, euchromatic nucleus with a prominent nucleolus and surrounding perinuclear cytoplasm (Fig.12.4a, Plate 27, page 394) The perinuclear cytoplasm reveals abundant rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and free ribosomes when observed with the transmission 9/29/14 7:02 PM 359 Nissl bodies MOTOR large motor neuron CHAPTER 12 striated (skeletal) muscle pseudounipolar neuron THE NEURON SENSORY smooth muscle of blood vessels postsynaptic autonomic neuron Nerve Tissue presynaptic autonomic neuron INTEGRATIVE bipolar neuron pyramidal cell interneurons Purkinje cell FIGURE 12.2 ▲ Diagram illustrating different types of neurons The cell bodies of pseudounipolar (unipolar), bipolar, and postsynaptic autonomic neurons are located outside the CNS Purkinje and pyramidal cells are restricted to the CNS; many of them have elaborate dendritic arborizations that facilitate their identification Central axonal branch and all axons in remaining cells are indicated in green electron microscope (TEM), a feature consistent with its protein synthetic activity In the light microscope, the ribosomal content appears as small bodies called Nissl bodies that stain intensely with basic dyes and metachromatically with thionine dyes (see Fig 12.4a) Each Nissl body corresponds to a stack of rER The perinuclear cytoplasm also contains numerous mitochondria, a large perinuclear Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, microtubules, neurofilaments (intermediate filaments), transport vesicles, and inclusions (Fig 12.4b) Nissl bodies, free ribosomes, and occasionally the Golgi apparatus extend into the dendrites but not into the axon This area of the cell body, called the axon hillock, Pawlina_CH12.indd 359 lacks large cytoplasmic organelles and serves as a landmark to distinguish between axons and dendrites in both light microscope and TEM preparations The euchromatic nucleus, large nucleolus, prominent Golgi apparatus, and Nissl bodies indicate the high level of anabolic activity needed to maintain these large cells Neurons not divide; however, in some areas of the brain, neural stem cells are present and are able to differentiate and replace damaged nerve cells Although neurons not replicate, the subcellular components of the neurons turn over regularly and have life spans 9/29/14 7:02 PM blood vessels epineurium 360 perineurium CHAPTER 12 Nerve Tissue THE NEURON endoneurium node of Ranvier Schwann cell somatic sensory neuron dorsal root SPINAL CORD somatic motor neuron dorsal root ganglion cell bodies of sensory neurons autonomic unmyelinated neurons axons myelin axon cell body of motor neuron ventral root myelin nucleus of Schwann cell Pacinian corpuscle spinal nerve cell body of sympathetic neuron striated muscle smooth muscle and enteroceptors of ANS FIGURE 12.3 ▲ Schematic diagram showing arrangement of motor and sensory neurons The cell body of a motor neuron is located in the ventral (anterior) horn of the gray matter of the spinal cord Its axon, surrounded by myelin, leaves the spinal cord via a ventral (anterior) root and becomes part of a spinal nerve that carries it to its destination on striated (skeletal) muscle fibers The sensory neuron originates in the skin within a receptor (here, a Pacinian corpuscle) and continues as a component of a spinal nerve, entering the spinal cord via the dorsal (posterior) root Note the location of its cell body in the dorsal root ganglion (sensory ganglion) A segment of the spinal nerve is enlarged to show the relationship of the nerve fibers to the surrounding connective tissue (endoneurium, perineurium, and epineurium) In addition, segments of the sensory, motor, and autonomic unmyelinated neurons have been enlarged to show the relationship of the axons to the Schwann cells ANS, autonomic nervous system measured in hours, days, and weeks The constant need to replace enzymes, neurotransmitter substances, membrane components, and other complex molecules is consistent with the morphologic features characteristic of a high level of synthetic activity Newly synthesized protein molecules are transported to distant locations within a neuron in a process referred to as axonal transport (pages 367–368) It is generally accepted that nerve cells not divide However, recently it has been shown that the adult brain retains some cells that exhibit the potential to regenerate In certain regions of the brain such as olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, these neural stem cells are able to divide and generate new neurons They are characterized by prolonged expression of a 240 kDa intermediate filament protein nestin, which is used to identify these cells by histochemical methods Neural stem cells are also able to migrate to sites of injury and differentiate into new nerve cells Research studies on the animal model demonstrate that newly generated cells mature into functional neurons in the adult mammalian brain These findings may lead to therapeutic strategies that use neural cells to replace nerve cells lost or Pawlina_CH12.indd 360 damaged by neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases Dendrites and Axons Dendrites are receptor processes that receive stimuli from other neurons or from the external environment The main function of dendrites is to receive information from other neurons or from the external environment and carry that information to the cell body Generally, dendrites are located in the vicinity of the cell body They have a greater diameter than axons, are unmyelinated, are usually tapered, and form extensive arborizations called dendritic trees Dendritic trees significantly increase the receptor surface area of a neuron Many neuron types are characterized by the extent and shape of their dendritic trees (see Fig 12.2) In general, the contents of the perinuclear cytoplasm of the cell body and cytoplasm of dendrites are similar, with the exception of the Golgi apparatus Other organelles characteristic of the cell body, including ribosomes and rER, are found in the dendrites, especially in the base of the dendrites 9/29/14 7:02 PM 361 G neuroglial nuclei CHAPTER 12 G nucleolus Nerve Tissue L nucleus Nissl bodies rER b a FIGURE 12.4 ▲ Nerve cell bodies a This photomicrograph shows a region of the ventral (anterior) horn of a human spinal cord stained with THE NEURON M toluidine blue Typical features of the nerve cell bodies visible in this image include large, spherical, pale-stained nuclei with a single prominent nucleolus and abundant Nissl bodies within the cytoplasm of the nerve cell body Most of the small nuclei belong to neuroglial cells The remainder of the field consists of nerve fibers and cytoplasm of central neuroglial cells ϫ640 b Electron micrograph of a nerve cell body The cytoplasm is occupied by aggregates of free ribosomes and profiles of rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (rER) that constitute the Nissl bodies of light microscopy The Golgi apparatus (G) appears as isolated areas containing profiles of flattened sacs and vesicles Other characteristic organelles include mitochondria (M) and lysosomes (L) The neurofilaments and neurotubules are difficult to discern at this relatively low magnification ϫ15,000 Axons are effector processes that transmit stimuli to other neurons or effector cells Some large axon terminals are capable of local protein synthesis, which may be involved in memory processes The main function of the axon is to convey information away from the cell body to another neuron or to an effector cell, such as a muscle cell Each neuron has only one axon, and it may be extremely long Axons that originate from neurons in the motor nuclei of the CNS (Golgi type I neurons) may travel more than a meter to reach their effector targets, skeletal muscle In contrast, interneurons of the CNS (Golgi type II neurons) have very short axons Although an axon may give rise to a recurrent branch near the cell body (i.e., one that turns back toward the cell body) and to other collateral branches, the branching of the axon is most extensive in the vicinity of its targets The axon originates from the axon hillock The axon hillock usually lacks large cytoplasmic organelles such as Nissl bodies and Golgi cisternae Microtubules, neurofilaments, mitochondria, and vesicles, however, pass through the axon hillock into the axon The region of the axon between the apex of the axon hillock and the beginning of the myelin sheath (see below) is called the initial segment The initial segment is the site at which an action potential is generated in the axon The action potential (described in more detail below) is stimulated by impulses carried to the axon hillock on the membrane of the cell body after other impulses are received on the dendrites or the cell body itself Almost all of the structural and functional protein molecules are synthesized in the nerve cell body These molecules are distributed to the axons and dendrites via axonal transport systems (described on pages 367–368) However, contrary to the common view that the nerve cell body is the only site of protein synthesis, recent studies indicate that local synthesis of axonal proteins takes place in some large nerve terminals Some vertebral axon terminals (i.e., from the retina) contain polyribosomes with complete translational machinery for protein synthesis These discrete areas within the axon terminals, called periaxoplasmic plaques, possess biochemical and molecular characteristics of active protein synthesis Protein synthesis within the periaxoplasmic plaques is modulated by neuronal activity These proteins may be involved in the processes of neuronal cell memory Pawlina_CH12.indd 361 Synapses Neurons communicate with other neurons and with effector cells by synapses Synapses are specialized junctions between neurons that facilitate the transmission of impulses from one 9/29/14 7:02 PM FOLDER 12.1 Clinical Correlation: Parkinson’s Disease 362 THE NEURON Parkinson’s disease is a slowly progressive neurologic disorder caused by the loss of dopamine (DA)-secreting cells in the substantia nigra and basal ganglia of the brain DA is a neurotransmitter responsible for synaptic transmission in the nerve pathways coordinating smooth and focused activity of skeletal muscles Loss of DA-secreting cells is associated with a classic pattern of symptoms, including the following: CHAPTER 12 Nerve Tissue • Resting tremor in the limb, especially of the hand when in a relaxed position; tremor usually increases during stress and is often more severe on one side of the body • Rigidity or increased tone (stiffness) in all muscles • Slowness of movement (bradykinesia) and inability to initiate movement (akinesia) • Lack of spontaneous movements • Loss of postural reflexes, which leads to poor balance and abnormal walking (festinating gait) • Slurred speech, slowness of thought, and small, cramped handwriting The cause of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease, in which DA-secreting neurons in the substantia nigra are damaged and lost by degeneration or apoptosis, is not known However, some evidence suggests a hereditary predisposition; about 20% of Parkinson’s patients have a family member with similar symptoms Symptoms that resemble idiopathic Parkinson’s disease may also result from infections (e.g., encephalitis), toxins (presynaptic) neuron to another (postsynaptic) neuron Synapses also occur between axons and effector (target) cells, such as muscle and gland cells Synapses between neurons may be classified morphologically as the following • • • (e.g., MPTP), drugs used in the treatment of neurologic disorders (e.g., neuroleptics used to treat schizophrenia), and repetitive trauma Symptoms with these causes are called secondary parkinsonism On the microscopic level, degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra is very evident This region loses its typical pigmentation, and an increase in the number of glial cells is noticeable (gliosis) In addition, nerve cells in this region display characteristic intracellular inclusions called Lewy bodies, which represent accumulation of intermediate neurofilaments in association with proteins ␣-synuclein and ubiquitin Treatment of Parkinson’s disease is primarily symptomatic and must strike a balance between relieving symptoms and minimizing psychotic side effects L-Dopa is a precursor of DA that can cross the blood–brain barrier and is then converted to DA It is often the primary agent used to treat Parkinson’s disease Other drugs that are used include a group of cholinergic receptor blockers and amantadine, a drug that stimulates release of DA from neurons If drug therapies are not effective, several surgical options can be considered Stereotactic surgery, in which nuclei in selective areas of the brain (globus pallidus, thalamus) are destroyed by a thermocoagulative probe inserted into the brain, can be effective in some cases Several new surgical procedures are being developed and are still in experimental stages These include transplantation of DA-secreting neurons into the substantia nigra to replace lost neurons or end bulb The number of synapses on a neuron or its processes, which may vary from a few to tens of thousands per neuron (Fig 12.6), appears to be directly related to the number of impulses that a neuron is receiving and processing Axodendritic These synapses occur between axons and dendrites In the CNS, some axodendritic synapses possess dendritic spines (Fig 12.5), a dynamic projection containing actin filaments Their function is associated with long-term memory and learning Axosomatic These synapses occur between axons and the cell body Axoaxonic These synapses occur between axons and axons (see Fig 12.5) Synapses are not resolvable in routine hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) preparations However, silver precipitation staining methods (e.g., Golgi method) not only demonstrate the overall shape of some neurons but also show synapses as oval bodies on the surface of the receptor neuron Typically, a presynaptic axon makes several of these button-like contacts with the receptor portion of the postsynaptic neuron Often, the axon of the presynaptic neuron travels along the surface of the postsynaptic neuron, making several synaptic contacts along the way that are called boutons en passant [Fr buttons in passing] The axon then continues, ending finally as a terminal branch with an enlarged tip, a bouton terminal [Fr terminal button], Pawlina_CH12.indd 362 axodendritic axoaxonic axosomatic dendritic spine dendrites FIGURE 12.5 ▲ Schematic diagram of different types of synapses Axodendritic synapses represent the most common type of connection between presynaptic axon terminal and dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron Note that some axodendritic synapses possess dendritic spines, which are linked to learning and memory; axosomatic synapses are formed between presynaptic axon terminal and the postsynaptic nerve cell body, and axoaxonic synapses are formed between the axon terminal of presynaptic neuron and the axon of a postsynaptic neuron The axoaxonic synapse may enhance or inhibit the axodendritic (or axosomatic) synaptic transmission 9/29/14 7:02 PM • • Chemical synapses Conduction of impulses is achieved by the release of chemical substances (neurotransmitters) from the presynaptic neuron Neurotransmitters then diffuse across the narrow intercellular space that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic neuron or target cell A specialized type of chemical synapses called ribbon synapses are found in the receptor hair cells of the internal ear and photoreceptor cells of the retina Their structures and functions are described in Chapter 25) Electrical synapses Common in invertebrates, these synapses contain gap junctions that permit movement of ions between cells and consequently permit the direct spread of electrical current from one cell to another These synapses not require neurotransmitters for their function Mammalian equivalents of electrical synapses include gap junctions in smooth muscle and cardiac muscle cells A typical chemical synapse contains a presynaptic element, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane Components of a typical chemical synapse include the following • A presynaptic element (presynaptic knob, presynaptic component, or synaptic bouton) is the end of the neuron process from which neurotransmitters are released The presynaptic element is characterized by the presence of synaptic vesicles, membranebound structures that range from 30 to 100 nm in diameter and contain neurotransmitters (Fig 12.7) The binding and fusion of synaptic vesicles to the presynaptic plasma membrane is mediated by a family of Pawlina_CH12.indd 363 • THE NEURON Classification depends on the mechanism of conduction of the nerve impulses and the way the action potential is generated in the target cells Thus, synapses may also be classified as the following • Nerve Tissue Synapses are classified as chemical or electrical 363 CHAPTER 12 FIGURE 12.6 ▲ Scanning electron micrograph of the nerve cell body This micrograph shows the cell body of a neuron Axon endings forming axosomatic synapses are visible as are numerous oval bodies with tail-like appendages Each oval body represents presynaptic axon terminal from different neurons making contact with the large postsynaptic nerve cell body ϫ76,000 (Courtesy of Dr George Johnson.) transmembrane proteins called SNAREs (which stands for “soluble NSF attachment receptors”; see page 35) The specific SNARE proteins involved in this activity are known as v-SNARE (vesicle-bound) and t-SNARE (target-membrane–bound proteins found in specialized areas of the presynaptic membrane) Another vesiclebound protein called synaptotagmin then replaces the SNARE complex, which is subsequently dismantled and recycled by NSF/SNAP25 protein complexes Dense accumulations of proteins are present on the cytoplasmic side of the presynaptic plasma membrane These presynaptic densities represent specialized areas called active zones where synaptic vesicles are docked and where neurotransmitters are released Active zones are rich in Rab-GTPase docking complexes (see page 35), t-SNAREs, and synaptotagmin binding proteins The vesicle membrane that is added to the presynaptic membrane is retrieved by endocytosis and reprocessed into synaptic vesicles by the smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (sER) located in the nerve ending Numerous small mitochondria are also present in the presynaptic element The synaptic cleft is the 20- to 30-nm space that separates the presynaptic neuron from the postsynaptic neuron or target cell, which the neurotransmitter must cross The postsynaptic membrane (postsynaptic component) contains receptor sites with which the neurotransmitter interacts This component is formed from a portion of the plasma membrane of the postsynaptic neuron (Fig 12.8) and is characterized by an underlying layer of dense material This postsynaptic density represents an elaborate complex of interlinked proteins that serve numerous functions, such as translation of the neurotransmitter–receptor interaction into an intracellular signal, anchoring of and trafficking neurotransmitter receptors to the plasma membrane, and anchoring various proteins that modulate receptor activity Synaptic Transmission Voltage-gated Ca2ϩ channels in the presynaptic membrane regulate transmitter release When a nerve impulse reaches the synaptic bouton, the voltage reversal across the membrane produced by the impulse (called depolarization) causes voltage-gated Ca2ϩ channels to open in the plasma membrane of the bouton The influx of Ca2ϩ from the extracellular space causes the synaptic vesicles to migrate, anchor, and fuse with the presynaptic membrane, thereby releasing the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis Vesicle docking and fusion is mainly driven by the actions of SNARE and synaptotagmin proteins Alternative to the massive release of neurotransmitter following vesicle fusion is the process of porocytosis, in which vesicles anchored at the active zones release neurotransmitters through a transient pore connecting the lumen of the vesicle with the synaptic cleft The neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synaptic cleft At the same time, the presynaptic membrane of the synaptic bouton that released the neurotransmitter quickly forms endocytotic vesicles that return to the endosomal compartment of the bouton for recycling or reloading with neurotransmitter 9/29/14 7:02 PM 364 CHAPTER 12 Nerve Tissue THE NEURON synaptic vesicle with neurotransmitters recycled vesicle presynaptic element of axon voltagegated Ca2ϩ channel active zone a Ca2ϩ G-proteingated ion channel Ca2ϩ synaptic cleft postsynaptic membrane of dendrite Naϩ synaptotagmin Naϩ enzyme transmittergated channel SNARE complex Naϩ second messengers G-protein– coupled receptor G-protein Ca2ϩ b FIGURE 12.7 ▲ Diagram of a chemical axodendritic synapse This diagram illustrates three components of a typical synapse The presynaptic knob is located at the distal end of the axon from which neurotransmitters are released The presynaptic element of the axon is characterized by the presence of numerous neurotransmitter-containing synaptic vesicles The plasma membrane of the presynaptic knob is recycled by the formation of clathrin-coated endocytotic vesicles The synaptic cleft separates the presynaptic knob of the axon from the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite The postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite is frequently characterized by a postsynaptic density and contains receptors with an affinity for the neurotransmitters Note two types of receptors: Green-colored molecules represent transmitter-gated channels, and the purple-colored structure represents a G-protein–coupled receptor that, when bound to a neurotransmitter, may act on G-protein–gated ion channels or on enzymes producing a second messenger a Diagram showing the current view of neurotransmitter release from a presynaptic knob by a fusion of the synaptic vesicles with presynaptic membrane b Diagram showing a newly proposed model of the neurotransmitter release via porocytosis In this model, the synaptic vesicle is anchored and juxtaposed to calcium-selective channels in the presynaptic membrane In the presence of Ca2ϩ, the bilayers of the vesicle and presynaptic membranes are reorganized to create a 1-nm transient pore connecting the lumen of the vesicle, with the synaptic cleft allowing the release of a neurotransmitter Note the presence of the SNARE complex and the synaptotagmin that anchor the vesicle to the active zones within plasma membrane of the presynaptic element The neurotransmitter binds to either transmitter-gated channels or G-protein–coupled receptors on the postsynaptic membrane The released neurotransmitter molecules bind to the extracellular part of postsynaptic membrane receptors called transmitter-gated channels Binding of neurotransmitter induces a conformational change in these channel proteins that causes their pores to open The response that is ultimately generated depends on the identity of the ion that enters the cell For instance, influx of Naϩ causes local depolarization in the postsynaptic membrane, which under favorable conditions (sufficient amount and duration of neurotransmitter release) prompts the opening of voltage-gated Naϩ channels, thereby generating a nerve impulse Some amino acid and amine neurotransmitters may bind to G-protein–coupled receptors to produce longer lasting and more diverse postsynaptic responses The neurotransmitter binds to a transmembrane receptor protein on the postsynaptic membrane Receptor binding activates G-proteins, which move along the intracellular surface of the postsynaptic membrane and eventually activate effector proteins These effector proteins may include transmembrane Pawlina_CH12.indd 364 G-protein–gated ion channels or enzymes that syn- thesize second-messenger molecules (page 365) Several neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) can generate different postsynaptic actions, depending on which receptor system they act (see below) Porocytosis describes the secretion of neurotransmitter that does not involve the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane Based on evaluation of physiologic data and the structural organization of nerve synapses, an alternate model of neurotransmitter secretion called porocytosis has recently been proposed to explain the regulated release of neurotransmitters In this model, secretion from the vesicles occurs without fusion of the vesicle membrane with the presynaptic membrane Instead, the synaptic vesicle is anchored to the presynaptic membrane next to Ca2ϩ selective channels by SNARE and synaptotagmin proteins In the presence of Ca2ϩ, the vesicle and presynaptic membranes are reorganized to create a 1-nm transient pore connecting the lumen of the vesicle with the synaptic cleft Neurotransmitters can then be released in a controlled fashion through these transient membrane pores (see Fig 12.7) 9/29/14 7:02 PM In these synapses, the generation of an action potential then becomes more difficult Neurotransmitters dendrite axon FIGURE 12.8 ▲ Electron micrograph of nerve processes in the cerebral cortex A synapse can be seen in the center of the micrograph, where an axon ending is apposed to a dendrite The ending of the axon exhibits numerous neurotransmitter-containing synaptic vesicles that appear as circular profiles The postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite shows a postsynaptic density A substance of similar density is also present in the synaptic cleft (intercellular space) at the synapse ϫ76,000 (Courtesy of Drs George D Pappas and Virginia Kriho.) The chemical nature of the neurotransmitter determines the type of response at that synapse in the generation of neuronal impulses The release of neurotransmitter by the presynaptic component can cause either excitation or inhibition at the postsynaptic membrane • • In excitatory synapses, release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, glutamine, or serotonin opens transmitter-gated Naϩ channels (or other cation channels), prompting an influx of Naϩ that causes local reversal of voltage of the postsynaptic membrane to a threshold level (depolarization) This leads to initiation of an action potential and generation of a nerve impulse In inhibitory synapses, release of neurotransmitters such as ␥-aminobutyric acid (GABA) or glycine opens transmitter-gated ClϪ channels (or other anion channels), causing ClϪ to enter the cell and hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane, making it even more negative Pawlina_CH12.indd 365 Neurotransmitters act either on ionotropic receptors to open membrane ion channels or on metabotropic receptors to activate G-protein signaling cascade THE NEURON Many molecules that serve as neurotransmitters have been identified in various parts of the nervous system A neurotransmitter that is released from the presynaptic element diffuses through the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane, where it interacts with a specific receptor Action of the neurotransmitter depends on its chemical nature and on the characteristics of the receptor present on the postsynaptic plate of the effector cell Nerve Tissue axon ending 365 CHAPTER 12 The ultimate generation of a nerve impulse in a postsynaptic neuron (firing) depends on the summation of excitatory and inhibitory impulses reaching that neuron This allows precise regulation of the reaction of a postsynaptic neuron (or muscle fiber or gland cell) The function of synapses is not simply to transmit impulses in an unchanged manner from one neuron to another Rather, synapses allow for the processing of neuronal input Typically, the impulse passing from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic neuron is modified at the synapse by other neurons that, although not in the direct pathway, nevertheless have access to the synapse (see Fig 12.5) These other neurons may influence the membrane of the presynaptic neuron or the postsynaptic neuron and facilitate or inhibit the transmission of impulses The firing of impulses in the postsynaptic neuron is caused by the summation of the actions of hundreds of synapses Almost all known neurotransmitters act on multiple receptors, which are integral membrane proteins These receptors can be divided into two major classes: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors Ionotropic receptors contain integral transmembrane ion channels, also referred to as transmitteror ligand-gated channels Binding of neurotransmitter to ionotropic receptors triggers a conformational change of the receptor proteins that leads to the opening of the channel and subsequent movement of selective ions in or out of the cell This generates action potential in the effector cell In general, signaling using ionotropic channels is very rapid and occurs in the major neuronal pathways of the brain and in somatic motor pathways in the PNS Metabotropic channels are responsible not only for binding a specific neurotransmitter but also for interacting with G-protein at their intracellular domain G-protein is an important protein that is involved in intracellular signaling It conveys signals from the outside to the inside of the cell by altering activities of enzymes involved in synthesis of a second messenger Activation of metabotropic receptors is mostly involved in the modulation of neuronal activity The most common neurotransmitters are described below A summary of selected neurotransmitters and their characteristics in both the PNS and CNS is provided in Table 12.1 • Acetylcholine (ACh) ACh is the neurotransmitter be- tween axons and striated muscle at the neuromuscular junction (see page 327) and serves as a neurotransmitter in the ANS ACh is released by the presynaptic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons and their effectors ACh is also secreted by postsynaptic parasympathetic neurons, as 9/29/14 7:02 PM Index 970 Fibrofatty plaque, 413f Fibrogenesis, hepatic, 635 Fibrolipoma, 263f Fibromuscular stroma, of prostate gland, 814, 814, 815, 830p–831p Fibronectin, 135, 140, 174, 177t, 196 Fibronexus, 176 Fibrosa, of heart valve, 408, 409 Fibrosis, renal, 720 Fibrous rings, of heart, 406, 406 Fibrous skeleton, of heart, 406, 406, 408 Fight-or-flight response, 367, 770 Filaggrin, 490, 493, 495 Filamentous actin, 58 Filaments, 24, 58–63 See also specific types Filensin, 62t, 63 Filiform papillae, 529, 530, 558p–561p Filopodia, 60 Filtration apparatus of kidney, 698–699, 705, 705–711 Filtration pores, 423 Filtration slit, 705, 707–708, 711, 712 Filtration slit diaphragm, 707–708, 710, 711 Fimbriae, of uterine tube, 835, 848 Fimbrin, 59, 109, 110, 112, 944 Fingerprints, 491 Fistulas, anal, 599 Fixation, 2, 4–5 Fixatives, 2–3 Flat bones, 216 Floating villi, 858, 890p–891p Flotillins, 27, 32 Flow cytometry, 7f, 291–292 Fluid–mosaic model, modified, 27, 28 Fluorescein, 7, Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), 10, 10 Fluorescence microscope, 14–16 Fluorescent dye(s) (fluorochromes), Fluorescent dye–labeled antibody, Fluorescent screen, 18 Fluoride, 546f 18-Fluorine-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (18F-FDG), 262, 264f Fluorochromes, Foam cells, 413f–414f, 415 Focal adhesions, 126, 132t, 141, 141, 491 Foliate papillae, 529, 530, 530 Folic acid deficiency, 278f Follicle(s) hair See Hair follicles ovarian See Ovarian follicles thyroid See Thyroid follicles Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 744, 748, 749t, 750 in female reproductive system, 839, 840, 844, 851f–852f in male reproductive system, 807, 808 Follicle-stimulating hormone cells (gonadotropes), 750, 750t Follicular bulge, of hair follicle, 496, 503 Follicular cells of ovary, 837, 837–838, 876p–879p of thyroid gland, 758, 758–759, 759 Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), 443, 459, 461, 462 Follicular epithelium, of thyroid gland, 758, 758 Follicular phase, of ovarian cycle, 851f–852f Follicular stigma, of ovary, 841, 841 Folliculo-stellate cells, of pituitary gland, 751 Folliculo-stellate network, of pituitary gland, 751 Foot processes, of podocytes, 704, 705, 707–708, 712 Foramen cecum, 529, 529 Fordyce spots, of oral cavity, 528 Foreign body giant cells, 179 Formalin, Formative osteocytes, 224, 224 Formed elements of blood, 270–271, 271t, 273–301 Fornix of lacrimal sac, 923, 924 Fovea centralis, of retina, 907, 912, 914, 920, 920 Foveola, of retina, 920 Foveolae (gastric pits), 573, 574, 575, 576, 606p–607p Fracture healing, of bone, 239–241, 240, 241 Fracture hematoma, of bone, 239, 240 Free fatty acids, 495 Free nerve endings, 381, 501, 501, 502, 866 Free radical, as neurotransmitter, 366t Free ribosomes, 45, 48, 48 Free surfaces, of epithelium, 98, 105 Free (floating) villi, 858, 890p–891p Pawlina_Index.indd 970 Freeze fracture, 19, 28–29, 29 Frey’s syndrome, 553f Frozen sections, 2, 4f Functional layer, of endometrium, 851, 851–855, 884p–887p Fundic glands, 574, 575, 576–581, 608p–609p Fundic region, of stomach (fundus), 572–573, 574 Fundocardiac junction, 608p–609p Fundus, of uterus, 835 Fungiform papillae, 529, 529, 530, 558p–559p Fusiform vesicles, 726, 726 Fuzzy plaque, 128 G G1 (gap1) phase, of cell cycle, 84, 84–85 G2 (gap2) phase, of cell cycle, 84, 84–85 Go (gapo) phase, of cell cycle, 84, 85 GABA (␥-aminobutyric acid), 365, 366t, 367 G-actin (globular actin), 58, 314, 319–320 Galactose transferase, in blood group systems, 275f Gallbladder, 640–643, 641, 643, 658p–659p bile flow to, 629, 638–640 bile storage and concentration in, 629, 640–641, 643 development of, 626 GALT See Gut-associated lymphatic tissue Gametes, 89 female, 835 See also Oocyte(s); Oogenesis; Ova male, 790 See also Sperm; Spermatogenesis Gametogenesis female, 835 See also Oogenesis male, 790 See also Spermatogenesis Gamma/delta (␥/␦) T cells, 288, 444 Ganglia, 100, 101, 356 cranial nerve, 358, 379, 379t dorsal root, 24, 358, 360, 379, 379t, 386, 394p–395p parasympathetic, 379t paravertebral, 382 peripheral, 379, 379t sensory, 379, 379t sympathetic, 379t, 394p–395p visceral, 382 Ganglion cells of adrenal medulla, 768, 788p–789p of dorsal root, 24 of retina, 907, 913, 913, 920, 930p–931p Gap junctions, 120, 122, 129–131, 131, 132t bone cell, 222–225, 225 cardiac muscle cell, 333 diseases associated with, 131 lens cell, 922 smooth muscle, 335, 336, 340, 354p–355p as synapse equivalent, 363 Gas exchange (respiration), 662, 676–679 Gastric glands, 573, 574, 575, 606p–611p Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), 581, 581t, 591 Gastric juices, 576–577 Gastric lamina propria, 583 Gastric mucosa, 573–583, 574, 608p–611p cells of, 573–583, 575, 577–580, 608p–613p drugs damaging, 576 epithelial cell renewal in, 582–583, 583 glands of, 573, 574, 575, 576–582, 582, 583, 606p–611p hormones of, 581, 581, 581t, 582t physiologic barrier of, 577 Gastric muscularis externa, 584 Gastric muscularis mucosae, 583 Gastric pits, 573, 574, 575, 576, 606p–607p Gastric rugae, 573, 574, 608p–609p Gastric serosa, 584, 608p–609p Gastric submucosa, 583, 608p–611p Gastrin, 577, 577f, 579, 581, 581t, 640, 648 Gastrinomas, 577f Gastrin receptors, 579 Gastroduodenal junction, 612p–613p Gastroenteropancreatic (GEP) neuroendocrine tumors, 578f Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), 571, 572 Gastrointestinal endocrine system, 578f–579f Gastrointestinal hormones, 581, 581, 581t, 582t, 590–591 Gastrointestinal tract, 526, 568–571 See also specific components of Gated Ca2ϩ (calcium)-release channels, 326, 334, 338, 339 Gated Naϩ (sodium) channels, 326, 327–328 Gaze, conjugate, 925 Gelatinases, 166 Gelsolin, 59 Gender determination, 791–792, 793 Gene(s), 75 Genetic sex, 791, 793 Gene-transfer therapies, for lysosomal storage diseases, 42f Genitalia, external female, 834, 864–866 male, 790, 818–819 Genital warts, 871f Genitourinary malformations, 791 Genome, human, 75 Germ cells, primordial, 791, 792, 836 Germinal center, 458, 458–459, 461, 478p–483p Germinal epithelium, of ovary, 836, 841, 841, 876p–877p Germinative zone, of nail, 510 Germ layers, 100–101, 102, 156–158 Ghrelin, 257–258, 581, 581t, 749 Gigantism, 239f Gingiva, 527–528, 528, 544, 544–545 GIP See Gastric inhibitory peptide Glands, 143–146, 144, 145t See also specific glands and gland types autonomic regulation of, 357 secretory portion (parenchyma), 105 Glans penis, 727, 791, 818–819 Glassy membrane of hair, 503, 505 of ovarian follicles, 846–847, 878p–879p Glaucoma, 907, 910f, 921 Gleason score, 816f Glia See Neuroglial cells Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), 62t, 63, 373, 391f, 755 Glial growth factors (GGFs), 389 Glia limitans, 375, 375 Glial scar, 390 Gliosis, 362f, 391f Glisson’s capsule, 626, 631 Globins, 276, 276–277, 296 Globulins, 271, 627 Glomerular basement membrane (GBM), 704, 705–712, 706f–707f, 710–712 Glomerular capillaries, 704, 705, 705–706, 706, 708–710, 710 Glomerular disease, thrombotic, 706 Glomerular filtration barrier, 698–699, 705, 705–711 Glomerular ultrafiltrate, 699, 702, 705, 714–715 Glomerulonephritis, 706f–707f, 707, 711, 712 Glomerulus, 700, 701–702, 703, 708, 709 capsule of See Bowman’s capsule crescent, in glomerulonephritis, 706f–707f distention of, 712 filtration apparatus of, 698–699, 705, 705–711 Glucagon, 650–651, 650t, 744 adipose tissue regulation by, 259 hepatic action on, 629 pancreatic secretion of, 644, 648, 648t, 650 Glucocorticoids, 768t, 769–773 Gluconeogenesis, 771 Glucose blood levels of, 650 digestion of, 585f metabolism and regulation of, 237–239, 259, 320f, 628, 648–650 renal reabsorption of, 716 synthesis of (gluconeogenesis), 771 Glucuronate, 172 Glutamate, 366t, 367 Glutamine, 365 Glutaraldehyde, 18 Glycated hemoglobin, 277f Glycine, 161, 161, 365, 366t, 367 Glycocalyx, 27, 27, 569–570, 709–710 Glycogen breakdown of (glycogenolysis), 628 cytoplasmic inclusions of, 25t, 26t, 70, 70 digestion of, 585f metabolism of, 628 staining properties of, 4–5, synthesis of (glycogenesis), 649, 771 Glycogenolysis, 628 Glycolipids, 27 Glycolysis, 649 Glycophorins, 275f–276f 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 971 Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH), 748–749, 755t Growth plates, 198, 199, 232, 233, 234, 246p–251p Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 56, 56, 82 Guanylyl cyclase/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) system, 744 Gubernaculum, 792, 835 Guillain-Barré syndrome, 370f Gustatory sweating, 553f Gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), 442, 443, 460, 473t, 570, 591–592, 597 Gynecomastia, 797 H Hair, 488, 503, 503–506, 504f, 524p–525p Hair cells of internal ear, 110, 943–951, 944–947, 958p–961p hearing function of, 952 inner, 950, 951, 953, 960p–961p outer, 950, 951, 953, 960p–961p Hair follicles, 488, 503, 503–505, 504, 524p–525p Hair matrix, 503, 504, 504–505 Half-moons (demilunes) See Demilunes Halo cells, 811 Haploid chromosomes, 77, 89, 800 Hard callus, in bone repair, 240, 240–241 Hard keratin, 63, 493, 505, 510 Hard palate, 527–528, 528, 664 Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, 763f Hassall’s (thymic) corpuscles, 465–466, 466, 486p–487p Haustra coli, 594, 595, 597 Haversian canals, 217–218, 218, 219, 234–235, 244p–247p H band, of sarcomere, 318–319, 319, 322, 325, 325–326 Head of body, autonomic innervation of, 384 Healing bone (fractures), 239–241, 240, 241 wound, 179, 180f, 184, 511f Hearing, 951–952, 954 Hearing loss, 937, 938, 940, 942f, 950f, 955 Heart, 404–411, 405, 434p–435p chambers of, 405, 405–406, 406 circulation of blood through, 405, 405, 406 conducting system of, 406, 406–407, 409–410, 410 fibrous skeleton of, 406, 406, 408 histogenesis of, 101 regulation of, 410–411 wall of, layers of, 407, 407–408, 408 Heart block, complete, 410 Heartburn, 572 Heart disease, 409, 413f–414f, 419f, 428, 430f–431f Heart failure, and liver necrosis, 634f Heart rate, 409–411 Heart valves, 405, 406, 408–409, 409 Heat-shock chaperone proteins, 43 Helical monomers, of intermediate filaments, 61 Helicine arteries, of penis, 818 Helicobacter pylori, 126f, 576, 576f Helicotrema, of cochlea, 948, 949 Helper T lymphocytes, 178, 288, 444, 449, 453–455, 456f Hematocrit, 270–271, 292 Hematoma, fracture, 239, 240 Hematoxylin, 2, Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, 2, formalin fixation in, loss of tissue components in, 4–5 Hematuria, 711 Heme, 276, 276, 296 Hemidesmosomes, 63, 126, 132t, 141–143, 142, 491 Hemochromatosis, 628 Hemoglobin, 271, 275–277, 276–277, 277f, 278f, 284f, 292 Hemolysis, 275 Hemolytic anemias, 284f Hemolytic disease of newborn, 276f Hemolytic transfusion reaction, 275f, 284f Hemopoiesis, 292–302, 293, 299t–300t, 310p–313p Hemopoietic stem cell (HSC), 180, 183, 231, 292, 294–295, 298 Hemorrhoids, 599 Hemosiderin, 70, 296 Hemosiderin granules, 628, 634 Hemostasis, 291 Hemostatic plug, 291 Henle, loop of See Loop of Henle Henle’s layer, 505, 524p–525p Heparan sulfate, 136, 172t, 174, 286, 706, 710, 711 Heparin, 172t, 182, 286 Hepatic artery, 629, 630, 631, 632–633, 654p–655p Hepatic ducts, 629, 639–640, 640, 643 Hepatic fibrogenesis, 635 Hepatic phase, of hemopoiesis, 292, 294 Hepatic portal system, 405 Hepatic portal vein, 405, 629, 630, 631, 632, 654p–655p Hepatic stellate cells, 633, 634–635 Hepatic stem cells, 638 Hepatic veins, 630, 630, 633 Hepatocyte(s), 150p–151p, 626, 628, 632, 632, 635–638, 637, 654p–657p Hereditary elliptocytosis, 275 Hereditary spherocytosis, 275 Hering, canals of, 629, 636, 638 Herring bodies, 752, 752, 780p–781p Heterochromatin, 6, 75–76 Hexagonal network–forming collagens, 163 Hibernoma, 263f High-affinity reuptake, 367 High-density lipoproteins (HDLs), 627, 628f High endothelial venules (HEVs), 107, 426, 457, 457, 463, 464, 478p–481p Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), 456f Hilum of kidney, 699, 700, 730p–731p of lymph node, 480p–481p of spleen, 468 Histaminase, 285 Histamine, 182, 286, 582t, 757 Histamine H2 receptor(s), 579 Histamine H2 receptor–antagonist drugs, 576f Histiocytes See Macrophage(s) Histochemistry and cytochemistry, 1, 3–11 autoradiography, 1, 3, 10–11, 11 chemical basis of staining, 5–6 acidic and basic dyes, 5–6, 5t aldehyde groups and Schiff reagent, metachromasia, chemical composition of histologic samples, 3–5 enzyme digestion, 6–7 enzyme histochemistry, 7, hybridization techniques, 10 immunocytochemistry, 1, 7–9 Histologic ruler, erythrocytes as, 273 Histology definition of, methods used in, 1–22 Histones, 74, 76–77 HIV/AIDS, 456f, 499, 593, 699, 859 Holocrine secretion, 144 Homeostasis cell division–cell death, 90, 90 energy, 258, 259 iron, liver and, 627–628 kidneys and, 698–699 plasma and, 271 skin and, 488, 494–495 water, 388, 494–495, 754 Homologous chromosomes, 77, 87, 89–90, 800 Hordeolum (stye), 923 Horizontal cells, of retina, 913, 913, 919–920 Hormonal mobilization, 259 Hormonal sex, 792, 793 Hormone(s), 143, 742–745 adrenal cortex, 768t, 769, 770–773, 774f adrenal medulla, 768–770, 768t, 769 altered tissue responses to, 754f anterior pituitary, 748, 749t autocrine control by, 743, 743 bone cells producing, 237–239 candidate or putative, 579f, 582t, 591 classes of, 743–744 definition of, 743 endocrine control by, 743, 743 gastrointestinal, 581, 581, 581t, 582t, 590–591 hepatic action on, 629 hypothalamic-regulating, 746f, 755t mechanisms of action, 744–745, 745 neurocrine, 582t, 591 overproduction of, 754f pancreatic, 648–651, 650t, 743 paracrine control by, 579f, 582t, 591, 743, 743 parathyroid, 764–766, 765t pineal, 757, 757t 971 Index Glycoprotein(s) in basal lamina, 135 in bone matrix, 214–215, 221 collagen as, 161, 161 corneal, 905 in extracellular matrix, 171–174 hepatic production of, 627 in hyaline cartilage, 194–195 in lysosomal membrane, 39–40 multiadhesive See Multiadhesive glycoproteins in myelin sheath, 376 in plasma membrane, 27 zona pellucida, 837, 845 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), 4–5, 171–173, 172t, 194–196 Glycosylated hemoglobin, 277f Goblet cells (mucous cells), 144, 144, 146 in conjunctiva, 923 in gallbladder, 658p–659p in large intestine, 594–595, 597, 620p–621p in nasal cavity, 664 in salivary gland, 546–548, 547, 548, 551 in small intestine, 587, 589–590, 590, 614p–617p in stomach, 573–576, 575, 577, 582–583, 610p–613p in trachea, 670, 671, 672, 692p–693p Goiter, 763f Golgi apparatus, 24, 25t, 49–51, 49–52 functions and pathologies of, 26t hepatocyte, 636, 637, 638 transport to and from rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum, 47, 47–48 Golgi-derived coated vesicle secretory pathway, 40, 40 Golgi phase, of spermiogenesis, 800 Golgi tendon organs, 329 Golgi type I neurons, 361 Golgi type II neurons, 361 Gonad(s), 101 See also Ovary(ies); Testes Gonadal sex, 791 Gonadal steroids, 744, 757 Gonadocorticoids, 768t, 771, 773 Gonadotropes, 750, 750t Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), 750, 755t, 808 Gonioscope, 907 Gonocytes, 824p–825p Goodpasture syndrome, 706f–707f, 707 Gout (gouty arthritis), 217f G-protein(s), 365, 591, 744, 745 G-protein–coupled receptors, 338, 364, 531–533, 532, 666, 667, 744, 745 G-protein–gated ion channels, 364 Graafian follicle, 836, 836, 840, 840–841 Graft rejection, 452 Granulation tissue, 180f, 240, 240, 511f Granulocyte(s), 271t, 273, 277, 306p–307p See also specific types Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), 300–301, 300t Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), 300–301, 300t Granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells (GMP, CFU-GM), 221, 225–226 Granulocyte/monocyte progenitor cells (GMP, CFU-GM), 293, 295, 297, 378 Granuloma(s), 283f Granulomatous disease, chronic, 283, 283f Granulopoiesis, 297–301, 299t, 312p–313p Granulosa cells, of ovarian follicle, 837–838, 838, 839, 840, 840 Granulosa lutein cells, 843, 844, 880p–881p Granzymes, 446, 451–452 Graves’ disease, 761, 763f Graying, process of, 500f–501f Gray matter, of CNS, 385–386, 387, 402p–403p Great saphenous vein, 428, 430 Ground bone, 244p–245p Ground substance of bone, 214 of connective tissue, 156, 171–172 of cytoplasm, 23, 71 of elastic arteries, 420 of eye, 905, 906 of internal ear, 951 Growth cone, 391 Growth factors, 182, 215, 255, 255, 744 Growth hormone (GH), 629, 744, 748–749, 749t Growth hormone cells (somatotropes), 748–749, 750t 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 972 Hormone(s) (Continued ) placental, 862–863 posterior pituitary, 752–755, 753t regulation and feedback, 745, 746f sex female, 835, 846, 851f–852f, 853–854 male, 790, 792, 793 thyroid, 259, 744, 759–764, 760t tropic, 748 underproduction of, 754f Hormone receptors, 744–745, 745 Hormone replacement therapy, 238f, 754f Howship’s lacuna, 225 Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 844, 846, 855, 862–863 Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS), 863 Human genome/Human Genome Project, 75 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 456f, 499, 593, 699, 859 Human papillomavirus (HPV), 871f Human placental lactogen (hPL), 863 Human recombinant parathyroid hormone, 238f Humoral (cell-mediated) immunity, 184, 443, 444, 447–449 Huxley’s layer, of hair, 505, 524p–525p Hyaline cartilage, 194–200, 195, 202t, 206p–207p articular, 194, 199–200, 200 calcification of, 204, 204, 231 cells of, 194, 197, 197–198, 206p–207p composition of, 194–198, 195, 195, 203–204 distribution of components in, 198, 198 internal remodeling of, 197 matrix of, 194–198, 196–198, 206p–207p perichondrium of, 199, 206p–207p, 230–231 proteoglycans in, 194–195, 196, 198, 206p–207p repair of, 203–204 skeletal development from, 198–199, 199, 208p–209p, 228, 231–232, 232, 233 tracheal, 669–670, 670 Hyaline cartilage model, 230–231 Hyalocytes, 923 Hyaloid canal, 923 Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid), 172–173, 172t, 196, 214 Hyaluronidase, 802 Hybridization techniques, 10 Hybridoma, Hydrocephalus internus, 118f Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 576–577, 579, 579–580 Hydrocortisone, 773 Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), 54, 636 Hydrolases, 37, 37 Hydrolytic enzymes, 38–41 Hydroxyapatite crystals, 214, 236 25-Hydroxycholecalciferol, 627 Hypercellular bone marrow, 303f Hypersensitivity reactions, 183f, 286, 447, 449f, 452, 499 Hypertension, 419f chronic essential, 713f, 771 ophthalmological signs of, 921 portal, 599, 635 systemic, 416 Hypertensive heart disease, 419f Hyperthyroidism, 763f, 863 Hypertrophic scar, 180f Hypocellular bone marrow, 303f Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), 282, 282 Hypodermis, 488, 493 Hyponychium, 510, 510, 524p–525p Hypophyseal arteries, 747, 748 Hypophyseal portal veins, 748, 748 Hypophysectomy, 773 Hypophysis See Pituitary gland Hypothalamic diabetes insipidus, 754f Hypothalamic polypeptides, 755 Hypothalamic-regulating hormones, 746f, 755t Hypothalamic releasing hormones, 367 Hypothalamohypophyseal portal system, 405, 748, 748, 755 Hypothalamohypophyseal tracts, 746, 747, 751–752 Hypothalamus, 743, 745–746, 755–756 hormone production in, 721f, 755 lactation control by, 871–872 paraventricular nuclei of, 747, 751–752 pituitary gland regulation by, 746f, 755–756 supraoptic nuclei of, 747, 751–752 Hypothyroidism, 239f, 763f, 764 Pawlina_Index.indd 972 I I band, 318, 319, 322, 325, 325–326 Iduronate, 172 Ileocecal junction, 584 Ileocecal valve, 571 Ileum, 584, 618p–619p See also Small intestine Immature bone, 218, 220, 231, 231 Immediate hypersensitivity reaction, 183f, 449f Immotile cilia syndrome, 118, 118f Immune response, 442, 447–449 lymph nodes in, 463–464 small intestine in, 592f, 593 spleen in, 472–473 Immune system, 442 See also Immune response; Immunity Immune system cells, 184–185, 443–455 Immunity, 442–443 antibody-mediated (humoral), 184, 443, 444, 447–449 cell-mediated, 184, 443, 444, 447–453 nonspecific (innate), 442–443 specific, 442–443, 447–449 Immunocompetent cells, 286, 442, 446 Immunocytochemistry, 1, 7–9 Immunoglobulin(s), 38, 271, 280, 280, 286–287, 444, 447t Immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF), 127 Immunological surveillance, 444 Immunoperoxidase method, Importin, 82 Impulse conduction cardiac, 406, 406–407, 409–410, 410 nerve (action potential), 361, 378 Inclusion(s), 23, 24, 25t, 70–71 Inclusion-cell (I-cell) disease, 43f Incus, 936, 938, 938–940, 941, 951–952 Indirect immunofluorescence, 9, 9, 10 Induced pluripotent (iPS) cells, 147 Infertility, 807f, 855, 872f Inflammatory process, 447 in bone (fracture) repair, 239–240 cells in, 177–179, 180f, 182–185, 226, 280–285, 281–282, 288 mediators of, 182 Infundibulum of hair follicle, 504 of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 751 of uterine tube, 835, 848 Inhibin, 807, 808, 844 Inhibitory synapses, 365 Initial segment, of axon, 358, 361 Innate (nonspecific) immunity, 442–443 Inner limiting membrane, of retina, 913, 913, 920, 930p–931p Inner medulla, renal, 701, 701 Inner nuclear layer, of retina, 913, 913, 919–920, 930p–931p Inner nuclear membrane, 80, 81 Inner plexiform layer, of retina, 913, 913, 920, 930p–931p Inner stripe, of renal medulla, 701, 701 Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), 338, 532, 744 Inotropic effect, 411 In situ hybridization, 10 Insulin, 648–651, 650t, 744 adipose tissue regulation by, 258–259 Alzheimer disease association with, 650f in female reproductive system, 846 hepatic action on, 629 pancreatic secretion of, 644, 648, 648t, 651f posttranslational processing of, 651f Insulin–glucose transporter (GLUT) receptor complex, 38 Insulin (insulin-like) growth factor(s) (IGFs) adipose secretion of, 255, 255, 260t Alzheimer’s disease association with, 650f bone, 215, 219 production of, 629, 846, 863 Insulinoma, 651f Integral membrane proteins, 27–30, 28–30, 39–40, 51, 273–275, 274 Integrin(s), 93, 127, 141, 142, 142, 280, 280 Integrin receptors, 136, 142, 226 Integumentary system, 488–513 See also Hair; Nail(s); Skin Intention (primary or secondary union), of skin repair 511f Interatrial septum, 405, 405, 408 Intercalated cells, of collecting ducts, 719, 719 Intercalated discs, of cardiac muscle, 331–334, 332, 350p–351p, 434p–435p Intercalated ducts of pancreas, 644, 645, 645, 645–646, 660p–661p of salivary glands, 548–550, 564p–567p Intercalated neurons (interneurons), 358, 359, 384, 913 Intercellular diffusion barrier, 120 Interdigitation of basal processes, 715, 715, 716 Interference microscope, 13 Interferon ␥ (IFN-␥), 287, 300t Interleukin(s), 182, 215, 449, 453, 453t, 744 in hemopoiesis, 300, 300t secretion/production of, 255, 255, 260t, 281, 466 Interlobar arteries, of kidney, 723, 723 Interlobular arteries, of kidney, 723, 723 Interlobular bile ducts, 639 Interlobular mammary ducts, 898p–899p Interlobular veins, of kidney, 723, 723–724 Interlobular vessels, of liver, 632 Intermediate cells, 591, 724 Intermediate filament(s), 24, 60–63, 61, 62t, 69t abnormalities in, 62t, 65f–66f in anchoring junctions, 120 desmosomes and, 129, 130 in smooth muscle, 335–336, 338 Intermediate line, of macula adherens, 129 Intermediate nephrons, 705 Internal acoustic meatus, 937 Internal ear, 937, 941–955, 942, 958p–961p blood vessels of, 955 bony labyrinth of, 936, 937–938, 941–942, 941–943 development of, 100, 936, 938 innervation of, 952–955, 954 membranous labyrinth of, 936, 938, 941, 942, 943–955, 944 sensory (hair) cells of, 110, 943, 943–951, 944–947, 958p–961p hearing function of, 952 inner, 950, 951, 953 outer, 950, 951, 953 sound perception in, 951–952, 954 stereocilia of, 110, 943, 943–945, 944 supporting cells of, 943, 946, 946–947, 950–952, 951, 953, 958p–959p Internal elastic membrane, 411, 418, 421, 421 Internal remodeling, of bone, 235 Internal root sheath, of hair, 503, 504, 505, 524p–525p Interneurons, 358, 359, 384, 913 ␣-Internexin, 62t, 63 Internodal segment of myelin, 370, 376 Interphase, of cell cycle, 74, 84 Interplexiform cells of retina, 913, 919–920 Interstitial cells of kidney, 720 of pineal gland, 756, 782p–783p of testes, 48, 48, 106, 154p–155p, 792–797, 796, 822p–825p Interstitial fluid, 272 Interstitial growth, of cartilage, 201–202, 206p–207p, 230 Interstitial lamellae, of bone, 217, 218, 244p–245p Interterritorial matrix, of cartilage, 198, 198 Interventricular septum, 405, 405–406, 406, 408 Intervillous space, of placenta, 858–862, 859, 861, 892p–893p Intestinal glands, 586–587, 587, 594–595, 620p–621p Intestines See Large intestine; Small intestine Intracellular cytoskeletal proteins, Intracellular microcompartments, 24 Intracellular receptors, 31, 744–745, 745 Intracranial pressure, 921 Intraflagellar transport (IFT), 120, 121 Intrahepatic bile ductule, 636, 638 Intralobular collecting duct, of mammary gland, 867 Intralobular ducts, of pancreas, 660p–661p Intralobular ducts, of salivary glands, 550, 566p–567p Intralobular stroma, of mammary glands, 867 Intramembranous bone, 231 Intramembranous ossification, 228–230, 230, 231, 252p–253p Intraocular pressure, 910–911, 910f Intrinsic factor, 278f, 576f, 577, 580 In vitro fertilization (IVF), 847f Involucrin, 495 Iodopsin, 916 Ion channels, 29, 365 See also specific types Ionotropic receptors, 365, 366t Iridocorneal angle, 906–907, 907, 908 9/29/14 7:24 PM J Jaundice, 284f, 501f Jejunum, 584, 616p–617p See also Small intestine Joint(s), 215, 217 Joint diseases, 217f Junctional adhesion molecule (JAM), 123, 124, 124t Junctional complexes, 120–133, 122, 126f, 132t, 141–143 gallbladder, 641, 642 pancreatic, 645, 646 renal, 715 Sertoli cell–to–Sertoli cell, 805–807, 806, 807 Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 712–714 Juxtaglomerular cells, 704, 712, 714, 770–771 Juxtamedullary nephrons, 705 K Kartagener’s syndrome, 65f, 118f Karyokinesis, 85, 86 Karyosomes, 75, 805, 806 Karyotype, 77–78 Keloid, 180f Keratan sulfate, 172t, 174, 196, 214, 905 Keratin, 490, 493, 494, 495 Keratin(s), 61–63, 62t, 493 hard, 63, 493, 505, 510 soft, 493 Keratinized epithelium, 527–528, 556p–557p Keratinocytes, 489–490, 493–498, 494, 496, 498, 500f–501f Keratohyalin granules, 466, 490, 493, 496, 528 Ketone bodies, 628 Kidney(s), 698–724, 730p–737p absorptive function of (reabsorption), 715–720 ADH action in, 721, 721f, 752–753 blood supply to, 722–724, 723 capsule of, 699–700, 700, 701 cortex of, 700, 700, 701, 703, 730p–733p countercurrent exchange system in, 700, 721–722, 722 countercurrent multiplier system in, 720–721 endocrine function of, 699 epithelial tissue of, 150p–153p excretory function of, 698–699 filtration apparatus of, 698–699, 705, 705–711 functional unit of (nephron), 700, 701–705 hilum of, 699, 700, 730p–731p histogenesis of, 101 histophysiology of, 720–722 homeostatic function of, 698–699 interstitial tissue and cells of, 720 lymphatic vessels of, 724 medulla of, 700, 700–701, 701, 730p–731p, 736p–737p nerve supply to, 724 nomenclature for structures of, 701 renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system of, 713f, 714, 770–771 structure of, 699–714, 700–703 vitamin D regulation by, 699, 699f Kidney disease, 699, 699f, 706, 718 Kidney failure, 316 Kinesins, 58, 58, 368 Kinetochore, 88, 88, 90 Kinocilium, of internal ear, 943, 943–945, 944 Köhler illumination, 15f Pawlina_Index.indd 973 Krause, glands of, 923, 924 Krebs cycle See Citric acid cycle Kulchitsky cells, 664, 670–671, 673 Kupffer cells, 424, 454, 633, 633–634, 656p–657p L Labial glands, 545 Labia majora, 834, 864, 864 Labia minora, 834, 865 Labyrinthine artery, 955 Labyrinths, cortical, of kidney, 700, 732p–735p Labyrinth, of internal ear See Bony labyrinth; Membranous labyrinth Lacis cells, 712 Lacrimal glands, 923–925, 924 Lactating mammary gland, 143, 753, 866, 866, 870, 870–872, 898p–899p Lactation, 753, 866, 870–872 Lactational amenorrhea, 872f Lacteal, 586, 587 Lactiferous duct, 866, 867, 867, 870–871 Lactiferous sinus, 866, 867 Lactotropes, 749, 750t Lamellar bodies, 494, 494–495, 496, 677, 680 Lamellar bone, 217–218, 218 Lamellipodia, 60 Lamin(s), 62t, 63, 80–81 Lamina-associated polypeptides, 63 Lamina cribrosa, 930p–931p Lamina densa See also Basal lamina of glomerular basement membrane Lamina fusca, 906, 912 Lamina lucida, 135 Lamina propria, 147f, 158, 457, 568, 569, 570 of esophagus, 571, 604p–605p of gallbladder, 641, 658p–659p of large intestine, 596, 596–597, 620p–621p of nasal cavity, 664–665, 688p–689p of olfactory mucosa, 665, 688p–689p of oral cavity, 528 of seminal vesicles, 832p–833p of small intestine, 586–587, 587, 591–593, 612p–617p of stomach, 583 of testes, 794 of trachea, 672–673, 692p–693p of urothelium, 726 of vagina, 863, 863–864 Lamina rara externa, 710 Lamina rara interna, 710 Lamina vitrea, 912, 930p–931p, 932p–933p Lamin B, 62t, 63 Lamin B receptor (LBR), 63, 81 Lamin C, 62t, 81 Laminin(s), 135–137, 138, 143, 174, 177t, 706, 710 Laminin receptors, 135 Laminopathies, 81 Lamin receptors, 63, 80–81 Langerhans, islets of, 578f, 647–649, 647–651, 648t, 649t, 660p–661p Langerhans’ cells, 179, 443, 454, 493, 498–499, 499 Langerhans’ giant cells, 455 Large (elastic) arteries, 169, 192p–193p, 411, 412t, 416–421, 418–420 Large intestine, 569, 594–599, 595, 620p–625p lamina propria of, 596, 596–597, 620p–621p lymphatic vessels in, 597, 598f mucosa of, 594–596, 595, 596, 620p–621p muscularis externa of, 340, 597 muscularis mucosae of, 596, 620p–621p serosa of, 597 submucosa of, 597, 620p–621p Laryngeal muscles, extrinsic, 669 Laryngitis, 669 Laryngopharynx, 664 Laryngotracheal diverticulum, 662 Larynx, 662, 663, 663, 664, 668, 668–669, 690p–691p Latch state, of smooth muscle, 339 Lateral plications of gallbladder, 641 of small intestine, 588–589 Lecithin, 640 Left atrium, 405, 406, 406 Left–right asymmetry of internal organs, 117 Left ventricle, 405, 406, 406 Left ventricular hypertrophy, 419f Lens, of eye, 100, 900–903, 902, 907, 909, 921, 921–923, 932p–935p Lens, of microscope, 12, 13, 18 Lens capsule, 921, 921–922, 934p–935p Lens equator, 921, 921–922 Lens fibers/lens fiber cells, 921, 922, 934p–935p Lens nucleus, 921, 922 Lens placode, 903, 903 Lens vesicles, 903, 903 Leptin, 255, 255, 258, 260t, 863 Leptotene, of meiosis, 87, 90 Lesser vestibular glands, 865 Leukocyte(s), 270–271, 271t, 277–288 See also specific types classification of, 273, 277 development of, 292, 293, 297–301, 299t, 312p–313p granules of, 277 Leukocyte (white blood cell) count, 292 Leukopoiesis, 292, 293, 297–301, 299t, 312p–313p Leukotriene(s), 182, 286, 744 Levator palpebrae superioris muscle, 923, 924 Lewy bodies, 362f Leydig cells, 48, 48, 106, 154p–155p, 794–797, 796, 797, 822p–825p development of, 792, 796 distribution of, 793, 794 testosterone secretion by, 792, 796, 797f Leydig cell tumors, 797 Ligaments, 160, 169, 190p Ligand(s), 30, 38, 39 Ligand-gated Ca2ϩ (calcium) channels, 340 Ligand-gated channels, 365 Ligand-gated ion channels, 31 Light cells, of collecting ducts, 719, 719 Light microscope, 1, 11–21 artifact with, 12 examination of histologic slide with, 12, 14 proper use of, 15f–16f resolving power of, 12, 12t, 15f–16f Light source, of microscope, 12, 13 Limb girdle muscular dystrophy (LGMD), 323f Limiting membranes, of retina, 913, 913, 918–919, 930p–931p Lines of Retzius, 534, 534 Lingual glands, 545, 560p–561p Lingual muscles, 529 Lingual papillae, 529, 529–530 Lingual salivary glands, 529–530 Lingual tonsils, 459, 527, 529, 533 Linker proteins, 30, 30, 173 Lip(s), 556p–557p Lipases, 259, 645 Lipid bilayer, of plasma membrane, 26–27 Lipid droplets, 254, 256 Lipid envelope, of epidermis, 494, 495 Lipid inclusions, 25t, 26t, 70–71, 256 Lipid rafts, 27–28, 28, 30, 126 Lipid storage diseases, 71 Lipoblasts, 255–256, 256 Lipofuscin, 41, 70, 794 Lipoma, 263f Lipoproteins, 38, 626–627, 628f, 774f Liposarcoma, 263f Liquor folliculi, 839 Listeria monocytogenes, 60 Listeriosis, 60 Liver, 569, 626–640, 654p–657p acini of, 630, 631–632, 632, 656p–657p bile flow from, 628–630, 654p–657p bile production by, 626, 628–629 blood supply to, 629–630, 630, 632–633, 633 cells of, 633–638 See also Hepatocyte(s) cirrhosis of, 65f, 634f, 635 congestive heart failure and, 634f degradation in, 626, 628 development of, 626 endocrine functions of, 626, 629 epithelial tissue of, 150p–151p exocrine functions of, 626 gross anatomy of, 626, 627 inflammation of, 635 innervation of, 640 lipoprotein synthesis and regulation by, 626–627, 628f lobules of, 630–632, 631, 656p–657p lymphatic pathway in, 635, 636 metabolic conversions in, 628 973 Index Iris, 900–903, 901–903, 907–908, 909, 928p–929p, 932p–933p Iron homeostasis, 627–628 Irregular bones, 216 Irregular dense connective tissue, 158, 158–159, 188p–189p Ischemia in menstrual cycle, 853–854 in muscle, 320f Ischemic heart disease, 413f–414f, 428, 430f–431f Islets of Langerhans, 578f, 647–649, 647–651, 648t, 649t, 660p–661p Isodesmosine, 169 Isolation membrane, 43 Isotropic bands, 318, 319, 322, 325, 325–326 Isthmus of fundic gland, 575, 576 of hair follicle, 504 of thyroid gland, 757 of uterine tube, 835, 848 of uterus, 850 Ito cells, 424, 633, 634–635 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 974 Liver (Continued ) necrosis of, 632, 634f parenchyma of, 631, 632–634 perfusion of, reduced, 632 perisinusoidal spaces of, 631, 634–635, 635 physiology of, 626–629 sinusoids of, 629–634, 630, 631, 633 stem cells of, 638 structural organization of, 630–635, 632 Liver injury, 634f Lobar bronchi, 673–674 Lobe(s) of kidney, 701, 702 of liver, 626, 627 of lung, 673–674 of pituitary gland, 746, 747 See also Anterior lobe of pituitary gland; Posterior lobe of pituitary gland of thyroid gland, 757, 757 Lobule(s) of kidney, 701, 703 of lacrimal gland, 923 of liver, 626, 627, 630–632, 631, 656p–657p of lung, 674 of mammary glands, 866, 866–867 of pineal gland, 782p–783p of testes, 793 of thymus, 464, 465 Lochia rubra, 862f Long bones, 215, 216, 216, 246p–247p ground, 244p–245p growth of, 231–234 Longitudinally oriented layer, of muscularis externa, 570–571 Loop domains, 77, 77 Loop of Henle, 702, 703, 704, 717, 717–718, 720–722 Loose connective tissue, 99, 99, 157, 158, 159, 188p–189p Loricrin, 495 Low-density lipoprotein(s) (LDLs), 38, 627, 628f, 774f Lung(s), 662–663, 663 acini of, 674 alveoli of, 662–663, 663, 674, 676–679, 677–678, 694p–695p air–blood barrier of, 678 cells of, 677–679, 679–682, 696p–697p surfactant of, 677–678 blood supply to, 679–682 bronchopulmonary segments of, 662, 674 development of, 662 epithelial tissue of, 150p–151p innervation of, 682 lobes of, 673–674 lobules of, 674 lymphatic vessels of, 682 Lunula, 510 Luteal cells, 844, 844 Luteal gland (corpus luteum), 836, 843, 843–844, 844 Luteal phase, of ovarian cycle, 852f Lutein cells, 843, 844, 880p–881p Luteinization, 843 Luteinizing hormone (LH), 744, 748, 749t, 750 in female reproductive system, 840–841, 846, 851f–852f in male reproductive system, 807, 808 Luteinizing hormone cells (gonadotropes), 750, 750t Luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors, 839 Luteotropins, 846 Lymph, 429–430, 635, 636 Lymphadenitis, 463, 470f Lymphatic capillaries, 429–430 Lymphatic channels, 462 Lymphatic follicles See Lymphatic nodules Lymphatic nodules, 442, 457–460, 458, 462, 473t, 478p–481p aggregations of, 459, 460, 587, 588, 618p–619p in alimentary canal, 569, 570 in appendix, 622p–623p primary, 458 secondary, 458–459 single (solitary), 459 in small intestine, 459, 460, 587, 588, 591, 592f, 618p–619p Lymphatic organs primary or central, 446 secondary or peripheral, 446 Lymphatic sinuses, 462–463, 478p–481p Lymphatic system, 442–475 cells of, 442, 443–455 Pawlina_Index.indd 974 comparison of major organs of, 473t components of, 442, 443 immune response to antigens, 442, 447–449 organs and tissues of, 442, 443, 455–473 Lymphatic tissue bronchus-associated, 443, 460, 473t, 673 diffuse, 442, 457, 457–460, 570 effector, 446 functions and features of, 473t gut-associated, 442, 443, 460, 473t, 570, 591–592, 597 mucosa-associated, 443, 457, 460, 473t oral cavity, 527 Lymphatic vessels, 404, 429–431, 440p–441p, 442, 443, 455–457 in adrenal glands, 767 afferent, 457, 457, 460, 461 in alimentary canal, 570 efferent, 457, 457, 460, 461, 480p–481p in eye, 912 histogenesis of, 101 in kidney, 724 in large intestine, 597, 598f in lungs, 682 in mammary glands, 872 in ovaries, 848 Lymph nodes, 430, 442, 443, 460–464, 473t, 478p–481p drainage and filtration in, 462–463 lymphocyte distribution in, 462, 463, 463 phagocytic activity in, 463–464 reticular meshwork of, 460–461, 461, 462 structure or architecture of, 460–462, 461, 463–465 Lymphocyte(s), 156, 157, 175, 179, 184–185, 271t, 286–288, 308p–309p, 442–455 See also specific types activated, 286 activation of, 446, 449–453 on blood smear, 286, 308p–309p blood–thymus barrier protecting, 466–468, 486p–487p circulation of, 444, 455–457, 457, 463 cluster of differentiation (CD) molecules of, 184, 444, 445t–446t development and differentiation of, 301, 446 differences from other leukocytes, 286 distribution in lymph nodes, 462, 463, 463 effector, 446 functional types of, 286–287 heterogeneity of, 184 immunologic surveillance by, 444 in inflammatory process, 184–185, 283 origin of names, 448f origins of, 286 structure of, 286, 287 Lymphoid progenitor cells, 286, 293 Lymphokines, 178 Lymphopoiesis, 301 Lysis, 91, 446 Lysobisphosphatidic acid, 39–40 Lysosomal enzymes, 227 Lysosomal integral membrane proteins (LIMPs), 39–40, 51 Lysosomal membrane, 39, 39–40 Lysosomal membrane glycoproteins (LGPs), 39–40 Lysosomal pathway, of thyroid hormone synthesis, 760 Lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), 41, 42f–43f Lysosome-associated membrane proteins (LAMPs), 39–40 Lysosome(s), 7, 24, 36, 38–43 autophagy in, 38, 40, 41, 41–43 biogenesis of, 36–40, 37, 40 drugs affecting, 40 entosis by, 94 functions and pathologies of, 26t hepatocyte, 638 in macrophages, 41, 177 microscopic features of, 25t, 41 in osteoclasts, 227 pathways of delivery to, 40, 41, 51 primary, 38–39 secondary, 38–39 structure of, 39, 39–40 Lysozyme, 590 M Macroautophagy, 41, 43, 43 Macrophage(s), 156, 157, 174, 177–179, 443 alternatively activated (M2), 179, 455 alveolar, 678–679, 682 antigen presentation by, 178, 288, 454–455, 455 in atherosclerosis, 413f–414f classically activated (M1), 179, 455 development of, 177, 283, 288, 299t functions of, 454–455 fusion with foreign bodies, 179 in inflammatory process, 178–179, 283 lymph node, 461 lysosomes of, 41, 177 microscopic features of, 177–178, 178 myelin debris cleared by, 389–390 perisinusoidal, 454, 633, 633–634, 656p–657p phagocytic activity of, 177–178, 283, 454–455, 679 placental, 859, 859, 892p–893p resident, 389–390 splenic, 472–473 surface proteins of, 178 thymic, 465, 467, 467 Macrophage metalloelastases, 167 Macula adherens, 122, 126, 128–129, 130, 132t, 333, 333 Macula densa, 703, 704, 704, 712, 714, 734p–735p Macula lutea, 902, 912, 920, 920–921 Macula of saccule, 942, 943, 946 Macula of utricle, 942, 943, 946, 947, 948 Macula pellucida, of ovary, 841, 841 Macular degeneration, age-related, 912f Major basic protein (MBP), 285 Major calyces, 700, 701, 724, 730p–731p Major histocompatibility complex (MHC), 38, 178, 287, 444, 448–450, 449 Malaria, 40 Male gametes, 790 See also Sperm; Spermatogenesis Male reproductive system, 790–821, 822p–833p accessory sex glands of, 790, 812–817 components of, 790, 790 excurrent duct system of, 790, 808–812, 809, 826p–829p external genitalia of, 790, 818–819 hormonal regulation of, 807, 808 hormones of, 790, 792, 793 overview of, 790 spermatogenesis in, 87, 89, 797–802, 799, 801 Male urethra, 727, 791, 813–814, 814 Malleus, 936, 938, 938–940, 941, 951–952 Mallory bodies, 65, 65f Mallory staining technique, Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), 41, 649 Mammary glands, 488, 834, 866–872 adipose tissue of, 255, 866 blood supply to, 872 cancer of (breast cancer), 80f, 866 cells of, 753, 867, 869, 896p–899p connective tissue of, 188p–189p cyclic (menstrual) changes in, 868, 870–871 hormonal regulation of, 870–872 inactive, 866, 868, 869, 896p–897p innervation of, 872 involution of, 872 lactating, 143, 753, 866, 866, 870, 870–872, 898p–899p late proliferative stage, 898p–899p lymphatics of, 872 male, development of, 797 oxytocin action in, 753, 866, 871–872 pregnancy changes in, 868–870, 869 structure of, 866, 866–868, 867 Mammary papillae (nipple), 866, 866–867, 867 Mammary ridges, 866 Mammotropes (lactotropes), 749, 750t Manchette, 800, 802 Mandibular division, of trigeminal nerve, 533 Mannose-6-phosphate (M-6-P), 37, 37, 40 Mantle zone, of lymphatic nodule, 459 Mantoux (tuberculin) screening, 452 Marfan’s syndrome, 138, 169 Marginal chromatin, 75 Marginal sinuses, of spleen, 469, 472 Mast cell(s), 157, 175, 179–182 in allergic reactions, 182, 183f, 286, 449f basophil versus, 180, 181t, 182–183 granules of, 179, 180–182 origins of, 180, 286 staining properties of, 179, 179 Mast cell precursor (MPC), 286 Master glands, 745–746 Masticatory mucosa, 527–528, 528, 545 Mastoid air cells, 937, 940 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 975 Memory cells, 446, 447, 450, 451, 463 Menarche, 834 Ménière’s syndrome, 955f Meninges, 182, 385, 386–387 arachnoid, 386–387, 387 dura mater, 386–387, 387 pia mater, 387, 387, 402p–403p Menopause, 834–835 Menstrual cycle, 834, 851–855, 854, 854f, 884p–887p lactation and, 872f mammary gland changes in, 868, 870–871 ovarian changes in, 851f–852f vaginal changes in, 864 Meridional portion, of ciliary muscle, 909 Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), 500 Merkel’s cell(s), 493, 499–500, 500 Merkel’s corpuscles, 500, 501 Merocrine secretion, 144, 509, 870 Mesangial cells, 704, 711–712, 712 Mesangium, 711–712, 712 Mesaxon, 368–369, 370 Mesenchymal cells in endochondral ossification, 230–231 in eye, 903 in intramembranous ossification, 228–230, 230, 252p–253p Mesenchymal stem cells, 183, 184 adipocytes from, 255–256, 256, 262–263 osteoprogenitor cells from, 219, 221, 231 undifferentiated, 424–425 Wharton’s jelly, 157–158 Mesenchyme, 157, 158, 201 Mesentery, 150p–151p, 192p–193p, 569, 571 Mesoderm, 100, 101, 156–158 chorionic, 858 derivatives of, 98, 101, 102 Mesometrium, 835 Mesothelial cells, 150p–151p Mesothelioma, 85 Mesothelium, 101, 107, 147f, 150p–151p, 571 Mesovarium, 835, 835, 836 Messenger RNA (mRNA), 44–45, 46 Metabotropic receptors, 365, 366t Metachromasia, Metachronal rhythm, of cilia, 114 Metalloelastases, macrophage, 167 Metalloproteinases matrix See Matrix metalloproteinases in neutrophil granules, 279 Metaphase, 87, 88, 88, 90, 842 Metaphase plate, 88, 90 Metaphase spread, 77–78 Metaphysis, 216, 216, 246p–247p Metaplasia cervical, 858, 858 epithelial, 109f respiratory system, 109f, 669f Metarteriole, 425, 426 Metastatic cancer, 93 Methods, 1–22 histochemistry and cytochemistry, 1, 3–11 autoradiography, 1, 10–11, 11 chemical basis of staining, 5–6 chemical composition of histologic samples, 3–5 enzyme digestion, 6–7 enzyme histochemistry, 7, hybridization techniques, 10 immunocytochemistry, microscopy, 11–21 artifact in, 12 atomic force, 1, 19–20, 20 bright-field, 12, 13 confocal scanning, 7, 8, 16–17, 17 dark-field, 13–14 electron, 1, 11, 18–19 fluorescence, 14–16 instrument components in, 12, 13 interference, 13 light, 1, 11–12, 15f–16f nonoptical, 19 phase contrast, 13 polarizing, 17–18 resolving power in, 12, 12t, 15f–16f ultraviolet (UV), 16 virtual, 1, 20–21, 21 tissue preparation, 2–3 frozen sections, 2, 4f hematoxylin and eosin staining with formalin fixation, 2, linear equivalents used in, 2t other fixatives used in, 2–3 Microautophagy, 41, 43 Microcirculation, 425, 426 Microcirculatory bed, 404, 411 Microfold cells See M (microfold) cells Microglia, 181f, 357, 371, 375, 376–378, 377 Microscopic anatomy, Microscopy, 11–21 artifact in, 12 atomic force, 1, 19–20, 20 bright-field, 12, 13 confocal scanning, 7, 8, 16–17, 17 dark-field, 13–14 electron, 1, 11, 18–19 fluorescence, 14–16 instrument components in, 12, 13 interference, 13 light, 1, 11–12, 15f–16f nonoptical, 19 phase contrast, 13 polarizing, 17–18 resolving power in, 12, 12t, 15f–16f ultraviolet (UV), 16 virtual, 1, 20–21, 21 Microtubule(s), 24, 55–58 abnormalities in, 65f astral, 66, 66, 88 characteristics of, 69t in cilia, 112–117, 115 depolymerization of, 56, 56 drugs targeting, 65f kinetochore, 88 microscopic features of, 57, 57, 58 in mitosis, 88 polar, 88 polymerization of, 55, 55–56 Sertoli cell, 805, 806 triplet, 64, 66–67, 67, 113–114 Microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), 56–57 Microtubule-organizing center (MTOC, centrosome), 25, 55–56, 64, 64, 64–68, 66–68, 88 abnormalities, and cancer, 71, 71f basal body formation by, 64, 64–66, 66, 68, 111, 118 ciliogenesis in, 67–68, 68, 118 Microvascular bed, 404 Microvilli, 109–110, 110–111, 119t, 569 of gallbladder, 641, 642 of kidney, 109, 715, 715 of small intestine, 586 Micturition reflex, 727 Midcortical nephron, 705 Midcycle pain, in women, 848 Middle ear, 937, 937–940 bones of, 937–940, 941 development of, 936, 938 Mifepristone, 856 Milk ejection, 867 Milk lines, 866 Milk production, 866, 870–872 Milk (deciduous) teeth, 533, 538f–539f Mineralization, 235–236 Mineralocorticoids, 768t, 770 Minor calyces, 700, 700–701, 702, 724–725, 730p–731p, 736p–737p Mitochondria, 24, 26t, 52–54, 53–54 Mitochondrial defects, 53–54 Mitochondrial DNA, 52 Mitochondrial porins, 52 Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), 94 Mitosis, 85, 86–89 in erythropoiesis, 295 in granulopoiesis, 298 meiosis versus, 87 in oogenesis, 836 phases of, 86–89, 87 in spermatogenesis, 790, 797, 798–799, 799, 801 Mitotic activity, in cells, 84 Mitotic catastrophe, 85, 92, 94 Mitotic spindles, 66, 66, 71, 71f, 88–89, 88–89 Mitral valve, 405, 406, 408, 409 Mittelschmerz, 848 975 Index Mastoiditis, 940 Mastoid process, 937 Matrilysins, 166 Matrix bone, 214–215, 221, 235–236 cytoplasmic, 23, 71 elastic cartilage, 200 enamel (tooth), 538–539 extracellular See Extracellular matrix fibrocartilage, 201, 212p–213p hair, 503, 504, 504–505 hyaline cartilage, 194–198, 196–198, 206p–207p mitochondrial, 52–53 nail, 510, 524p–525p nuclear, 77, 77 Matrix cells, 504, 504–505 Matrix Gla-protein (MGP), 215 Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), 166, 223–224, 227 Matrix vesicles, 221, 235–236 Maturation model, of endosomes, 37 Maturation promoting factor (MPF), 85–86 Mature bone, 217–218, 218, 219, 220, 235, 237 M (microfold) cells, 587, 591, 592f Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), 292 Mean corpuscular volume (MCV), 292 Mechanically gated ion channels, 31, 944–945 Mechanical protection, by epithelial tissue, 107 Mechanoelectric transducer (MET) channel protein, 944, 944–945, 952 Mechanoreceptors, 110, 117, 500, 943 Mechanosensitivity, 141 Mechanosensors, 111 Mechanotransduction system, 176, 223 Median eminence, 746, 747 Mediastinum, location of heart in, 405 Mediastinum of testes, 793, 794 Mediators of inflammation, 182 Medium (muscular) arteries, 411, 412t, 416, 420–421, 421–422, 438p–439p Medulla of adrenal gland, 766, 766 See also Adrenal medulla of hair, 503, 505, 524p–525p of kidney, 700, 700–701, 701, 730p–731p, 736p–737p of lymph node, 461–462, 463 of ovary, 835 of thymus, 465, 465–466, 466, 486p–487p Medullary collecting duct, 702–703, 705, 719 Medullary cords, 462, 478p–479p Medullary rays (of Ferrein), 700, 700, 701, 703 Medullary sinuses, 462, 478p–479p Medullary thyroid carcinoma, 759 Megakaryoblast, 297 Megakaryocyte(s), 288–290, 289, 292, 293, 297 Megakaryocyte-committed progenitor (MKP) cells, 294–295, 297, 299t Megakaryocyte/erythrocyte progenitor (MEP), 293, 297, 299t Megakaryocyte/erythrocyte progenitor (MEP) cells, 294–295 Meibomian (tarsal) glands, 144, 923, 924 Meiosis, 77, 89–90 in females, 87, 89, 842, 842–843, 845 in males, 87, 89, 790, 797, 799, 799–800, 801 mitosis versus, 87 phases of, 87, 89–90 Meiosis-specific cohesion complexes, 90 Meissner’s corpuscles, 501, 502, 502, 522p–523p, 866 Meissner’s plexus, 570, 571, 583, 610p–611p Melanin, 497–498, 498, 500f–501f, 516p–517p Melanocyte(s), 493, 496–498, 498, 500f–501f, 516p–517p, 907, 909 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), 751 Melanoma, 491f–492f Melatonin, 757, 757t Membrane, 147f See also specific membranes Membrane blebbing, 30, 91–92 Membrane bone, 231 Membrane-bounded vesicles, 143 Membrane-initiated steroid signaling, 744–745, 745 Membrane transport, 31–35 Membrane zone, of platelets, 290, 291 Membranous labyrinth, 936, 938, 941, 942, 943–955, 944 Membranous organelles, 23–24, 26–55 See also specific organelles Membranous urethra, 727 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 976 Mixed acini, 546, 547, 549, 562p–563p Mixed spicule, 231, 233, 250p–251p M line, of sarcomere, 318, 319, 321, 322 Mobilization, of adipose tissue, 259 Modified fluid–mosaic model, 27, 28 Modiolar vein, common, 955 Modiolus, 941–943, 949, 958p–959p Molar glands, 545 Molecular motor proteins, 57–58, 58 Monoamine neurotransmitters, 366t Monoamine oxidase (MAO), 367 Monocilia, 111, 114–117, 117, 119t Monoclonal antibodies, 7–8, 9f Monocyte(s), 175, 271t, 288, 289, 293, 301, 308p–309p, 443 Monocyte colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), 300t Monocyte progenitors (MoP or CFU-M), 295, 299t, 301 Monoiodotyrosine (MIT), 760 Mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), 32–33, 181f, 288 Monophyletic theory of hemopoiesis, 294–295 Monorefringent bands, 318 Mordant, Morula, 855 Motilin, 581, 581t, 640 Motor (efferent) nerve fibers, 329, 330, 379 Motor (efferent) neurons, 358, 358, 360, 381, 382 skeletal muscle, 326, 326–328, 327 ventral, 386 Motor unit, 328 Mounting, of specimen, M phase, of cell cycle, 84, 84–85 See also Mitosis M-protein, of sarcomere, 321, 322 Mucinogen granules, 144, 547–548, 548, 573, 590, 590 Mucin-secreting glands, 641 Mucociliary escalator, 670 Mucolipidosis I, 43f Mucosa (mucous membrane), 147f, 526–527, 568–570 of bronchus, 674 of cervix, 857, 888p–889p of esophagus, 571, 572, 573, 604p–605p of gallbladder, 641, 641–643, 658p–659p of large intestine, 594–596, 595, 596, 620p–625p of nasal cavity (olfactory), 662, 664, 665, 665, 688p–689p of oral cavity, 527–529, 528, 545 of prostate gland, 813 of respiratory system, 664–665, 669f of seminal vesicles, 832p–833p of small intestine, 584, 584–591, 612p–619p of stomach See Gastric mucosa of trachea, 669, 670 of urothelium, 726, 738p–741p of uterine tube, 849, 849, 882p–883p of vagina, 863, 863–864, 864, 894p–895p Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), 443, 457, 460, 473t Mucosal glands, 569, 570 Mucous acini, 546, 548, 562p–563p, 566p–567p Mucous cells See Goblet cells Mucous connective tissue, 157–158, 158 Mucous membrane, 147f Mucous neck cells, 575, 577, 583, 610p–611p Mucous surface cells, 573–576, 575, 606p–607p, 610p–613p Mucus, 575–577 Müller cells, 368, 913, 913, 918–920 Müllerian-inhibiting factor (MIF), 792, 793 Multiadhesive glycoproteins, 176t in bone matrix, 214–215, 221 in extracellular matrix, 171–172, 174, 175 in glomerular basement membrane, 706 in hyaline cartilage, 194–195, 196, 206p–207p Multicellular glands, 144, 145t, 146 Multiple myeloma, Multiple sclerosis (MS), 370f Multiplexins, 163 Multipolar neurons, 358, 359 Multipotent adult progenitor cells (MAPCs), 183 Multivesicular bodies (MVBs), 37–38, 38 Muscarinic ACh receptors, 366–367, 366t Muscle cells, 23, 99, 100 See also specific types Muscle contraction, 315 cardiac muscle, 334, 334–335 skeletal muscle, 321–329 actomyosin cross-bridge cycle in, 320, 323–325, 324 neuromuscular transmission in, 326–328 Pawlina_Index.indd 976 regulation of, 325–326 summary of events in, 328–329, 329 smooth muscle, 335–339, 338 Muscle fascicle, 315, 315–317, 317, 344p–345p Muscle fibers of cardiac muscle, 331–334, 332, 333 of skeletal muscle, 315–317, 316, 344p–347p color in vivo, 316 contractile speed of, 316 enzymatic velocity of, 316 fast glycolytic (type IIb), 317, 317 fast oxidative glycolytic (type IIa), 317 metabolic profile of, 316 slow oxidative (type I), 316–317, 317 structural and functional subunit of, 317, 317–321 of smooth muscle, 335, 335–336, 336 Muscle spindles, 329, 330, 381 Muscle tissue, 97, 99, 100, 314–343, 316 See also specific types classification of, 314–315 comparison of types, 340f–341f contraction of See Muscle contraction histogenesis of, 101 metabolism and ischemia of, 320f overview of, 314–315 striated, 314–315 Muscular (medium) arteries, 411, 412t, 416, 420–421, 421–422, 438p–439p Muscular dystrophy, 81, 321, 323f, 331 Muscularis of bronchi, 674 of uterine tubes, 848, 882p–883p of vagina, 863, 863, 894p–895p Muscularis externa, 568, 569, 570–571 contractions of, 570–571 esophageal, 571, 572, 604p–605p gallbladder, 641, 641–642, 658p–659p gastric, 340, 584, 608p–609p large intestine (colon), 340, 597 small intestine, 354p–355p, 594, 595, 612p–619p Muscularis mucosae, 568, 569, 570 esophageal, 604p–605p gastric, 583 large intestine, 596, 620p–621p small intestine, 587, 612p–613p, 612p–619p urothelium, 738p–741p Muscular venules, 412t, 425–426 Myasthenia gravis, 328f, 367 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 679 Mydriatic agents, 908 Myelinated axons, 368–371, 371, 372, 378 Myelination, 368 Myelin basic protein (MBP), 369 Myelin debris, clearance of, 389, 389–390, 390 Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), 376 Myelin sheath of central nervous system, 376 diseases associated with, 369, 370f, 376 of peripheral nervous system, 368–371, 369, 370 Myeloblast, 298, 312p–313p Myelocytes, 298, 312p–313p Myeloma, multiple, Myeloperoxidase (MPO), 279, 282, 282, 283 Myenteric plexus, 570, 571, 584, 594, 595 Myoblasts, 329–330 Myocardial infarction (MI), 335 Myocardium, 407, 407, 408 Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers (MERRF), 53–54 MyoD transcription factor, 329–330 Myoepithelial cells, 340 of eccrine glands, 507, 508, 509, 518p–519p of iris, 907, 909 of mammary glands, 753, 867, 869, 896p–899p of salivary glands, 548, 549 Myofibrils, 317, 317–321, 346p–347p, 350p–351p Myofibroblast(s), 174, 175–176, 177, 180f, 340 Myofilaments, 60, 314, 317, 318–321 Myoglobin, 316 Myoid cells, of testes, 340, 794, 795 Myomesin, 321, 322 Myometrium, 835, 850, 850–853, 886p–887p Myosin, 60, 89, 109–110, 314, 320, 320–321 rigor configuration in skeletal muscle, 325 in skeletal muscle contraction, 323–325, 324 in smooth muscle contraction, 335–339, 339 unbent confirmation of, 325 Myosin (thick) filaments, 60 of skeletal muscle, 319, 320–321, 321, 337 of smooth muscle, 335–336, 337, 338 Myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), 336, 338–339 Myostatin, 329–330 Myotendinous junction, 348p–349p Myotubes, 330, 331 N Nabothian cysts, 857, 857, 888p–889p Nail(s), 488, 510, 510, 524p–525p Nail bed, 510 Nail matrix, 510, 524p–525p Nail plate, 510 Nail root, 510 Naϩ/Kϩ-ATPase pumps, 715–720 Nares, anterior, 663 Nasal cavities, 662, 663, 663–667 cells of, 664 epithelium of, 664, 665, 665–666, 688p–689p olfactory region of, 663, 665–667 olfactory transduction in, 666, 667 respiratory region of, 663, 664–665 stem cells of, 666 vestibule of, 663–664, 664 Nasal septum, 664 Nasolacrimal duct, 663, 924, 924 Nasopharynx, 663, 663, 664 Natural killer (NK) cells, 184, 286–287, 293, 443, 446 Nebulin, 320, 322 Necroptosis, 94 Necrosis, 91, 91t, 92 Necrosis, hepatic, 632, 634f Negative feedback, 745, 746f Negative selection, of T cells, 467, 468 Neonatal line, 534–535, 542 Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 677 Nephrin, 708 Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, 720f, 721f, 753, 754f Nephron(s), 700, 701–705, 702 diluting segment of, 718 distal thick segment of, 702 general organization of, 701–703, 703 intermediate (midcortical), 705 juxtamedullary, 705 proximal thick segment of, 702 subscapular (cortical), 704–705 thin segment of, 702 tubules of, 700–705, 703–704, 714–720 Nephrotic syndrome, 708 Nerve(s) cranial, 356 peripheral, 356, 379–381 spinal, 356 Nerve endings encapsulated, 381, 502, 502 in female genitalia, 866 free (nonencapsulated), 381, 501, 501, 502, 866 Nerve fibers, use of term, 380 Nerve impulse conduction, 361, 378 Nerve tissue, 97, 99–100, 101, 356–393 See also Nervous system composition of, 357 histogenesis of, 100 origins of cells in, 378 overview of, 356–357 Nervi vasorum (vascularis), 412, 421 Nervous system anatomic divisions of, 356 functional divisions of, 356–357 nerve cells of See Neuron(s) overview of, 356–357 response to stimuli, 357 secretions of, 357 supporting cells of, 357, 368–378 See also Neuroglial cells vasculature of, 357 Nestin, 62t, 63, 360 Neural apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP), 846 Neural crest, 101, 743, 766, 767 Neural ectoderm, 904t Neural mobilization, 259 Neural pathways, 356 Neural regeneration, 389, 389, 391 Neural retina, 901, 901, 903, 912 Neural stem cells, 359–360, 378 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 977 Night blindness, 627, 916 Nipple, 866, 866–867, 867 Nissl bodies, 48, 48, 358, 359, 359, 361, 402p–403p Nitric oxide (NO), 282, 366t, 367, 415, 706, 818f Nitric oxide cGMP pathway, 338 Nitric oxide synthase (NOS), 367, 415 NK cells See Natural killer (NK) cells Nodal cardiac muscle cells, 410 Nodal cilia, 111, 117–118, 119t Node of Ranvier, 358, 360, 369–370, 372, 376, 396p–397p Nonencapsulated (free) nerve endings, 381, 501, 501, 502, 866 Nonimmune globulins, 271, 627 Nonlamellar bone, 218 Nonmembranous organelles, 23–25, 55–71 See also specific organelles Nonoptical microscope, 19 Nonshivering thermogenesis, 264 Nonspecific (innate) immunity, 442–443 Norepinephrine, 744, 757, 768–770, 768t in adipose tissue regulation, 259, 263, 265 in cardiac regulation, 411 as neurotransmitter, 366t, 367 Normoblast, 295, 296, 297, 310p–311p Normocellular bone marrow, 303f Nose, external, 663 Nostrils, 663 NSF/␣-SNAP protein complex, 36 Nuclear bag fiber, 329, 330 Nuclear chain fiber, 329, 330 Nuclear envelope, 74, 80–82, 81–82 Nuclear export sequence (NES), 82 Nuclear factor-␬B (NF-␬B), 226 Nuclear ferritin, 905 Nuclear import receptor (importin), 82 Nuclear-initiated steroid signaling, 744–745, 745 Nuclear (fibrous) lamina, 80–81, 81 Nuclear lamins, 62t, 63, 80–81 Nuclear layers, of retina, 913, 913, 919–920, 930p–931p Nuclear localization signal (NLS), 82 Nuclear matrix, 77, 77 Nuclear pore(s), 74, 75, 80–82, 81, 82 Nuclear pore complex (NPC), 81–82, 83 Nuclear ring, 81, 83 Nuclei of gray matter, 385, 386 Nucleoid, 55 Nucleolar-associated chromatin, 75 Nucleolonema, 78–80 Nucleolus, 6, 25t, 26t, 74, 78, 78–80 Nucleolytic enzymes, 645 Nucleoplasm, 4, 82–83 Nucleoporins (Nup proteins), 81 Nucleoproteins, Nucleosomes, 76–77 Nucleostemin, 80 Nucleotide probe, 10 Nucleus, 23, 74–96 components of, 74–83 functions and pathologies of, 26t microscopic features of, 25t overview of, 74 passage from cytoplasm to, 82 relationship to rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum, 74, 75 Nucleus–basal body connectors (NBBCs), 67, 67 Nurim, 63, 81 Nutrient arteries, 218 Nutrient foramina, 218, 219 O Obesity, 254, 261f, 266 Objective lens, 12, 13, 18 Occludin, 123, 124, 124t Occluding junctions, 120–126, 122–125, 124t, 126f, 132t Octamer, 77 Ocular lens, 12, 13 Odontoblasts, 536–538, 537, 540, 542–543, 542–544 Odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), 666, 667 Olfactory epithelium, 665, 665–666, 688p–689p Olfactory glands, 665, 665, 666–667, 688p–689p Olfactory mucosa, 662, 664, 665, 665, 688p–689p Olfactory receptor(s) (ORs), 666, 667 Olfactory receptor cells, 665–666, 667, 688p–689p Olfactory region, of nasal cavity, 663 Olfactory transduction, 666, 667 Olfactory vesicle, 665, 666 Oligodendrocyte(s), 357, 358, 371, 375–376, 376, 378, 389 Oligodendrocyte myelin glycoprotein (OMgp), 376 Oligonucleotide probes, 10 Omental appendices, 594, 595 Oocyte(s), 87, 835–836, 836 fertilization of, 842, 844–846, 849 follicular development of, 836, 836–841 impregnation of, 845 primary, 89, 842, 842 release of, 836, 836, 841–843, 842 secondary, 90, 841–843 Oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI), 840 Oogenesis, 87, 89, 835, 836, 836–841 Open-angle glaucoma, 910f Open canalicular system (OCS), of platelets, 290, 291 Open circulation, of spleen, 471, 472, 472 Open enteroendocrine cells, 580, 581, 591 Ophthalmoscopic examination, 908, 920, 921 Opioid peptides, endogenous, 366t, 367 Opsin, 916–918, 918 Optic cup, 903, 903 Optic disc, 907, 912, 920, 920, 930p–931p Optic grooves, 902–903 Optic nerve, 900, 901, 901, 902, 907, 913, 920, 928p–929p Optic papilla, 912 Optic sulci, 902–903 Optic vesicles, 902–903 Oral cavity, 100, 527–545, 662, 664 Oral cavity proper, 527 Oral mucosa, 527–529, 528 Ora serrata, 902, 907, 908, 928p–929p Orbicularis oculi muscle, 923, 924 Orbit, 900 Orchiopexy, 792 Organelle(s), 23–25 See also specific organelles functions and pathologies of, 26t membranous, 23–24, 26–55 microscopic features of, 25t movement of, 57–58, 58 nonmembranous, 23–25, 55–71 Organelle free zone, of lens, 921, 922 Organelle zone, of platelets, 290, 290–291 Oropharynx, 663, 664 Orthochromatophilic erythroblast, 295, 296, 297, 310p–311p Orthogonal array, 160, 190p–191p, 905 Osmium tetroxide, 3, 18 Osmosensors, 111 Osmotic pressure, colloid, 271 Ossicles of ear, 937, 937–940, 941 development of, 936, 938 diseases affecting, 940, 942f hearing function of, 938–940, 951–952 muscles moving, 940 Ossification endochondral, 198–199, 199, 208p–209p, 228, 231–234, 232–233, 248p–251p intramembranous, 228–230, 230, 231, 252p–253p Ossification centers, 228, 248p–249p primary, 231, 232 secondary, 232, 233 Osteoarthritis, 195f Osteoblast(s), 215, 221–222, 221–223, 229t in bone repair, 240–241 in endochondral ossification, 230–231, 248p–251p hormone production by, 237–239 in intramembranous ossification, 228–230, 230, 252p–253p transformation to osteocyte, 223, 230, 230 Osteocalcin, 215, 221, 235, 238–239 Osteoclast(s), 181f, 215, 221, 225–228, 229t, 250p–251p activation of, 226–227 basolateral region of, 226–227, 229 clear zone of, 226, 229 location of, 225, 226, 229t origin of, 225–226, 227 ruffled border of, 226, 229, 250p–251p Osteocyte(s), 156, 215, 221, 223–224, 223–224, 229t, 246p–247p hormone production by, 237–239 in intramembranous ossification, 252p–253p osteoblast transformation to, 223, 230, 230 Osteocytic osteolysis, 224 977 Index Neural tube, 100, 102, 373, 378, 767 Neurilemma, 368–369, 396p–397p Neurilemmal (Schwann) cells, 100, 327, 356, 360, 368–371, 373 injury response of, 389, 389, 391 junction between, 369–370, 372 myelin sheath production by, 368–371, 369, 370 Neurocrine hormones, 582t, 591 Neuroectoderm derivatives, 100–101, 102 Neuroendocrine cells See Enteroendocrine cells Neuroendocrine system, 745–746 Neuroendocrine system, diffuse (DNES), 578f Neuroepithelial cells, of taste buds, 530–531, 531, 560p–561p Neurofibrillary tangles, 65f Neurofilaments, 62t, 63 Neuroglial cells, 100, 135, 357, 368–378, 384 peripheral, 135, 357, 368–371 Neurohypophysis See Posterior lobe of pituitary gland Neuromediators, 99–100 Neuromuscular junction, 326, 327, 327–328, 367 Neuron(s), 99–100, 357–368 adrenergic, 367 bipolar, 358, 359 catecholaminergic, 367 cell body of, 99, 358, 358–360, 360, 361 communication among, 361–367 See also Neurotransmitters; Synapse(s) development of, 378 functional components of, 358, 358 Golgi type I, 361 Golgi type II, 361 injury response of, 389, 389–391 intercalated (interneurons), 358, 359, 384, 913 interdependence with neuroglia, 371–373 life span of, 359–360 motor (efferent), 358, 358, 381, 382 arrangement of, 358, 360 of skeletal muscle, 326, 326–329, 327 ventral, 386 multipolar, 358, 359 neurosecretory, 751 presynaptic, 382 pseudounipolar, 358, 359 retinal, 912–913 secretions of, 357 sensory (afferent), 357–358, 360, 381, 382 serotonergic, 367 unipolar, 358, 359 Neuron terminals, 329, 330 Neuropil, 385 Neurosecretory neurons, 751 Neurosecretory vesicles, 752, 752, 753 Neurospora crassa, 583 Neurotransmitters, 363–367, 366t, 510 excitatory, 365 gastrointestinal, 579f inhibitory, 365 receptors for, 365, 366t reuptake of, 367 Neutrophil(s), 157, 175, 185, 271t, 278–283, 306p–307p, 443 chromatin of, 278, 279 development of, 293, 297–301, 299t, 312p–313p disorders of, 283, 283f granules of, 278–279, 279 lysosomes of, 41 mature, 298 motility (migration) of, 279–280, 280 nucleus of, 278, 279 phagocytosis by, 178–179, 280–283, 281, 282 polymorphonuclear, 298 receptors of, 280–281 segmented, 298 Neutrophil chemotactic factor (NCF), 182 Neutrophil progenitors (NoP), 295, 297–298, 299t Nexin, 113 Nexuses See Communicating junctions NF-␬B See Nuclear factor-␬B Niches, of stem cells, 146, 183, 505, 594, 638 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase complex, 281–282, 282, 283f Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide–tetrazolium (NADH-TR) reaction, 316 Nicotine withdrawal symptoms, 489 Nicotinic ACh receptors, 327, 327–328, 366, 366t 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 978 Osteocytic remodeling, 223–224 Osteogenic layer, 231 Osteoid, 221 Osteomalacia, 239f Osteon(s), 217–218, 218, 219, 234–235, 244p–247p Osteonectin, 215, 221 Osteopetrosis, 228 Osteopontin, 174, 177t, 215, 221 Osteoporosis, 235, 237f–238f, 239f, 759 Osteoprogenitor cells, 215, 219–221, 221, 228, 231, 240 Osteoprotegerin (OPG), 226 Osteosarcoma, 85 Otic vesicle, 936, 938 Otitis media, 940 Otoconia (otoliths), 947, 948, 955f Otocyst, 936 Otogelin, 951 Otolith(s), 947, 948, 955f Otolithic membrane, 946–947, 947, 948 Otosclerosis, 942f Otoscopic examination, 937–938 Outer limiting membrane, of retina, 913, 913, 918–919, 930p–931p Outer medulla, renal, 701, 701 Outer nuclear layer, of retina, 913, 913, 919, 930p–931p Outer nuclear membrane, 80, 81 Outer plexiform layer, of retina, 913, 913, 919, 930p–931p Outer stripe, of renal medulla, 701, 701 Ova (sing., ovum), 87, 89, 790, 842–843, 855–857 Ovarian arteries, 835, 848 Ovarian cancer, 836 Ovarian cycle, 851f–852f Ovarian follicles, 835–844, 876p–879p atretic, 836, 846–848, 876p–879p barrier protecting, 837–838 collapse and reorganization of, 843, 843–844, 844 development of, 836, 836–841, 837 growing, 836, 837, 876p–877p mature (Graafian), 836, 836 monitoring or imaging of, 841, 842 oocyte release from, 836, 836, 841–843 primary, 836, 837–839, 838, 876p–879p primordial, 836, 836–837, 876p–877p secondary, 836, 839, 839–840, 840, 878p–879p wall of, 843, 843 Ovarian follicular atresia, 846–848, 878p–879p Ovarian teratomas, 102f–103f Ovary(ies), 834, 835, 835–848, 876p–881p blood supply to, 848 cortex of, 835–836, 876p–877p, 880p–881p cyclic changes in, 834–835 menopause, 834–835 menstrual cycle, 834, 851–855, 851f–852f midcycle pain, 848 epithelioid tissue of, 106 germinal epithelium of, 836, 841, 841, 876p–877p histogenesis of, 101 innervation of, 848 lymphatic vessels in, 848 medulla of, 835 polycystic, 841f structure of, 835–836, 836 Ovulation, 836, 836, 841–843 Oxidation reactions, 52 Oxidative enzymes, 54 Oxygen-dependent intracellular killing, 281–282, 282 Oxygen-independent killing mechanisms, 283 Oxyntic cells See Parietal cells Oxyphil cells, 764, 765, 784p–785p Oxytalan fibers, 545 Oxytocin, 744, 752–755, 753t, 866, 871–872 P Pacemaker of heart, 409 Pachytene, of meiosis, 87, 90 Pacinian corpuscles, 360, 501, 502, 502, 522p–523p, 866 Packed cell volume (PCV), 270–271, 292 Paclitaxel, 65f Paget’s disease, 759 Palate hard, 527–528, 528, 664 soft, 528, 528, 664 Palatine glands, 545 Palatine raphe, 528, 528 Palatine tonsils, 459, 459, 476p–477p, 527, 529 Palmar fibromatosis, 180f Pawlina_Index.indd 978 Pancreas, 569, 643, 643–647, 660p–661p acinar cells of, 644–645, 644–646, 660p–661p acini of, 644, 644–645, 645, 660p–661p blood supply to, 651 endocrine, 644, 647–651, 660p–661p epithelial tissue of, 106, 150p–155p exocrine, 644, 644–647, 660p–661p innervation of, 650–651 islet cells of, 648, 648–649, 648t, 649, 649t islets of, 578f, 647–648, 647–651, 660p–661p Pancreatic ducts, 640, 643–645, 643–647, 660p–661p Pancreatic enzymes, 645 Pancreatic hormones, 648–651, 650t Paneth cells, 146, 587, 590, 591, 594 Panniculus adiposus, 255, 493 Panniculus carnosus, 493 Papillary muscles, of heart, 405, 409, 409 Pap (Papanicolaou) smear, 858, 865f Paracellular pathway, 125, 125, 414 Paracrine hormones, 579f, 582t, 591, 743, 743 Paracrine signaling, 143, 144 Paraffin, Parafollicular cells (C cells), 758–759, 759 Paragangliomas, 772f Paranasal sinuses, 663, 667 Paranemin, 62t, 63 Paraptosis, 94 Parasitic infections, 126f, 185, 285 Parasympathetic division, of ANS, 357, 381, 382, 382, 383 Parasympathetic ganglia, 379t Parasympathetic regulation, of heart, 410 Parathyroid glands, 101, 764–766, 765, 784p–785p Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 227–228, 236–237, 238f, 699, 764–766, 765t Paraurethral ducts, 727 Paraurethral glands, 727 Paraventricular nuclei, of hypothalamus, 747, 751–752 Paravertebral ganglia, 382 Parietal cells, 575, 576–580, 578–579, 583, 610p–611p Parietal layer of serous pericardium, 407, 407 Parkinsonism, secondary, 362f Parkinson’s disease, 360, 362f, 384 Parotid (Stensen’s) duct, 527 Parotid glands, 527, 545, 547, 550, 551, 564p–565p Parotid gland tumors, 553f Parotid papilla, 527 Pars distalis, of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 748–751, 749, 778p–781p Pars fibrosa, of nucleolus, 78 Pars flaccida, of tympanic membrane, 938 Pars granulosa, of nucleolus, 78 Pars intermedia, of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 751, 751, 778p–779p Pars nervosa, of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 751, 778p–781p Pars tensa, of tympanic membrane, 938 Pars tuberalis, of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 751, 778p–779p Passive transport, 31, 31 Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), 32–33, 281 Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), 281 PDZ-domain proteins, 123 Pedicels, of podocytes, 704, 705, 707–708, 712 Peg cells, of uterine tubes, 849 Pelvis, autonomic innervation of, 384 Penicillar arterioles, of spleen, 472 Penile urethra, 727 Penis, 818–819, 818f, 819 Pentose phosphate pathway (pentose shunt), 282, 282 Pepsin, 577 Pepsinogen, 577 Peptic ulcer disease (PUD), 576f Peptide hormones, 38, 862–863 Peptide neurotransmitters, 366t, 367 Peptide YY (PYY), 257–258, 582t Perforating canals, 217–218, 218, 219, 244p–245p Perforins, 446, 451 Periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS), 469, 469, 482p–483p Periaxonal plasma membrane, 368 Periaxoplasmic plaques, 361 Pericardial cavity, 407, 407 Pericardium, 405, 407, 407 Perichondrium, 199, 200, 206p–207p, 210p–211p, 230–231 Perichoroidal space, 912 Pericryptal fibroblast sheath, of large intestine, 596–597 Pericyte(s), 184, 301, 340, 424–426 in blood–thymus barrier, 467, 467 as stem cells, 183–184, 340, 424–426 Perilymph, 941, 946, 946, 948, 948, 949 Perilymphatic space, 941 Perimetrium, 835, 850, 850 Perimysium, 315, 316, 344p–345p Perineurium, 340, 379, 380, 381, 396p–397p Perinuclear cisternal space, 80, 81 Perinuclear cytoplasm, 358–359, 368–369 Periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) cells, 465 Periodic acid–Schiff (PAS) reaction, 6, in basement membrane, 134, 134 in reticular fibers, 168 Periodontal disease, 544 Periodontal ligament, 541, 544–545 Periodontium, 545 Periosteal bony collar, 231, 232, 248p–249p Periosteal cells, 216, 221, 221, 224 Periosteum, 216, 216 Peripheral edema, 425 Peripheral ganglia, 379, 379t Peripheral lymphatic organs, 446 Peripheral membrane proteins, 27, 28, 273–275, 274 Peripheral nerve(s), 356, 379–381, 380, 396p–397p Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 100, 356 autonomic division of, 100, 357, 381–385 See also Autonomic nervous system cardiac regulation by, 410–411 histogenesis of, 101 injury response in, 389, 389–390, 390, 391 myelin sheath of, 368–371, 369, 370 organization of, 379–381 origins of cells in, 378 supporting cells of, 135, 357, 368–371 unmyelinated axons of, 371, 373 vasculature of, 357 Peripheral neuroglia, 135, 357, 368–371 Peripheral zone of platelets, 290, 290 of prostate gland, 813, 814 Peripherin, 62t, 63 Periportal space (of Mall), 630, 630, 635, 636, 639 Perisinusoidal space (of Disse), 631, 634–635, 635 Peristalsis, 570–571, 594, 726, 849 Peritendineum, 190p–191p Peritubular capillaries, 721, 723, 723–724 Peritubular tissue, of testes, 794 Periurethral zone, 814, 814 Perivascular cells See Pericyte(s) Perivitelline barrier, 846 Perivitelline space, 839, 845–846 Perlecan, 136 Permanent teeth, 533 Pernicious anemia, 278f, 576f, 577, 580 Peroxisome(s), 24, 25t, 54–55 functions and pathologies of, 26t hepatocyte, 636, 637 Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor gamma (PPAR␥), 255–256, 256 Peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor gamma (PPAR␥) coactivator-1 (PGC-1), 263 PET See Positron emission tomography Peyer’s patches, 459, 460, 570, 587, 588, 591, 618p–619p P-face, of plasma membrane freeze fracture, 19, 29, 29 Phagocyte oxidase (phox) system, 281–282, 282, 283f Phagocyte system, mononuclear, 32–33, 181f Phagocytic degradation, of collagen, 166, 167 Phagocytosis, 32–33, 33, 40, 41 liver and, 633–634 lymph nodes and, 463–464 by macrophages, 177–178, 283, 454–455, 679 by mesangial cells, 712 by microglia, 376 by neutrophils, 280–283, 281, 282 oxygen-dependent killing mechanisms in, 281–282, 282 oxygen-independent killing mechanisms in, 283 respiratory burst in, 281–282, 282 by retinal pigment epithelium, 914 by Sertoli cells, 806 Phagosomes, 32–33, 33, 40, 41, 281, 281 Phakinin, 62t, 63 Phalangeal cells, of internal ear, 950–952, 951, 953, 960p–961p Phalloidin, 65f Pharmacological chaperone therapy, 42f 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 979 Plasma proteins, 271–272, 626–627, 710 Plasminogen, 291 Plasminogen activator, 807 Plasmodium falciparum, 40 Platelet(s), 270–271, 271t, 288–291 development of, 288–290, 289, 292, 293, 297, 299t functions of, 291, 291 low level of, 297 structure of, 290, 290–291 Platelet count, 292 Plectin family, 63, 142 Pleura, visceral, 682, 694p–695p Plexiform layers, of retina, 913, 913, 919–920, 930p–931p Plicae, 133, 133 Plicae, of proximal convoluted tubule, 715 Plicae circulares, 569, 584, 584, 616p–617p Ploidy, analysis of, 7f Pluripotent cells, induced (iPS), 147 Pluripotential progenitor cells, 203 Pneumocytes, 677, 679–682, 696p–697p Pneumonia, 684f–685f Podocytes, 704, 705, 707–708, 708–710, 712, 734p–735p Polar bodies, 87, 89, 842, 842–843 Polarizing microscope, 17–18 Polar microtubules, 88 Polychromatophilic erythroblast, 295, 296, 310p–311p Polychromatophilic erythrocytes, 295, 296, 297, 310p–311p Polyclonal antibodies, 7–8 Polycystic kidney disease (PKD), 117 Polycystic ovarian disease, 841f Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 10 Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor (pIgR), 552, 593 Polymorph(s) See Neutrophil(s) Polyribosomes, 44–45, 45 Polysome, 45 Polyspermy, 845–846 Polyubiquitination, 44 Pompe disease, 43f Population coding scheme, 666 Porins, mitochondrial, 52 Porocytosis, 363, 364 Porta hepatis, 629, 630 Portal canals, 632, 654p–657p Portal hypertension, 599, 635 Portal lobule, 630, 631, 632 Portal system, 405 hepatic, 405 hypothalamohypophyseal, 405, 748, 748, 755 Portal triad, 629, 630, 654p–657p Portal vein, 405, 629, 630, 631, 632, 654p–655p Positive feedback, 745 Positive selection, of T cells, 467, 468 Positron emission tomography (PET), 262, 264f Postcapillary venules, 279–280, 280, 404, 412t, 425–426, 457, 457 Posterior chamber, of eye, 902, 902, 907, 928p–929p, 932p–933p Posterior lobe of pituitary gland, 746, 747, 751–755, 778p–781p cells of, 751, 755, 778p–781p hormones of, 752–755, 753t neurosecretion storage in, 751–752 neurosecretory vesicles of, 752, 752, 753 origin of, 746, 747 structure of, 746, 747, 751 Posterior pigment epithelium, of iris, 907, 909 Postsynaptic density, 363 Postsynaptic membrane, 363, 365 Posttranscriptional modifications, 44–45, 46 Posttranslational modifications, 31, 46–47, 50–51 Posttranslational processing, of insulin, 651f Prader-Willi/Angelman syndrome (PWS/AS), 79f Prader-Willi syndrome, 258 Preadipocytes, 255–256, 256 Precapillary sphincter, 423, 425, 426 Precocious puberty, 757, 797 Pregnancy, 834 corpus luteum of, 846 ectopic, 842, 849, 863 hCG levels in, 846, 862–863 hyperthyroidism in, 863 mammary gland changes in, 868–870, 869 placenta in, 858–863 uterine changes in, 850–851, 856, 856–857 Pregnancy tests, 846 Prelysosomes, 37 Premelanosomes, 497 Preodontoblasts, 537 Presbycusis, 950f Presbyopia, 922–923 Pressure receptors, 502 Presynaptic element, 363 Presynaptic neurons, 382 Presynaptic parasympathetic neurons, 382 Prickle cell layer (stratum spinosum), 489–490, 490, 514p–515p, 528 Primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), 118, 118f Primary immune response, 447 Primary messengers, 30 Primitive connective tissue, 157 Primitive fat organs, 256 Primitive node, 111, 118 Primordial germ cells, 791, 792, 836 Primordial ovarian follicle, 836, 836–837, 876p–877p Principal cells of collecting ducts (light cells), 719, 719 of epididymis, 811, 811, 812 of parathyroid glands (chief cells), 764, 765 of thyroid gland (follicular cells), 758, 758–759, 759 Pro-␣ chains, 165 Procentrioles, 66, 66, 68, 118 Procollagen, 163–165, 164, 165 Proerythroblast, 295, 296, 310p–311p Progesterone, 844, 846, 851f–852f, 853–854, 862, 870 Programmed cell death (apoptosis), 54, 91–94 Prohydrolase, 37 Prolactin (PRL), 748, 749, 749t, 808, 846, 866 Prolactin cells (lactotropes), 749, 750t Prometaphase, of cell cycle, 88 Promyelocyte, 298 Proopiomelanocortin (POMC), 749–750 Prophase, of cell cycle, 86–90, 87 Proprioceptors, 329, 381 Prostacyclins, 415, 744 Prostaglandins, 182, 255, 255, 260t, 415, 416, 576, 706, 744 Prostate cancer (carcinoma), 813, 815f–816f, 817 Prostate gland, 790, 791, 813–817, 815, 830p–831p adult parenchyma of, 813–814 concretions of, 814, 830p–831p fibromuscular stroma of, 814, 814, 815, 830p–831p zones of, 813–814, 814 Prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 816f, 817 Prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP), 817 Prostatic hyperplasia, benign, 814, 815f–816f Prostatic urethra, 727, 791, 813–814, 814 Protanopia, 917f Proteasome(s), 25, 25t, 26t, 43–44 Proteasome-mediated degradation, 43–44, 44 Protein(s) See also specific proteins and protein types digestion of, 586f extracellular, intracellular cytoskeletal, membrane, 27–30, 28–30 molecular motor, 57–58, 58 plasma, 271–272, 626–627, 710 posttranslational modification of, 31, 46–47, 50–51 posttranslational transport of, 45–46, 46 processing of, 44–47, 50, 50–52, 51 receptor, 29–31, 30 See also Receptor(s) structural, 30, 30 synthesis of, 44–45, 46 Protein (P0), 369 Proteinases, 166–167 Protein kinases, 31 Protein S, 215 Proteinuria, 714f Proteoglycan(s), 175t in basal lamina, 135, 136 in bone matrix, 214, 221 in cornea, 905 diversity of, 173, 174 in extracellular matrix, 171–174 in glomerular basement membrane, 706, 710, 711 in ground substance, 172 in hyaline cartilage, 194–195, 196, 198, 206p–207p staining properties of, 4–5 structure of, 173, 173 Proteoglycan aggregates, 173, 173, 196, 206p–207p Proteolipid protein (PLP), 376 Proteolytic degradation, of collagen, 166–167 979 Index Pharyngeal tonsils, 459, 527 Pharyngoesophageal sphincter, 571 Pharynx, 664, 668 Phase contrast microscope, 13 Pheochromocytoma, 263, 772f Pheomelanin, 500f Pheromones, 503, 510 Phonation, 669 Phosphasome, 279 Phosphatases, in neutrophil granules, 279 Phosphatidylinositol (second messenger) system, 744 Phospholipids, in plasma membrane, 27, 28 Photoaging, 171f Photopsins, 916 Photoreceptor cells, 900, 901, 907, 913, 913–918, 930p–931p color sensitivity of, 914 development of, 903 distribution of, 914, 915, 918–919 light sensitivity of, 914, 916 spherule or pedicle of, 919 structure of, 914, 915–916, 916, 919 visual pigment of, 635, 916–917 visual processing in, 917–918, 918 Phox (phagocyte oxidase) system, 281–282, 282, 283f Physiologic gastric mucosa barrier, 577 Pia mater, 387, 387, 402p–403p Pigment donation, 497–498, 498, 500f–501f Pillar cells, of internal ear, 950–951, 951, 960p–961p Pilosebaceous canal, 504, 506, 520p–521p Pineal gland, 756, 756–757, 782p–783p cells of, 756, 756, 782p–783p concretions of, 756, 756–757, 782p–783p hormones of, 757, 757t Pinealocytes, 756, 756 Pinkeye (conjunctivitis), 922f, 923 Pinna (auricle), 936–937, 937 Pinocytosis, 32, 33, 40, 41 Pinocytotic vesicles, 24, 414 Pitch, of voice, 669 Pituicytes, 755, 780p–781p Pituitary dwarfism, 239f Pituitary gland, 745–755, 747, 778p–781p anterior lobe of See Anterior lobe of pituitary gland blood supply to, 747–748, 748 development of, 100, 746, 747 epithelioid tissue of, 106 hypothalamic regulation of, 746f, 755–756 location of, 746 as master gland, 745–746 nerve supply of, 748 posterior lobe of See Posterior lobe of pituitary gland regulation of, 746f Pituitary growth hormone, 239f Placenta, 834, 858–863, 860, 890p–893p abnormalities of, 862f development of, 856, 856–857, 858–859, 859 endocrine function of, 862–863 fate at birth, 862f HIV-infected, 859 mature, 861 Placenta accreta, 862f Placenta increta, 862f Placenta percreta, 862f Placental barrier, 860–861, 861 Plakoglobins, 63, 129 Plasma, 270–273, 272t Plasma cells, 156, 157, 175, 184–185, 185, 450, 451 Golgi apparatus of, 49, 49 in immune response, 448, 463 in mammary glands, 896p–897p Plasma (cell) membrane, 24, 26–36 abaxonal, 368 adaxonal or periaxonal, 368 apical, 51, 51 basolateral, 51, 51 freeze fracture of, 28–29, 29 functions and pathologies of, 26t microdomains of (lipid rafts), 27–28, 28, 30 microscopic features of, 25t, 26, 27 modified fluid–mosaic model of, 27, 28 movement or transport across, 31–33, 31–35, 35–36, 125–126 proteins of, 27–30, 28 structure of, 26–27, 27 Plasma-membrane blebs, 30, 91–92 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 980 Proteolytic enzymes, 645 Prothrombin, 627 Prothrombogenic agents, 415 Protofilament, of microtubules, 55–56, 56 Proton (Hϩ) pumps, 40, 53, 227, 229, 579, 583 Protoplasmic astrocytes, 373, 374, 375 Proximal convoluted tubule, 703–704, 703–704, 715–716, 715–716, 734p–735p Proximal straight tubule, 703, 704, 712–717, 734p–735p P-selectin, 279–280, 280, 418 Pseudostratified epithelium, 107, 108t, 152p–153p Pseudounipolar neurons, 358, 359 Psoriasis, 496 Puberty female, 834, 835, 836, 846, 848, 866, 870 male, 796 precocious (early-onset), 757, 797 Pulmonary acini, 674 Pulmonary circulation, 405, 405, 406, 679–682 Pulmonary lobules, 674 Pulmonary valve, 406 Pumps, 29, 30 See also specific pumps Pupil, 901, 902, 907–908 Purkinje cells, 400p–401p Purkinje fibers, 334, 334, 352p–353p, 357, 359, 406, 406, 410, 410, 434p–435p Pus, 283 Putative (candidate) hormones, 579f, 582t, 591 Pyloric glands, 582, 583 Pyloric part, of stomach (pylorus), 572–573, 574 Pyloric sphincter, 571 Pyramidal cells, 359 Pyramids, medullary (renal), 700, 700–701, 703, 730p–731p, 736p–737p Pyrogen, 281 Pyroptosis, 94 Pyrosis, 572 Q Quiescent osteocytes, 224, 224 R Rab-GTPase docking complexes, 35, 36, 363 RAD-51 protein, 80f Radial glial cells, 373 Radiation, and spermatogenesis, 798f Radiation, ultraviolet See Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Random assortment of chromosomes, 90 RANK (receptor activator of nuclear factor-␬B), 226 RANK ligand molecule (RANKL), 226, 228, 237, 238f Rapidly renewing cell populations, 84 Rathke’s pouch, 746 Reactive gliosis, 391f Reactive microglial cells, 376, 390 Reactive nitrogen intermediates (RNIs), 282 Reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs), 281–282, 282 Receptor(s), 29–31, 30 See also specific types activation of, 31 fate of, 38, 39 Receptor-mediated endocytosis, 33–34, 34, 40, 41, 414 Recombinant erythropoietin (RhEPO), 300–301, 699 Rectum, 594, 599, 599 Red blood cells (RBCs) See Erythrocyte(s) Red bone marrow, 217, 301–302, 308p–309p Red margin, of lips, 556p–557p Red pulp, of spleen, 469, 469, 470, 482p–485p Reflex arcs, 356 Refractile media, of eye, 902 Regeneration, neural, 389, 389, 391 Regular dense connective tissue, 158, 159, 159–160, 190p–191p Regulated secretory pathway, 34–35, 35 Regulatory T cells, 288, 444, 452 Reinke crystalloids, of ovary, 848 Reissner’s (vestibular) membrane, 948, 949, 960p–961p Remodeling of bone, 233–235, 235, 236, 239, 240, 241 of cartilage, 197 Renal capsule See Bowman’s capsule Renal columns, 700, 701, 703, 730p–731p Renal corpuscles, 698–711, 704, 705, 732p–735p Renal cortex, 700, 700, 703, 730p–733p Renal medulla, 700, 700–701, 730p–731p, 736p–737p Renal pelvis, 699, 700, 703, 724, 730p–731p Renal plexus, 724 Pawlina_Index.indd 980 Renal pyramids, 700, 700–701, 703, 730p–731p, 736p–737p Renal sinus, 699 Renal tubules, 700–705, 703, 704, 714–720, 734p–737p See also specific tubules Renewing cell populations, 84, 146–147 Renewing stem cells, 799 Renin, 699, 714 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system (RAAS), 713f, 714, 770–771 Replicons, 85 Reproductive system female, 834–875 See also Female reproductive system male, 790–821 See also Male reproductive system Reserpine, 769 Reserve stem cells, 85 Resident cell population, of connective tissue, 174–175 Resident macrophages, 389–390 Residual body, 41, 800 Resistin, 255, 255, 260t Resonance, 669 Resorption bay, of osteoclast, 225 Resorption canals, 235, 236, 246p–247p Resorption of bone, 225–228, 233–235 Resorptive osteocytes, 224, 224 Respiration (gas exchange), 662, 676–679 Respiratory bronchiolar unit, 674 Respiratory bronchioles, 663, 663, 674, 674–676, 694p–697p Respiratory burst, in phagocytosis, 281–282, 282 Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), 677 Respiratory diverticulum, 662 Respiratory epithelium, 688p–689p Respiratory mucosa, 664–665, 669f Respiratory portion, of respiratory system, 663 Respiratory region, of nasal cavity, 663, 664–665 Respiratory system, 662–687 anatomy of, 662, 663 blood supply to, 679–682 conducting portion of, 662–663 development of, 662 innervation of, 682 lymphatic vessels of, 682 metaplasia in, 109f, 669f mucous and serous secretions of, 663 passages of, 662, 662–663 respiratory portion of, 663 Response factor (RF), 340 Restriction point, in cell cycle, 84, 84–85 Rete ridges, 491 Rete testis, 791, 792, 793, 794, 803, 808, 809, 810 Reticular cells, 168, 301, 443, 460, 478p–481p Reticular fibers, 167–168, 168 of basement membrane, 137 of lymphatic system, 443, 460, 461, 462 Reticular formation, 385 Reticular lamina, 137, 951 Reticular layer, of dermis, 159, 489, 490, 492–493, 516p–517p Reticular layer, of lamina propria, 528 Reticular meshwork, of lymph node, 460–461, 461, 462 Reticulocytes, 295, 296, 297, 310p–311p Retina, 900–901, 901, 912–921, 928p–931p blood vessels of, 902, 903, 920, 921 cells of, 913–920, 930p–931p development of, 903, 903 layers of, 912–920, 913, 930p–931p neural, 901, 901, 903, 912 neuron types in, 912–913 nonphotosensitive region of, 901, 912 photoreceptors of, 900, 901, 907, 913, 913–918, 930p–931p See also Photoreceptor cells photosensitive region of, 901, 902, 907, 912 specialized regions of, 920–921 visual processing in, 917–918, 918 Retinal detachment, 911f Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), 901, 901–903, 903, 912–914, 913, 918, 918–919, 930p–931p Retina proper (neural retina), 901, 901, 903, 912 Retinitis pigmentosa, 117 Retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (pRb), of restriction checkpoint, 85 Retinohypothalamic tract, 757 Retinoid X receptor (RXR), 255, 256 Retinol (vitamin A), 627, 634–635, 916 Retinol-binding protein (RBP), 260t, 627, 635 Retrograde transport between rER and Golgi, 47, 47– 48, in axons, 368 Reverse transcriptase, 456f Reverse transcriptase-PCR (RT-PCR), 10 Rh blood group system, 276f Rhesus (Rh) antigen, 276f Rheumatic fever, 409 Rheumatoid arthritis, 204, 217f Rhodopsin, 635, 916–918, 918 Ribbon synapses, 363, 945, 945 Ribonucleic acid See RNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), 44, 78–80 Ribosomes, 25, 25t, 26t, 44–45, 45, 48, 48, 78–80 Rickets, 239f, 627, 699f Right atrium, 405, 405–406 Right ventricle, 405, 406, 406 Rigor mortis, 325 in skeletal muscles, 325 in smooth muscles, 339 Riley-Day syndrome, 535f Rima glottidis, 669 RNA, 10, 44–45, 46, 78–80 RNA polymerase, 744 Rods (photoreceptor cells), 901, 913, 913, 914–918, 930p–931p development of, 903 distribution of, 914, 915, 918–919 light sensitivity of, 914, 916 spherule of, 919 structure of, 914, 915–916, 916, 919 visual pigment of, 635, 916–917 visual processing in, 917–918, 918 Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses, 643, 643, 658p–659p Root, of tooth, 534, 541–542, 542 Root sheath, of hair, 503, 504, 505, 524p–525p Rosenthal fibers, 65f Rouget cells See Pericyte(s) Rough-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (rER), 24, 44–48 functions and pathologies of, 26t lysosomal protein synthesis in, 40 microscopic features of, 25t, 44, 45, 48 nucleus relationship to, 74, 75 protein synthesis and processing in, 44–47 transport to and from Golgi apparatus, 47, 47–48 Ruffini’s corpuscle, 501, 502, 503 Ruffled border, of osteoclast, 226, 226, 228, 229, 250p–251p Rugae, of stomach, 573, 574, 608p–609p Ryanodine receptors, 326, 334 S Saccule, 941, 942, 943, 947 Saccule, macula of, 942, 943, 946 Saliva, 550–552, 552t Salivary ducts, 548–550, 562p–567p See also specific ducts Salivary glands, 527, 545–553, 562p–567p See also specific glands lingual, 529–530 major, 527, 545, 550, 551, 562p–567p minor, 527, 545 tumors of, 553f Saltatory conduction, 376, 378 Salty taste, 531–533, 532 Sarafotoxin, 416 Sarcolemma, 315, 325 Sarcomere, 317, 318, 318–321, 319, 322 Sarcoplasm, 314 Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 48, 318, 325, 325–326 Satellite cells of peripheral nervous system, 100, 357, 368, 371, 374 of skeletal muscle, 330–331, 331 Satellite DNA, 88 Satiety factor (leptin), 255, 255, 258 Scala media, 947–950, 949, 951, 960p–961p Scala tympani, 947–950, 949, 960p–961p Scala vestibuli, 947–950, 949, 960p–961p Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 1, 18–19 Scar connective tissue, 180f hypertrophic, 180f keloid, 180f nervous system, 390–391, 391f Scavenger receptors (SRs), 281 Schiff reagent, 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 981 Sertoli (sustentacular) cells, 792, 794, 795, 804–807, 805–807 Serum, 272 Sex (gender), 791–792, 793 Sex chromosomes, 77, 791 Sex cords, primary, 791, 792 Sex (gender) determination, 791–792, 793 Sex-determining region, 791, 793 Sex hormones female, 835, 846, 851f–852f, 853–854 male, 790, 792, 793 Sexual precocity, 757, 797 SF-1 gene, 791 Sharpey’s fibers, 216, 542, 542 Sheathed capillaries, 472 Sheath of Schwann, 368–369, 396p–397p Shock, anaphylactic, 183f Short bones, 216 Sialoproteins, 215, 221, 235 Sickle cell disease, 276–277, 278f Side-polar myosin thick filament, 336 Sigmoid colon, 594 Signaling molecules and pathways, 30–31, 300 Signaling platforms, lipid rafts as, 28 Signal patch, 37 Signal-recognition particle (SRP), 45–46, 46 Signal sequences (signal peptides), 45, 46 Simian virus (SV40), 85 Simple diffusion, 31, 31 Simple epithelium, 98, 98, 106–107, 108t, 150p–153p Simple glands, 144, 145t Single-positive stage, of T cells, 467–468 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 406, 409–410, 410 Sinus(es) See also specific sinuses lymphatic, 462–463, 478p–481p paranasal, 663, 667 splenic, 469, 470–472, 471, 482p–485p Sinusoids of bone marrow, 301–302, 302 of liver, 629–634, 630, 631, 633, 654p–657p Situs inversus, 118, 118f Skeletal muscle, 99, 100, 314, 315–331, 316, 340f–341f, 344p–349p connective tissue of, 315, 316, 344p–345p contraction of, 320, 321–329, 324, 329 development, repair, healing, and renewal of, 329–331, 331 innervation of, 326, 326–329, 327, 330 muscle fibers of, 315–317, 316–317, 344p–347p tendon attachment to, 348p–349p thick filaments of, 319, 320–321, 321, 337 thin filaments of, 314, 319, 319–321 traumatic injuries to, 316 Skeletal myogenic progenitor cells, 263 Skene’s glands, 865 Skin, 488–503, 514p–517p adipose tissue of, 255, 493 appendages of, 503, 503–511, 524p–525p cell renewal in, 147, 489, 493–496, 497 cells of, 493–500, 494, 498, 499, 500, 516p–517p chronological aging of, 171f connective tissue of, 159 epidermal derivatives of, 488 epithelial tissue of, 154p–155p functions of, 488–489 layers of, 488, 489–493, 490 nerve supply of, 500–502, 501, 502, 522p–523p photoaging of, 171f repair of, 511f stem cells in, 489, 503, 504, 505 structures of, 500–511 thick versus thin, 489, 490, 514p–515p vitamin D production in, 699f Skin cancer, 491f–492f, 500 Skin color (pigmentation), 498, 500f–501f Slowly renewing cell populations, 84 Slow oxidative fibers, 316–317, 317 Slow transport system, of axons, 368 Slow-twitch muscle fibers, 316–317 Small arteries, 412t, 416, 422–423 Small granule (Kulchitsky) cells of nasal cavity, 664 of trachea, 670–671, 673 Small intestine, 569, 584–594, 612p–619p cells of, 585f–586f, 587–591, 589–591, 592f, 594, 612p–617p contractions of, 594 digestive and absorptive functions of, 584, 585f–586f, 588–589, 589 divisions of, 584 glands of, 586–587, 587, 593, 594, 612p–617p immune functions of, 592f, 593 lamina propria of, 586–587, 587, 591–593, 612p–617p lymphatic nodules of, 459, 460, 570, 587, 588, 591, 618p–619p mucosa of, 584, 584–591, 612p–619p muscularis externa of, 354p–355p, 594, 595, 612p–619p muscularis mucosae of, 587, 612p–613p, 612p–619p plicae circulares of, 584, 584, 616p–617p serosa of, 594, 614p–617p smooth muscle of, 354p–355p stem cells in, 146, 183, 594 submucosa of, 584, 593, 612p–619p villi of, 584, 584–586, 587, 612p–619p Small peptides, as neurotransmitters, 366t, 367 Small proline-rich (SPR) proteins, 495 Small veins, 412t, 425–426 Smooth muscle, 99, 100, 314–315, 335–340, 340f–341f, 354p–355p autonomic regulation of, 339–340, 357 cells of, 24, 420 contraction of, 335–339, 338 dense bodies of, 336, 337, 338 functional aspects of, 339–340 histogenesis of, 101 innervation of, 340 muscle fibers of, 335, 335–336, 336 renewal, repair, and differentiation of, 340 thick filaments of, 335–336, 337, 338 thin filaments of, 335–336, 338 urinary passages, 726, 738p–739p Smooth-surfaced endoplasmic reticulum (sER), 24, 48–49 detoxification in, 48–49 functions and pathologies of, 26t hepatocyte, 637, 638 lipid metabolism in, 48 microscopic features of, 25t, 48, 48 SNARE proteins, 35–36, 36, 363 Sodium/potassium-ATPase pumps, 715–720 Soft callus, in bone repair, 240, 240 Soft keratin, 493 Soft palate, 528, 528, 664 Solute(s), in plasma, 271 Solvent drag, 588 Somatic afferents, 357–358, 379 Somatic efferents, 358, 379 Somatic nervous system (SNS), 356–357 Somatostatin, 581, 582t, 629, 648, 648t, 650–651, 749, 750, 755t, 757 Somatotropes (GH cells), 748–749, 750t Somatotropin See Growth hormone Sound perception, 951–952, 954 Sour taste, 531–533, 532 Specific immunity, 442–443, 447–449 Spectrin, 59, 110, 273–275, 274 Sperm See also Spermatozoa kinetic activity of, 803 maturation of, 811 mature, structure of, 802, 802–803 motility of, 803 production of, 797–802 See also Spermatogenesis Spermatic cords, 790, 811–812, 813, 828p–829p Spermatid(s), 87, 89, 794, 795, 797–798, 800–802, 822p–823p early, 799, 800 late, 799, 800–802 organelles of, 800, 802 Spermatid phase, of spermatogenesis, 797–798, 799, 800–802, 802 Spermatocyte(s), 795, 799–800, 822p–823p early, 806 primary, 89, 799, 799–800 secondary, 90, 799, 800 Spermatocyte phase, of spermatogenesis, 797, 799, 799–800 Spermatogenesis, 87, 89, 797–802, 799, 801 duration or cycle of, 803, 804 factors affecting, 798f hormonal regulation of, 797f–798f spermatid phase of, 797–798, 799, 800–802, 802 981 Index Schmidt-Lanterman clefts, 369, 371, 372, 373, 376 Schwann, sheath of, 368–369, 396p–397p Schwann cell(s), 100, 327, 357, 360, 368–371, 373 injury response of, 389, 389, 391 junction between, 369–370, 372 myelin sheath production by, 368–371, 369, 370 Sclera, 900–903, 901–903, 906–907, 907–908, 928p–929p, 932p–935p Scleral venous sinus (canal of Schlemm), 902, 906, 907, 908, 911, 932p–935p Scotopsin, 916 Scrotum, 790, 791, 792–793, 798f Scurvy, 165, 239f Seasonal affective disorder (SAD), 757 Sebaceous glands, 488, 503, 503, 506, 514p–515p, 520p–521p in eyelashes, 923, 924 holocrine secretion by, 144 in oral cavity, 528 secretions of (sebum), 503, 504, 505f, 506 Sebum, 503, 504, 505f, 506 Second messengers, 31, 337–338, 364, 744, 745 Secretin, 581, 581t, 591, 646 Secretion, 107 See also specific sites and substances Secretory acini, 545–548, 562p–567p Secretory component (SC), 593 Secretory IgA, 38, 552, 593, 593, 870 Secretory pathways, 32, 34–35, 35, 40, 40 Secretory segment, of eccrine gland, 507, 507, 508 Secretory vesicles, 24, 25t, 26t Segmental bronchi, 662, 674 Segmentation, in small intestine, 594 Segmented neutrophil, 298 Segregation of chromosomes, 90 Selectins, 127, 279–280, 280, 418 Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), 238f Selective permeability, 414 Self versus nonself, 442 Sella turcica, 746 Semen, 817–818 Semicircular canals, 937, 941, 941, 942, 958p–959p Semicircular ducts, 943 Seminal vesicles, 790, 809, 810, 812–813, 814, 832p–833p Seminiferous cords, 791, 792, 824p–825p Seminiferous tubules, 793–794, 794, 795, 803–807, 822p–825p barrier protecting, 806–807, 807f cell associations in, 803–804, 804 cells of, 794, 804–807, 805–807 development of, 791, 792 epithelium of, 803–804, 805–806 Sensorineural hearing loss, 950f, 955 Sensory cells of internal ear (hair cells), 110, 943–951, 944–947, 958p–961p hearing function of, 952 inner, 950, 951, 953, 960p–961p outer, 950, 951, 953, 960p–961p of taste buds, 530–531, 531 Sensory ganglia, 379, 379t Sensory mechanoreceptors, 110 Sensory nerve fibers, 329, 330, 379 Sensory neurons, 357–358, 360, 381, 382 Sensory receptors, 381 in membranous labyrinth, 946–951 in skeletal muscle, 329, 330 in skin, 500–503, 501, 502, 522p–523p Serine proteases, 182 Serosa (serous membrane), 147f, 568, 569, 571 of gallbladder, 642 of large intestine, 597 of small intestine, 594, 614p–617p of stomach (gastric), 584, 608p–609p of uterine tube, 848 Serotonergic neurons, 367 Serotonin, 291, 365, 366t, 367, 671, 757 Serous acini, 546, 547, 562p–565p Serous cells, 144–146 of pancreas, 544, 544–545 of salivary glands, 546–547, 547, 551, 564p–565p Serous demilunes, 546, 549, 566p–567p Serous glands, 144–146, 146 Serous membrane See Serosa Serous pericardium, 407, 407 Serous secretions, 144–146 9/29/14 7:24 PM Index 982 Spermatogenesis (Continued ) spermatocyte phase of, 797, 799, 799–800 spermatogonial phase of, 797, 798–799, 799 temperature and, 792–793, 798f Spermatogenic cells, 794, 822p–825p See also Spermatid(s); Spermatogonia Spermatogonia (sing., spermatogonium), 794, 795, 797, 798–799, 822p–823p groupings or associations of, 803–804, 804 type A dark (Ad), 798–799, 799 type A pale (Ap), 798–799, 799 type B, 799, 799 Spermatogonial phase, of spermatogenesis, 797, 798–799, 799 Spermatogonial stem cells, 798–799 Spermatozoa (sing., spermatozoon), 87, 89, 799 capacitation of, 803, 844–845 decapacitation of, 811 fertilization by, 842, 844–846, 849 formation of, 800–802, 802 hyperactivation of, 845 structure of, 802, 802–803 Spermiation, 802 Spermiation failure, 802 Spermiogenesis, 797–798, 799, 800–802, 801, 802 S (synthesis) phase, of cell cycle, 84, 84–85, 89 Spherocytosis, hereditary, 275 Spherule, of rod, 919 Sphincter(s), 571 See also specific sphincters Sphincteric portion, of ciliary muscle, 909 Sphincter pupillae muscle, 907–908, 909 Spicules, 218, 230, 231, 233, 250p–253p Spinal cord, 385–386, 387, 402p–403p Spinal nerves, 356, 385 Spindle(s), muscle, 329, 330, 381 Spindle-assembly checkpoint, of cell cycle, 85 Spinous layer, of epidermis, 489–490 Spiral ganglion, 943, 952, 958p–961p Spiral organ of Corti, 942, 943, 947–951, 949, 960p–961p Spleen, 101, 442, 443, 468–473, 469–471, 473t, 482p–485p Splenic cords, 469, 470, 471, 482p–485p Splenic nodules, 469, 469, 482p–485p Splenic sinuses, 469, 470–472, 471, 482p–485p Spongiosa, of heart valve, 408–409, 409 Spongy bone, 215, 215–216, 216, 218–220, 220, 246p–247p Spongy urethra, 727 SPR (small proline-rich) proteins, 495 Squamous cell(s), 150p–151p Squamous cell carcinoma, 109f, 491f, 669f Squamous epithelium, 98, 98, 106, 108t, 150p–155p, 558p–559p Squamous metaplasia, 109f, 669f, 858, 858 Squamous zone, of anal canal, 599, 599, 624p–625p SRY gene, 791, 793 Stab (band) cell, 298, 312p–313p Stable cell populations, 84, 147 Stable compartment model, of endosomes, 37 Staggered tetramer, of intermediate filaments, 61, 61 Staining acidic and basic dyes in, 5–6, 5t chemical basis of, 5–6 loss of tissue components in, 4–5 metachromasia in, Stapedius muscle, 940, 947 Stapes, 936, 938, 938–940, 941, 942f, 951–952, 958p–959p Static cell populations, 84 Static cytometry, 7f Stein-Leventhal syndrome, 841f Stellate cells, hepatic, 633, 634–635 Stellate reticulum, 536, 536–537, 538, 541 Stellate sinusoidal macrophages, 633, 633–634 Stellate veins, of kidney, 723, 724 Stem cells adult, 146, 175, 183–184 corneolimbal, 905, 906 epidermal, 489, 503, 504, 505 gastric, 577, 582–583 hemopoietic, 180, 183, 231, 292, 294–295, 298 hepatic, 638 intestinal, 146, 183, 594 mesenchymal, 183, 184 adipocytes from, 255–256, 256, 262–263 osteoprogenitor cells from, 219, 221, 231 Pawlina_Index.indd 982 undifferentiated, 424–425 Wharton’s jelly, 157–158 myogenic, 329–331 nasal cavity, 666 neural, 359–360, 378 niches of, 146, 183, 505, 594, 638 pericytes as, 183–184, 340, 424–426 renewing, 799 reserve, 85 spermatogonial, 798–799 tissue, 183 Stensen’s (parotid) duct, 527 Stereocilia, 109, 110–111, 112–113, 119t of epididymis, 110, 811, 812, 826p–827p of internal ear, 110, 943, 943–945, 944 Stereovilli, 110 Steroid(s), 255, 744–745, 745, 757, 774f, 790, 835, 862 Steroid-membrane receptors, 744–745, 745 Steroidogenesis, 790, 835 Stoichiometric reaction, Stomach, 569, 572–584, 606p–611p cardiac region of, 572–573, 574, 606p–607p glands of, 606p–609p lamina propria of, 583 mamillated areas of, 573 mucosa of See Gastric mucosa regions of, 572–573, 574 rugae of, 573, 574, 608p–609p secretions of (gastric juices), 576–577 serosa of, 584, 608p–609p submucosa of, 583, 608p–611p Straight tubules of kidney, 700, 703, 704, 712–714, 718, 734p–737p Straight tubules of testes, 793, 794, 803, 808, 809, 824p–825p Stratified epithelium, 98, 98, 106–107, 108t, 152p–155p, 509, 558p–559p Stratum basale, of epidermis, 489, 490, 514p–515p, 528 cell renewal in, 147, 489 of endometrium, 851, 851, 884p–887p Stratum corneum, 489, 490, 490–491, 514p–515p Stratum germinativum See Stratum basale Stratum granulosum, 489, 490, 490, 514p–515p Stratum lucidum, 489, 491, 514p–515p Stratum spinosum, 489–490, 490, 514p–515p, 528 Stratum superficiale, 528 Stretch receptors, 329, 503 Striated border, 109, 586, 588, 616p–617p Striated ducts, 143, 548, 550, 562p–565p Striated muscle, 314–315 Striated rootlet, of basal body, 114 Stria vascularis, 948–950, 949, 950 Striola, 946, 948 Stripes, of renal medulla, 701, 701 Stromelysins, 166 Structural proteins, 30, 30 Structural zone, of platelets, 290, 290 Stye, 923 Subarachnoid space, 387, 387 Subcapsular nephron, 704–705 Subcapsular (cortical) sinus, of lymph node, 462, 478p–479p Subcutaneous (superficial) fascia, 255, 488, 493 Subendocardial layer, 407, 408, 408 Subendothelial layer, 411, 418 Sublingual caruncle, 527 Sublingual glands, 527, 545, 549, 550, 551, 566p–567p Sublingual gland tumors, 553f Submandibular (Wharton’s) duct, 527 Submandibular glands, 527, 545, 550, 551, 562p–563p Submandibular gland tumors, 553f Submucosa, 159, 568, 569, 570 of bronchus, 674 of esophagus, 571, 572, 604p–605p of large intestine, 597, 620p–621p of oral cavity, 528–529 of small intestine, 584, 593, 612p–619p of stomach (gastric), 583, 608p–611p of trachea, 669, 670, 673, 692p–693p Submucosal glands of duodenum (Brunner’s glands), 593, 594, 612p–615p of small intestine, 593, 594, 612p–613p of stomach, 569, 570, 573 Submucosal plexus, 570, 571, 583, 610p–611p Submucosal (Meissner’s) plexus, 570, 571, 583, 610p–611p Subpodocyte space, 705, 710, 710 Substance P, 366t, 367 Suckling (breastfeeding), 753, 871–872 Sudden cardiac death, 407 Sun exposure, 171f, 500f Superficial (nodular) cortex, of lymph node, 462, 463 Superficial (subcutaneous) fascia, 255, 488, 493 Superior tarsal muscle (of Müller), 923, 924 Suppressor T cells, 288, 444, 452 Suprachoroid lamina, 906, 912 Supraoptic nuclei, of hypothalamus, 747, 751–752 Surface ectoderm, 100, 102, 902–903, 904t, 936, 938 Surface mucous cells, 573–576, 575, 582–583, 606p–607p, 610p–613p Surfactant, 677–678 Sustentacular cells, 665 Sweat, 503, 505f, 506–507 Sweat glands, 488, 503, 506–510, 514p–515p, 518p–523p apocrine, 503, 503, 509, 509–510, 518p–519p of eyelashes, 506, 923, 924 pheromone production by, 503, 510 eccrine, 503, 503, 506–510, 507–508, 518p–521p Sweating, gustatory, 553f Sweet taste, 531–532, 532 Sympathetic division, of ANS, 357, 381, 382, 382, 383 Sympathetic ganglia, 379t, 394p–395p Sympathetic regulation, of heart, 411 Sympathetic trunk, 382, 382 Synapse(s), 99, 357–358, 358, 361–367, 362–365, 945, 945 Synapsis, 89–90 Synaptic cleft, 363, 365 Synaptic transmission, 363–367 Synaptic vesicles, 363, 365 Synaptonemal complex, 90, 800 Syncoilin, 62t, 63 Syncytial knots, 859, 859, 892p–893p Syncytium, 315 Syndecan, 173–174, 174, 175t Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), 754f Systemic circulation, 405, 406 Systole, 416 T Tachycardia, 411 T-antigen of simian virus, 85 Tanycytes, 377 Targeting mechanism, in exocytosis, 35 Tarsal (Meibomian) glands, 144, 923, 924 Tarsal muscle, superior, 923, 924 Tarsal plate, of eyelid, 923, 924 Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), 225, 226–227 Taste, 531–533, 532, 535f Taste buds, 529–531, 530, 531, 560p–561p Taste pore, 530, 560p–561p Tay-Sachs disease, 42f T cell(s) See T lymphocytes T-cell receptors (TCRs), 184, 287, 288, 448, 448 Tectorial membrane, 950, 951, 951–952 Tectorin, 951 Teeth, 533–545, 534, 536–538, 538f–539f, 542–543 decay of, 535, 546f, 552 histogenesis of, 100, 536–537, 540 saliva and, 551–552 supporting tissues of, 544–545 Telepathology, 21 Telogen, 504f Teloglia, 368 Telomere, 77 Telophase, 87, 88–90 Tenascin, 174, 177t, 196 Tendinocytes, 159, 159–160, 190p–191p Tendon(s), 159, 159–160, 190p–191p Tendon–muscle junction, 348p–349p Teniae coli, 569, 571, 594, 595, 597, 620p–621p Tenon’s capsule, 906 Tenon’s space, 906 Tensor tympani muscle, 940 Teratomas, 102f–103f Terminal bars, 120, 122 Terminal bronchioles, 674, 674–675, 675, 694p–697p Terminal cisternae, 325, 326 Terminal ductal lobular units (TDLUs), 866–867, 868, 871, 896p–899p Terminal ductules, of mammary glands, 867 9/29/14 7:24 PM Pawlina_Index.indd 983 Tight junctions, 120–126, 381, 388, 423, 424 TIM complexes, of mitochondria, 52 Tissue(s), 97–104 See also specific tissues classification of, 97 histogenesis of, 100–101 identification of, 101 Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), 167 Tissue–mordant–hematoxylin complex, Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA), 291 Tissue preparation, 2–3 frozen sections, 2, 4f hematoxylin and eosin staining with formalin fixation, 2, linear equivalents used in, 2t other fixatives used in, 2–3 Tissue stem cells, 183 Titin, 321, 322 T lymphocytes (T cells), 184–185, 286–288, 443–455 See also specific types activation of, 446, 449–453, 452 blood–thymus barrier protecting, 466–468, 467, 486p–487p in cell-mediated immunity, 184, 444, 447–453 cross-talk with epithelioreticular cells, 465 development and differentiation of, 293, 301, 444, 446, 464–468, 468 distribution in lymph node, 462, 463, 463 education of, 467–468, 468 in HIV infection, 456f origin of name, 448f surface molecules of, 287–288 Toll-like receptors, 281 Toluidine blue, 5t, TOM complexes, of mitochondria, 52 Tongue, 529, 529–533, 558p–561p dorsal surface of, 529, 529, 558p–559p papillae of, 529, 529–530, 530, 558p–561p taste buds of, 529–531, 530, 531, 560p–561p Tonsil(s), 443, 459, 459, 476p–477p, 527, 529, 533, 940 Tonsillar crypts, 459, 459, 476p–477p Tonsillar ring, 527 Trabeculae of arachnoid, 387, 387 of bone, 215, 216, 218, 230, 246p–247p of lymph node, 460, 461, 478p–479p of spleen, 468, 469, 482p–485p of thymus, 464, 465 Trabecular meshwork, of eye, 906 Trabecular sinuses, 462, 478p–479p Trabecular vein, of spleen, 484p–485p Trachea, 663, 663, 664, 669–673, 670, 692p–693p basement membrane of, 133, 134, 672, 672, 692p–693p cartilage of, 206p–207p, 669–670, 670, 673 epithelium of, 152p–153p, 670–673, 671, 672, 692p–693p mucosa of, 669, 670 submucosa of, 669, 670, 673, 692p–693p Tracts, spinal cord, 385 Transcellular pathway, 125, 125, 414 Transcription, 44–45 Transcription factors (E2F), of restriction checkpoint, 85 Transcription factors, 298–301 Transcytosis, 38, 423 Transdermal medications, 489 Transducin, 917 Transepithelial pathway, of thyroid hormone synthesis, 760 Transferrin, 38, 627–628, 807 Transforming growth factor ␤ (TGF-␤), 215, 255, 255, 260t Transfusions, of blood, 275f–276f, 284f Trans-Golgi network (TGN), 49, 49–52, 50 Transitional epithelium, 107, 108t, 154p–155p, 724–726, 724–726, 738p–741p Translation, 45 Translocase of the inner mitochondrial membrane (TIM complexes), 52 Translocase of the outer mitochondrial membrane (TOM complexes), 52 Translocation, of chromosomes, 79f Translocator, of rER, 46 Transmembrane collagens, 163 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 1, 18–19 Transmitter-gated channels, 365 Transmitter-gated ClϪ channels, 365 Transmitter-gated Naϩ channels, 327–328, 365 Transplantation reactions, 452 Transport active, 31, 31 anterograde, 47, 47–48, 368 axonal, 360, 361, 367–368 dendritic, 368 epithelial, 107 intraflagellar, 120, 121 membrane, 31–35 passive, 31, 31 posttranslational, of protein, 45–46, 46 retrograde, 47, 47, 368 vesicular, 32, 32–35 Transport proteins, 31, 31, 40, 125 Transport vesicles, 24, 50 Transthyretin, 744, 761 Transvaginal ultrasound, 841, 842 Transverse colon, 594, 595 Transverse tubular system, 326, 333, 334 Traumatic neuroma, 391 Treadmilling effect, 111 Triad, skeletal muscle, 326 Trichohyalin, 493 Trichromats, 917f Tricuspid valve, 405, 406 Triglycerides, 254, 259, 586f Trigone, 727 Triiodothyronine (T3), 629, 759–764, 760t Trilaminar embryo, 100 Trisomy of chromosome 21, 842 Tritanopia, 917f Trophoblast, 855, 855–856, 858–861, 892p–893p Trophoblastic diseases, 863 Tropic hormones, 748 Tropocollagen (collagen molecule), 161, 161 Tropomodulin, 59, 319, 320, 322 Tropomyosin, 110, 319, 320, 322 Troponin, 319, 320 Tryosine kinase system, 744 Trypsin, 585f, 645 Tryptase, 182 T (transverse tubular) system, 326, 333, 334 Tubal tonsil, 940 Tuberculin screening, 452 Tuberculosis, 217f Tubotympanic recess, 936, 938 Tubular gland, 144, 145t Tubular system, transverse, 326, 333, 334 Tubular tonsils, 527 Tubules, renal, 700–705, 703–704, 714–720, 734p–737p See also specific tubules Tubules, testicular, 793–794, 794, 808, 809, 824p–825p See also Seminiferous tubules Tubulin dimers, 55, 55–56 Tubulin protofilaments, 112 ␥-Tubulin rings, 56, 56, 64, 64 Tubuli recti (straight tubules of testes), 793, 794, 803, 808, 809 Tubuloacinar glands, 145t Tubuloalveolar gland, 144 Tubulovesicular membrane system, of parietal cells, 578, 578–579 Tubulus rectus, 793, 824p–825p Tuftelins, 541 Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), 92, 182, 215, 255, 255, 259, 260t, 281 Tumor suppressors, 80f, 84–85, 92, 600f Tunica adventitia, 411, 412, 412t, 420–421, 422, 427, 427–429 Tunica albuginea female, 836, 876p–877p male, 793, 794, 795, 818, 822p–825p Tunica intima, 411, 411–412, 412t, 418, 418, 420–421, 421–422, 426–427, 427–429 Tunica media, 411, 412, 412t, 420–421, 421–422, 427, 427–429 Tunica (lamina) propria, of testes, 794 Tunica vaginalis, 791, 794 Tunica vasculosa, 793 Turbinates (conchae), 664, 665 Turbulent precipitation, 665 Tympanic cavity, 937, 937, 940 Tympanic membrane, 936–938, 937–940, 940, 943, 951–952 Tyrosine, 497 Tyrosine kinase, 141 983 Index Terminal hair, 504f Terminal hepatic venule, 630, 630, 631, 633, 654p–657p Terminal neuroglia, 368 Terminal ring, of nuclear pore complex, 82, 83 Terminal web of actin filaments, 60, 109–110, 588, 589 Territorial matrix, of cartilage, 198, 198 Testes, 790–797, 791, 794–795, 822p–825p barrier protecting, 806–807, 807f blood supply to, 793 cells of, 48, 48, 106, 154p–155p, 340, 792–797, 795, 796, 822p–825p development of, 101, 791–792, 792, 793 ducts of, 808, 809 epithelial (epithelioid) tissue of, 106, 154p–155p, 793–794, 795 immature (prepubertal), 824p–825p spermatogenesis in, 790, 797–802 temperature and, 792–793, 798f undescended, 792 Testis-determining factor (TDF), 791 Testosterone, 790, 792, 793, 796, 797f–798f, 807, 808 Tetanic contraction, of skeletal muscles, 765 Tethering proteins, 35, 36 Tetrads, of chromosomes in meiosis, 800 Tetraiodothyronine (T4), 629, 759–764, 760t TH1 cells, 444 TH2 cells, 444 Thalassemia, 276 Theca externa, 839, 839, 840, 878p–879p Theca folliculi, 838, 838–839 Theca interna, 838–839, 839, 840, 840, 878p–879p Theca lutein cells, 843, 844, 844, 880p–881p Thermogenesis, 264–266 Thermoregulation, 425, 506–507 Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle, 704 Thick descending limb of loop of Henle, 703, 704 Thick (myosin) filaments, 60 of skeletal muscle, 319, 320–321, 321, 337 of smooth muscle, 335–336, 337, 338 Thin (actin) filaments, 60, 60 of skeletal muscle, 314, 319, 319–321 of smooth muscle, 335–336, 338 Thin ascending limb of loop of Henle, 704, 717–718 Thin descending limb of loop of Henle, 704, 717 Thin segment of loop of Henle, 702, 704, 717–718 Thorax, autonomic innervation of, 384 Thrombocyte(s) See Platelet(s) Thrombocytopenia, 297 Thrombopoiesis, 292, 293, 297 Thrombopoietin, 297, 300, 300t Thrombosis, 182, 431f Thromboxane A2, 291, 416 Thrombus (pl., thrombi), 414–415 Thymic cell education, 467–468, 468 Thymic corpuscles, 465–466, 466, 486p–487p Thymic cortex, 465, 465, 466, 486p–487p Thymic medulla, 465, 465–466, 466, 486p–487p Thymocytes, 465 See also B lymphocytes Thymus, 442, 443, 446, 464–468, 465, 473t, 486p–487p barrier from blood, 466–468, 467, 486p–487p epithelioid tissue of, 106 T cell development in, 293, 301, 444, 446, 448f, 464–468, 468 Thymus-dependent cortex, 462, 463 Thymus-dependent lymphocytes, 486p–487p Thyroglobulin, 760–761, 761 Thyroglossal duct, 758 Thyroid carcinoma, medullary, 759 Thyroid follicles, 758, 758, 784p–785p Thyroid gland, 757–758, 757–764, 784p–785p abnormal function of, 239f, 761, 763f blood supply to, 757, 784p–785p cells of, 758, 758–759, 759 development of, 101, 757–758 Thyroid hormones, 259, 744, 746f, 759–764, 760t, 761–762 See also specific hormones Thyroiditis, autoimmune, 763f Thyroid peroxidase (TPO), 760, 761 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 748, 749t, 750, 760–761 Thyroid-stimulating hormone cells (thyrotropes), 750, 750t Thyrotropes, 750, 750t Thyrotropin See Thyroid-stimulating hormone Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 750, 755t, 757 Thyroxine, 629, 759–764, 760t Tidemark, of articular cartilage, 200, 200 9/29/14 7:24 PM U Index 984 Ubiquitin, 44 Ubiquitination, 31 Ulcer, peptic, 576f Ulcerative colitis, 598f Ultimobranchial bodies, 758 Ultrafiltrate, glomerular, 699, 702, 705, 714–715 Ultrasound, transvaginal, 841, 842 Ultraviolet (UV) microscope, 16 Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, 500f, 905 Umami taste, 531–532, 532 Umbilical arteries, 861, 861–862 Umbilical vein, 861, 862 Umbrella cells, of urothelium, 724, 724–725, 725, 726 Uncoupling protein (UCP-1), 263–265 Undescended testes, 792 Unicellular glands, 144, 144 Union (primary or secondary), of skin repair, 511f Unipolar neurons, 358, 359 Unmyelinated axons, 371, 373 Unreplicated-DNA checkpoint, 85 Uranyl nitrate, 18 Urate oxidase (uricase), 55 Urea frost, 505f Uremia, 505f Ureter(s), 698, 700, 703, 724, 726–727, 738p–739p Ureteric orifices, 727 Urethra, 698, 724–727 female, 727 male, 727, 791, 813–814, 814 Urethral orifices, 727, 834 Urinalysis, 714f Urinary bladder, 154p–155p, 698, 724–727, 725, 740p–741p Urinary casts, 714f, 718 Urinary space, 704, 705, 711, 734p–735p Urinary system, 698–729 See also Kidney(s) components of, 698 epithelium of, 107, 108t, 154p–155p, 724–726, 724–726 Urinary tract infections, 726 Uriniferous tubule, 700 Urogenital ridges, 743, 767, 792 Uromodulin, 714f, 718 Urothelium, 107, 108t, 154p–155p, 724–726, 724–726, 738p–741p Uterine contractions, 753 Uterine tubes, 834–835, 835, 845, 848–849, 882p–883p Uteroplacental circulatory system, 858–862 Uterus, 834, 835, 850, 850–858, 884p–887p cyclic changes in, 834–835, 851–855, 854, 884p–887p oxytocin action in, 753–755 pregnancy changes in, 850–851, 856, 856–857 Utricle, 941, 942, 943, 947 Utricle, macula of, 942, 943, 946, 947, 948 Uvea, 901, 901, 907–912, 928p–929p V Vagina, 152p–153p, 834, 835, 863–864, 863–864, 894p–895p Valvular heart disease, 409 Vasa recta, 700, 715, 720–723, 723 Vasa vasorum, 412, 420–421 Vascular coat, of eye, 901, 901, 907–912, 928p–929p Vascular endothelium, 107, 413–416 Vascular resistance, 415, 422–423 Vas deferens See Ductus deferens Vasectomy, 807f Vasoactive agents, 418, 651 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), 367, 581, 582t, 650t, 749 Vasoconstriction, 415–416, 417 Vasodilation, 415, 416 Vasomotion, 425 Vasopressin See Antidiuretic hormone Vein(s), 404, 412t, 425–427 large, 411, 412t, 426, 427, 428, 429 medium, 411, 412t, 425–427, 427, 438p–439p small, 412t, 425–426 Pawlina_Index.indd 984 tunica adventitia of, 427, 427–429 tunica intima of, 426–427, 427–429 tunica media of, 427, 427–429 walls of, layers of, 411, 411–412 Vellus hair, 504f Vena cava, 405, 406 Venipuncture, 272 Venous sinuses dural, 387, 428 splenic, 469, 470–472, 471, 482p–485p Ventral motor neurons, 386 Ventricles of brain, 377–378, 388–389 of heart, 405, 406, 406 of larynx, 668, 669, 690p–691p Ventricular folds, 664, 668, 669, 690p–691p Ventricular hypertrophy, 419f Ventricularis, 409, 409 Venulae rectae, 721 Venules, 425–426 See also specific types Vermiform appendix, 459, 594, 598, 599, 622p–623p Versican, 174, 175t, 201 Vertigo, 955f Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), 626–627, 628f Vesicle(s) See specific types Vesicular transport, 32, 32–35 Vestibular dysfunction, 950f Vestibular ganglion (of Scarpa), 952 Vestibular glands, 865–866 Vestibular labyrinth, 942, 943 Vestibular (Reissner’s) membrane, 948, 949, 960p–961p Vestibular nerve, 952–955, 954 Vestibular system, 936 Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), 937, 943, 952–955, 954, 958p–961p Vestigial organs, 459 Villi, 569, 569 chorionic, 858–859, 890p–893p intestinal, 584, 584–586, 587, 612p–619p Villin, 109–110 Villous chorion, 860 Vimentin, 62t, 63, 63, 257, 335–336, 338, 378, 805 Vinblastine, 65f Vincristine, 65f Vinculin, 128, 128, 226, 229 Virtual microscopy, 1, 20–21, 21 Visceral afferents, 358, 379, 381 Visceral efferents, 358, 379, 381 Visceral epithelial cells, of Bowman’s capsule, 704, 705, 707–708, 708–710, 712, 734p–735p Visceral ganglia, 382 Visceral layer of serous pericardium, 407, 407 Visceral neurons, 381, 382 Visceral pleura, 682, 694p–695p Visceral striated muscle, 314 Visfatin, 255, 255, 260t Vision accommodation in, 901, 902, 921 adaptation in, 901, 908 color sensitivity in, 914, 917f light sensitivity in, 627, 914, 916 process of, 917–918, 918 vitamin A and, 627, 635, 916 Visual fields, 900, 912f Visual pigment/purple (rhodopsin), 635, 916–918, 918 Vitamin A, 627, 634–635, 744, 916 Vitamin B12 deficiency, 278f, 576f, 577, 580 Vitamin C, 165, 239f Vitamin D, 627, 629, 699f deficiency of (rickets), 239f, 627, 699f receptors for, 744 regulation of, 699, 699f, 765 Vitamin K, 627 Vitamin K–dependent proteins, bone-specific, 215 Vitreous body, 902, 902, 923 Vitreous chamber, 902, 902, 928p–929p Vitreous humor, 902 Vocal folds, 664, 668, 668–669, 690p–691p Vocalis muscle, 668, 669 Volkmann’s canals, 217–218, 218, 219, 244p–245p Voltage-dependent anion channels, 52 Voltage-gated Ca2ϩ channels, 363, 532 Voltage-gated ion channels, 31 Voltage-gated Naϩ channels, 326, 378 Voltage-sensitive Ca2ϩ channels, 338, 339, 532, 533 Voltage-sensitive Naϩ channels, 532, 533 Voltage-sensor proteins, 326, 334 Volume receptors, 411 Von Ebner’s (lingual salivary) glands, 529–530 Von Willebrand factor, 418 Vulva, 834 Vulvovaginitis, 865f W Waldeyer’s (tonsillar) ring, 527 Wallerian degeneration, 389, 389 Wandering cell population, of connective tissue, 175 Warts, genital, 871f Water barrier, of epidermis, 490, 493, 494, 494–495 Water channels (aquaporins), 643, 716, 719, 720f, 721f Water homeostasis, 388, 494–495, 754 “Wear and tear” pigment, 70 Weibel-Palade bodies, 418 Weight regulation, 257–259 Wharton’s (submandibular) duct, 527 Wharton’s jelly, 157–158, 158 Wharton’s jelly mesenchymal stem cells, 157–158 White adipose tissue, 254–259, 255–257, 259, 265t, 266, 268p–269p White blood cells (WBCs) See Leukocyte(s) White matter, of CNS, 385, 387, 398p–401p, 402p–403p White pulp, of spleen, 469, 469, 482p–483p Wilms’ tumor, familial, 791 Wilms tumor gene (WT-1), 791 Wirsung, duct of, 640, 643, 643, 645 Wisdom teeth, 533 Wolffian ducts, 808–809, 809 Wolfring, glands of, 923, 924 Wolman disease, 43f Wound repair (healing), 179, 180f, 184, 511f Woven bone, 218, 231, 231 WT-1 gene, 791 X X91 disease, 283f Xanthomatosis, familial, 43f X chromosome, 77, 78, 78 Y Y chromosome, 77, 791 Yellow bone marrow, 217, 302 Yolk-sac phase, of hemopoiesis, 292, 294 Young’s syndrome, 118f Z Zellweger syndrome, 55 Z line (Z disc), of sarcomere, 317–319, 318–319, 322, 325, 325–326, 333, 334 Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, 577f, 648 Zona fasciculata, of adrenal gland, 769, 770, 771, 771–773, 772, 786p–787p Zona glomerulosa, of adrenal gland, 714, 769, 770–771, 771, 786p–787p Zona pellucida, 837, 838, 839, 845, 876p–877p Zona reticularis, of adrenal gland, 769, 770, 771, 773, 786p–787p Zone of calcified cartilage, 233, 234 Zone of hypertrophy, of cartilage, 233, 234, 250p–251p Zone of proliferation, of cartilage, 233, 234 Zone of reserve cartilage, 233, 234, 250p–251p Zone of resorption, 233, 234, 250p–251p Zonula adherens, 122, 126–128, 128, 132t Zonula occludens, 120–126, 122–125, 126f, 132t Zonular fibers, of eye, 908, 909, 921, 932p–933p Zonule of Zinn, 902 ZP (zona pellucida) glycoproteins, of cartilage, 837, 845 Zygote, 89, 836, 842, 845 Zygotene, of meiosis, 87, 90 Zymogen granules, 35, 546–547, 578, 644, 645, 646 9/29/14 7:24 PM ... Schwann cell Note the two domains of the Schwann cell, the adaxonal plasma-membrane domain and abaxonal plasma-membrane domain The mesaxon plasma membrane links these domains The mesaxon membrane... CNS and PNS (enteric system) Glutamate NMDA, kainite, and AMPA; activates Naϩ, Kϩ, and Ca2ϩ channels mGluR receptor; acts via G protein Fast excitatory synaptic transmission in CNS GABA GABAA receptor;... canal from the lateral intercellular space The apical surface of the ependymal cells has both cilia (C) and microvilli (M) Basal bodies (BB) and a Golgi apparatus (G) within the apical cytoplasm