(BQ) Part 2 book World of Chemistry presents the following contents: Gases, liquids and solids, solutions, acids and bases, equilibrium, oxidation–reduction reactions and electrochemistry, radioactivity and nuclear energy, organic chemistry, biochemistry.
Chapter 13 Gases LOOKING AHEAD 13.1 Describing the Properties of Gases A Pressure • Atmospheric Pressure • Units of Pressure B Pressure and Volume: Boyle’s Law • A Closer Look C Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law D Volume and Moles: Avogadro’s Law 13.2 Using Gas Laws to Solve Problems A The Ideal Gas Law B Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures C Gas Stoichiometry • Molar Volume 13.3 Using a Model to Describe Gases A Laws and Models: A Review B The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases C The Implications of the Kinetic Molecular Theory • The Meaning of Temperature • The Relationship Between Pressure and Temperature • The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature D Real Gases 440 Hoop of steam being ejected from the Bocca Nuova crater on Mount Etna in Sicily 13 IN YOUR LIFE W e are all familiar with gases In fact, we live immersed in a gaseous “sea”— a mixture of nitrogen [N2(g)], oxygen [O2(g)], water vapor [H2O(g)], and small amounts of other gases So Image not available it is important from a practical point for electronic use of view for us to understand the Please refer to the properties of gases For example, you know that image in the textbook blowing air into a balloon causes it to expand—the volume of the balloon increases as you put more air into it On the other hand, when you add more air to an inflated basketball, the ball doesn’t expand, it gets “harder.” In this case the added air increases the pressure inside the ball rather than causing an increase in volume Although you probably have never The Breitling Orbiter 3, tried this, can you guess what happens when shown over the Swiss Alps, recently completed an inflated balloon is placed in a freezer? The a nonstop trip around balloon gets smaller—its volume decreases the world (You can easily this experiment at home.) When we cool a gas, its volume decreases WHAT DO YOU KNOW? Prereading Questions How does a gas differ from a solid and a liquid? Have you heard of the term barometric pressure? What does it mean? How does a law differ from a theory? What does the temperature of a sample measure? Gases • Chapter 13 • 441 SECTION 13.1 Describing the Properties of Gases Key Terms • Barometer • Torr (mm Hg) • Standard atmosphere • Pascal • Boyle’s law • Absolute zero • Charles’s law • Avogadro’s law DID YOU KNOW As a gas, water occupies 1300 times as much space as it does as a liquid at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure Objectives • To learn about atmospheric pressure and how barometers work • To learn the units of pressure • To understand how the pressure and volume of a gas are related • To calculations involving Boyle’s law • To learn about absolute zero • To understand how the volume and temperature of a gas are related • To calculations involving Charles’s law • To understand how the volume and number of moles of a gas are related • To calculations involving Avogadro’s law Gases provide an excellent example of the scientific method (first discussed in Chapter 1) Recall that scientists study matter by making observations that are summarized into laws We try to explain the observed behavior by hypothesizing what the atoms and molecules of the substance are doing This explanation based on the microscopic world is called a model or theory Our experiences show us that when we make a change in a property of a gas, other properties change in a predictable way In this chapter we will discuss relationships among the characteristics of gases such as pressure, volume, temperature, and amount of gas These relationships were discovered by making observations as simple as seeing that a balloon expands when you blow into it, or that a sealed balloon will shrink if you put it into the freezer But we also want to explain these observations Why gases behave the way they do? To explain gas behavior we will propose a model called the kinetic molecular theory A Pressure Percent Composition of Dry Air Others 1% Oxygen 21% Nitrogen 78% 442 • Chapter 13 • Gases We know that a gas uniformly fills any container, is easily compressed, and mixes completely with any other gas One of the most obvious properties of a gas is that it exerts pressure on its surroundings For example, when you blow up a balloon, the air pushes against the elastic sides of the balloon and keeps it firm The gases most familiar to us form the earth’s atmosphere The pressure exerted by the gaseous mixture that we call air can be dramatically demonstrated by the experiment shown in Figure 13.1 A small volume of water is placed in a metal can and the water is boiled, which fills the can with steam The can is then sealed and allowed to cool Why does the can collapse as it cools? It is the atmospheric pressure that crumples the can When the can is cooled after being sealed so that no air can flow in, the water vapor (steam) inside the can condenses to a very small volume of liquid water As a gas, the water vapor filled the can, but when it is condensed to a liquid, the liquid does not come close to filling the can The H2O molecules formerly present as a gas are now collected in a much smaller volume of liquid, and there are very few molecules of gas left to exert pressure outward and counteract the air pressure As a result, the pressure exerted by the gas molecules in the atmosphere smashes the can 13 Figure 13.1 The pressure exerted by the gases in the atmosphere can be demonstrated by boiling water in a can (a), and then turning off the heat and sealing the can As the can cools, the water vapor condenses, lowering the gas pressure inside the can This causes the can to crumple (b) (a) (b) Measuring Pressure A device that measures atmospheric pressure, the barometer, was invented in 1643 by an Italian scientist named Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), who had been a student of the famous astronomer Galileo Torricelli’s barometer is constructed by filling a glass tube with liquid mercury and inverting it in a dish of mercury Barometer A device that measures atmospheric pressure Empty space (a vacuum) Hg Weight of the mercury in the column 760 mm DID YOU KNOW Weight of the atmosphere (atmospheric pressure) Notice that a large quantity of mercury stays in the tube In fact, at sea level the height of this column of mercury averages 760 mm Why does this mercury stay in the tube, seemingly in defiance of gravity? The pressure exerted by the atmospheric gases on the surface of the mercury in the dish keeps the mercury in the tube Active Reading Question In the mercury barometer shown above, what keeps all of the mercury from flowing out of the tube? Why does some of the mercury flow out of the tube? Soon after Torricelli died, a German physicist named Otto von Guericke invented an air pump In a famous demonstration for the King of Prussia in 1683, Guericke placed two hemispheres together, pumped the air out of the resulting sphere through a valve, and showed that teams of horses could not pull the hemispheres apart Then, after secretly opening the air valve, Guericke easily separated the hemispheres by hand The King of Prussia was so impressed that he awarded Guericke a lifetime pension! 13.1 • Describing the Properties of Gases • 443 Atmospheric Pressure Atmospheric pressure results from the mass of air being pulled toward the center of the earth by gravity—in other words it results from the weight of the air 760 mm 740 mm Changing weather conditions cause the atmospheric pressure to vary so that the barometric pressure at sea level is not always 760 mm A “low” pressure system is often found during stormy weather A “high” pressure often indicates fair weather 760 mm 520 mm Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude In Breckenridge, Colorado (elevation 9600 feet), the atmospheric pressure is about 520 mm because there is less air pushing down on the earth’s surface than at sea level i Units of Pressure nformation Mercury is used to measure pressure because of its high density The column of water required to measure a given pressure would be 13.6 times as high as a mercury column Because instruments used for measuring pressure (see Figure 13.2) often contain mercury, the most commonly used units for pressure are based on the height of the mercury column (in millimeters) that the gas pressure can support The unit mm Hg (millimeters of mercury) is often called the torr in honor of Torricelli The terms torr and mm Hg are both used by chemists A related unit for pressure is the standard atmosphere (abbreviated atm) standard atmosphere ϭ 1.000 atm ϭ 760.0 mm Hg ϭ 760.0 torr The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (abbreviated Pa) standard atmosphere ϭ 101,325 Pa Thus atmosphere is about 100,000 or 105 pascals Because the pascal is so small we will use it sparingly in this book A unit of pressure that is employed in the engineering sciences and that we use for measuring tire pressure is pounds per square inch, abbreviated psi 1.000 atm ϭ 14.69 psi 444 • Chapter 13 • Gases 13 Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure h Figure 13.2 A device called a manometer is used for measuring the pressure of a gas in a container The pressure of the gas is equal to h (the difference in mercury levels) in units of torr (equivalent to mm Hg) (a) Gas pressure ϭ atmospheric pressure Ϫ h (b) Gas pressure ϭ atmospheric pressure ϩ h h Gas pressure less than atmospheric pressure i Gas pressure greater than atmospheric pressure nformation To convert pressure to the units needed, remember 1.000 atm Hg 760.0 mm Hg 760.0 torr 14.69 psi 101,325 Pa Hg (a) (b) Sometimes we need to convert from one unit of pressure to another We this by using conversion factors The process is illustrated in Example 13.1 E XAMPL E Pressure Unit Conversions The pressure of the air in a tire is measured to be 28 psi Represent this pressure in atmospheres, torr, and pascals Solution Where we want to go? lb n ? atm n ? torr n ? pascals 28 in.2 What we know? lb • 28 in.2 lb • 1.000 atm ϭ 14.69 in.2 • 1.000 atm ϭ 760.0 torr • 1.000 atm ϭ 101,325 Pa Checking the air pressure in a tire How we get there? To convert from pounds per square inch to atmospheres, we need the equivalence statement 1.000 atm ϭ 14.69 psi MATH 1.9 ϫ 760.0 ϭ 1444 which leads to the conversion factor 1444 1.000 atm 14.69 psi Rounds to 1400 1400 ϭ 1.4 ϫ 103 atm ϭ 1.9 atm 28 psi ϫ 1.000 14.69 psi To convert from atmospheres to torr, we use the equivalence statement 1.000 atm ϭ 760.0 torr 13.1 • Describing the Properties of Gases • 445 which leads to the conversion factor MATH 760.0 torr 1.9 ϫ 101,325.0 ϭ 192,517.5 192,517.5 1.000 atm Rounds to 190,000 190,000 ϭ 1.9 ϫ 105 760.0 torr ϭ 1.4 ϫ 103 torr 1.9 atm ϫ 1.000 atm To change from torr to pascals, we need the equivalence statement 1.000 atm ϭ 101,325 Pa which leads to the conversion factor 101,325 Pa _ 1.000 atm 101,325 Pa 1.9 atm ϫ _ ϭ 1.9 ϫ 105 Pa 1.000 atm Does it make sense? The best way to check a problem like this is to make sure the units on the answer are the units required Practice Problem • Exercise 13.1 On a summer day in Breckenridge, Colorado, the atmospheric pressure is 525 mm Hg What is this air pressure in atmospheres? Mercury added Gas Gas h h B Pressure and Volume: Boyle’s Law The first careful experiments on gases were performed by the Irish scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1691) Using a J-shaped tube closed at one end (see Figure 13.3), which he reportedly set up in the multistory entryway of his house, Boyle studied the relationship between the pressure of the trapped gas and its volume Representative values from Boyle’s experiments are given in Table 13.1 The units given for the volume (cubic inches) and pressure (inches of mercury) are the ones Boyle used Keep in mind that the metric system was not in use at this time Table 13.1 A Sample of Boyle’s Observations (moles of gas and temperature both constant) Pressure ؋ Volume (in Hg) ؋ (in.3) Hg Figure 13.3 A J-tube similar to the one used by Boyle The pressure on the trapped gas can be changed by adding or withdrawing mercury Experiment Pressure (in Hg) Volume (in.3) Actual Rounded* 29.1 48.0 1396.8 1.40 ϫ 103 35.3 40.0 1412.0 1.41 ϫ 103 44.2 32.0 1414.4 1.41 ϫ 103 58.2 24.0 1396.8 1.40 ϫ 103 70.7 20.0 1414.0 1.41 ϫ 103 87.2 16.0 1395.2 1.40 ϫ 103 117.5 12.0 1410.0 1.41 ϫ 103 *Three significant figures are allowed in the product because both of the numbers that are multiplied together have three significant figures 446 • Chapter 13 • Gases 13 HANDS-ON CHEMISTRY • MINI-LAB • The Cartesian Diver Procedure Obtain a Cartesian diver from your teacher Squeeze the diver What happens? Make careful observations Results/Analysis Explain your observations Feel free to experiment with the diver It is a good idea to take the diver apart and experiment with variables (for example, what happens if the bottle is not completely filled with water?) Be sure to reconstruct the diver so that it works again—this effort will help you better understand it First let’s examine Boyle’s observations (Table 13.1) for general trends Note that as the pressure increases, the volume of the trapped gas decreases In fact, if you compare the data from experiments and 4, you can see that as the pressure is doubled (from 29.1 to 58.2), the volume of the gas is halved (from 48.0 to 24.0) The same relationship can be seen in experiments and and in experiments and (approximately) We can see the relationship between the volume of a gas and its pressure more clearly by looking at the product of the values of these two properties (P ϫ V) using Boyle’s observations This product is shown in the last column of Table 13.1 Note that for all the experiments, Large pressure Small volume P (in Hg) Materials • Cartesian diver • water 100 Small pressure Large volume 50 20 40 60 V (in.3) P ϫ V ϭ 1.4 ϫ 103 (in Hg) ϫ in.3 with only a slight variation due to experimental error Other similar measurements on gases show the same behavior This means that the relationship of the pressure and volume of a gas can be expressed as Figure 13.4 A plot of P versus V from Boyle’s data in Table 13.1 pressure times volume equals a constant or in terms of an equation as PK ϭ k which is called Boyle’s law, where k is a constant at a specific temperature for a given amount of gas For the data we used from Boyle’s experiment, k ϭ 1.41 ϫ 103 (in Hg) ϫ in.3 It is often easier to visualize the relationships between two properties if we make a graph Figure 13.4 uses the data given in Table 13.1 to show how pressure is related to volume This graph shows that V decreases as P increases When this type of relationship exists, we say that volume and pressure are inversely proportional; when one increases, the other decreases Boyle’s law is illustrated by the gas samples below Boyle’s law The pressure of a given sample of a gas is inversely related to the volume of the gas at constant temperature PV ϭ k P = atm P = atm P = atm V=1L T = 298 K V = 0.50 L T = 298 K V = 0.25 L T = 298 K 13.1 • Describing the Properties of Gases • 447 A Closer Look i nformation For Boyle’s law to hold, the amount of gas (moles) must not be changed The temperature must also be constant Boyle’s law means that if we know the volume of a gas at a given pressure, we can predict the new volume if the pressure is changed, provided that neither the temperature nor the amount of gas is changed For example, if we represent the original pressure and volumes as P1 and V1 and the final values as P2 and V2, using Boyle’s law we can write P1V1 ϭ k and P2V2 ϭ k We can also say P1V1 ϭ k ϭ P2V2 P1V1 ϭ P2V2 Boyle’s law (constant temperature and amount of gas) We can solve for the final volume (V2) by dividing both sides of the equation by P2 P1V1 P2V2 _ ϭ _ P2 P2 Canceling the P2 terms on the right gives P1 _ ϫ V1 ϭ V2 P2 or P V2 ϭ V1 ϫ _1 P2 This equation tells us that we can calculate the new gas volume (V2) by multiplying the original volume (V1) by the ratio of the original pressure to the final pressure (P1/P2) Active Reading Question Provide a real world example of Boyle’s law EX A MPL E 13 Calculating Volume Using Boyle’s Law Freon-12 (the common name for the compound CCl2F2) was once widely used in refrigeration systems, but has now been replaced by other compounds that not lead to the breakdown of the protective ozone in the upper atmosphere Consider a 1.5-L sample of gaseous CCl2F2 at a pressure of 56 torr If the pressure is changed to 150 torr at a constant temperature, • Will the volume of the gas increase or decrease? • What will be the new volume of the gas? Solution Where we want to go? Will the volume of the gas increase or decrease? Vfinal ϭ ? L 448 • Chapter 13 • Gases What we know? Initial Final P1 ϭ 56 torr P2 ϭ 150 torr V1 ϭ 1.5 L V2 ϭ ? L • Temperature is constant • Boyle’s law P1V1 ϭ P2V2 Neon signs in Hong Kong How we get there? Drawing a picture is often helpful as we solve a problem Notice that the pressure is increased from 56 torr to 150 torr, so the volume must decrease: P1 P1V1 P2 P2V2 V1 Gas V2 Initial Final We can verify this by using Boyle’s law in the form P V2 ϭ V1 ϫ _1 P2 Note that V2 is obtained by “correcting” V1 using the ratio P1/P2 Because P1 is less than P2, the ratio P1/P2 is a fraction that is less than Thus V2 must be a fraction of (smaller than) V1; the volume decreases We calculate V2 as follows: P1 g i P1 56 torr ϭ 0.56 L V2 ϭ V1 ϫ _ ϭ 1.5 L ϫ P2 150 torr h h V1 P2 Does it make sense? Since the pressure increases we would expect the volume to decrease The volume of the gas decreases from 1.5 L to 0.56 L Practice Problem • Exercise 13.2 nformation The fact that the volume decreases in Example 13.2 makes sense because the pressure was increased To help catch errors, make it a habit to check whether an answer to a problem makes physical sense A sample of neon to be used in a neon sign has a volume of 1.51 L at a pressure of 635 torr Calculate the volume of the gas after it is pumped into the glass tubes of the sign, where it shows a pressure of 785 torr 13.1 • Describing the Properties of Gases • 449 19 Number of Carbon Atoms 5–12 10–18 15–25 Ͼ25 Use gasoline kerosene, jet fuel diesel fuel, heating oil asphalt 23 Combustion represents the vigorous reaction of a hydrocarbon (or other substances) with oxygen It has been used as a source of heat and light 25 Dehydrogenation reactions involve the removal of hydrogen atoms from adjacent carbon atoms in an alkane (or other substance) When two hydrogen atoms are removed from an alkane, a double bond is formed 26 (a) 2C6H14(l) ϩ 19O2(g) n 12CO2(g) ϩ 14H2O(g) 28 An alkyne is a hydrocarbon containing a carbon– carbon triple bond The general formula is CnH2n؊2 29 (a) CH3CH2CH3(g) 47 methanol (CH3OH): starting material for synthesis of acetic acid and many plastics; isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol, CH3—CH(OH)—CH3): rubbing alcohol 49 The location of the carbonyl group (CPO) Aldehydes contain the carbonyl group at the end of a hydrocarbon chain Ketones contain the carbonyl group in the interior of a hydrocarbon chain 50 (a) 3-hexanone (ethyl propyl ketone); (c) 3,4-dimethylpentanal O 51 (a) CH3 ; (c) CH3 C CH 54 (a) 3-methylbutanoic acid; (c) 2-hydroxypropanoic acid CH2 CH 36 (a) CH2 C CH3 CH2 O; OH O (c) C O CH3 57 A polyester is a polymer in which the polymerization forms an ester group The repeating unit is an ester; thus there are many esters, or “poly-esters.” Dacron is an example 59 nylon H H O N ( CH2 )6 N (c) CH3 52 Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids; CH3CH2COOH ϩ H2O z y CH3CH2COO2؊ ϩ H3O؉ 30 (a) 2-butene; (c) l-butyne 35 ortho-: adjacent substituents (1,2-); meta-: two substituents with one unsubstituted carbon between them (1,3-); para-: two substituents with two unsubstituted carbon atoms between them (1,4-) C O 55 (a) CH3 33 A set of equivalent Lewis structures can be drawn for benzene Each structure differs only in the location of the three double bonds in the ring Experimentally benzene does not have the chemical properties expected for molecules having any double bonds CH2 O C ( CH2 )4 C Dacron ; CH3 O 37 (a) 1,2-dimethylbenzene; (c) anthracene 39 (a) ether; (c) alcohol 41 Primary alcohols have one hydrocarbon fragment (alkyl group) bonded to the carbon atom where the —OH group is attached Secondary alcohols have two such alkyl groups attached, and tertiary alcohols contain three such alkyl groups Examples are Ethanol (primary) 2-Propanol (secondary) CH3 CH3 CH2 OH CH CH3 OH CH3 2-Methyl-2-propanol (tertiary) CH3 C CH2 CH2 O O O C C 60 The general formula is CnH2n؉2 Each successive alkane differs from the previous or following alkane by CH2 (a methylene unit) 62 (a) 2-chlorobutane; (c) triiodomethane (common name: iodoform) CH3 63 (a) CH3 CH CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3 CH3 (c) CH2 43 (a) CH3—CH2—CH2—CH2—CH2—OH; (primary); (c) H3C CH2 CH CH2 CH3 (secondary) OH 45 C6H12O6 n 2CH3CH2OH ϩ 2CO2 (yeast is a catalyst) The yeast are killed if the concentration of alcohol is greater than 13% To make more concentrated ethanol solutions, distillation is needed CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Cl OH 42 (a) 1-pentanol (primary); (c) 3-pentanol (secondary) C 64 (b) CH3—CH2—CH2—CH3 65 1,2,3-trihydroxypropane (1,2,3-propanetriol) O 67 (a) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH C H; CH3 O (c) CH3 CH C H NH2 Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems • A45 ala-gly-phe 68 (a) carboxylic acid; (c) ester Chapter 21 Proteins represent biopolymers of ␣-amino acids Proteins make up about 15% of the body by mass Fibrous proteins provide the structural material of many tissues in the body They are the chief constituents of hair, cartilage, and muscles Fibrous proteins consist of lengthwise bundles of polypeptide chains (a fiber) Globular proteins consist of polypeptide chains folded into a spherical shape; they are found in the bloodstream where they transport and store various substances, act as antibodies (fight infections), act as enzymes (catalysts), and participate in the body’s various regulatory systems The structures of the amino acids are given in Figure 21.2 A side chain is nonpolar if it is mostly hydrocarbon in nature (like alanine) Polar side chains may contain the hydroxyl group (XOH), the sulfhydryl group (XSH), or a second amino (XNH3) or carboxyl (XCOOH) group H2N H2N O C C H N terminal CH3 O N C C H H H N C H H COOH C terminal phe-gly-ala H2N CH2 O C C H O N C C H H CH3 N C H H COOH C terminal ala-phe-gly H2N N terminal N C C H H CH2 N C H H COOH C terminal H2N H O C C H N terminal CH2 O N C C H H CH3 N C H H COOH C terminal gly-ala-phe H2N H O C C H CH3 O N C H H C CH2 N C H H COOH C terminal 12 Long, thin, resilient proteins (such as hair) typically contain elongated, elastic ␣-helical protein molecules Other proteins (such as silk) that form sheets or plates typically contain protein molecules having the beta pleated-sheet structure Proteins without a structural function in the body (such as hemoglobin) typically have a globular structure 16 Cysteine contains the sulfhydryl (XSH) group in its side chain It can therefore form disulfide linkages (XSXSX) with other cysteine molecules in the same polypeptide chain This produces a kink or a knot in the chain, which leads to the tertiary structure (three-dimensional shape) For example, cysteine is responsible for the curling of hair 18 Collagen has an a-helical secondary structure Collagen functions as the raw material from which tendons are constructed CH3 O C C H C O 14 The polypeptide chain forms a coil or spiral Such proteins are found in wool, hair, and tendons H N terminal C H gly-phe-ala N terminal CH2 O H N terminal cys-ala-phe; cys-phe-ala; phe-ala-cys; phe-cys-ala; ala-cys-phe; ala-phe-cys 10 phe-ala-gly CH3 CH2 O N C C H H H N C H H COOH C terminal A46 • Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems 20 Antibodies are proteins made in the body in response to foreign substances such as bacteria or viruses Interferon is an important antibody because it offers general protection against viruses (many antibodies target specific invaders) 22 The cross-linkages between adjacent polypeptide chains of one protein are broken chemically and then re-formed chemically in a new location The primary cross-linkage involved is a disulfide linkage between cysteine units in the polypeptide chain The tertiary structure is mainly affected, although the secondary structure can also be affected if the waving lotion is left on too long (making the hair very “frizzy”) 24 The molecule acted on by an enzyme is referred to as the enzyme’s substrate If an enzyme is said to be specific for a particular substrate, it will catalyze the reactions of only that molecule 26 The lock-and-key model postulates that the structures of the enzyme and its substrate are complementary In this way, the active site of the enzyme and the portion of the substrate to be acted on can fit closely together The structures of these portions of the molecules are unique to the particular enzyme–substrate pair They fit together like a particular key is necessary to open a specific lock 36 Messenger RNA molecules are synthesized to be complementary to a portion (gene) of the DNA molecule in the cell They serve as the template or pattern on which a protein will be constructed (a particular group of nitrogen bases on mRNA is able to accommodate and specify a particular amino acid in a particular location in the protein) Transfer RNA molecules are much smaller than mRNA, and their structure accommodates only a single specific amino acid molecule They “find” their specific amino acid in the cellular fluids and bring it to mRNA, where it is added to the protein molecule being synthesized 37 Rather than having some common structural feature, substances are classified as lipids based on their solubility characteristics Lipids are water-insoluble substances that can be extracted from cells by nonpolar organic solvents such as benzene or carbon tetrachloride 39 Saponification is the production of a soap by treatment of a triglyceride with a strong base such as NaOH triglyceride ϩ 3NaOH n glycerol ϩ 3Na؉soap؊ O 28 Sugars contain an aldehyde or ketone functional group (carbonyl group, CPO) as well as several hydroxyl groups (XOH) CH2 30 (a) glucose, CH CHO H C OH HO C H H C OH H C OH ; (c) ribulose, CH2OH C O H C OH H C OH CH2OH CH2OH 32 uracil (RNA only); cytosine (DNA, RNA); thymine (DNA only); adenine (DNA, RNA); guanine (DNA, RNA) 34 A comparison of the two strands of a DNA molecule shows that a given base in one strand is always paired with a particular base in the other strand Because of the shapes and side atoms along the rings of the nitrogen bases, only certain parts can hydrogen-bond with one another in the double helix Adenine is always paired with thymine; cytosine is always paired with guanine When a DNA helix unwinds for replication during cell division, only the appropriate complementary bases are able to approach and bond to the nitrogen bases of each strand For example, when the two strands of a guanine–cytosine pair in the original DNA separate, only a new cytosine molecule can bond to the original guanine, and only a new guanine molecule can bond to the original cytosine CH2 O O O C O R C RЈ ϩ 3NaOH O C RЉ CH2 CH CH2 OH RCOONa OH ϩ RЈCOONa OH RЉCOONa 41 Cholesterol is a naturally occurring steroid from which the body synthesizes other needed steroids Because cholesterol is insoluble in water, having too large a concentration of this substance in the bloodstream may lead to buildup on the walls of blood vessels, causing their eventual blockage 43 i 45 m 47 u 49 f 51 g 53 r 55 p 57 o 59 b 61 d 63 a Answers to Selected End-of-Chapter Problems • A47 Glossary Absolute zero Ϫ273 °C Acid a substance that produces hydrogen ions in aqueous solution; a proton donor Acid–base indicator a chemical that changes color according to the pH of a solution Acidic oxide a covalent oxide that dissolves in water to give an acidic solution Actinide series a group of fourteen elements following actinium on the periodic table, in which the 5f orbitals are being filled Activation energy the minimum energy required in order to cause a chemical reaction Active site the part of the enzyme to which the specific substrate is bound as a reaction is catalyzed Addition polymerization the process in which monomers simply “add together” to form polymers Addition reaction a reaction in which new atoms form single bonds to the carbon atoms in unsaturated hydrocarbons that were involved in double or triple bonds Air pollution contamination of the atmosphere, mainly by the gaseous products of transportation and the production of electricity Alcohol a hydrocarbon derivative in which the hydroxyl group (ϪOH) is the functional group Aldehyde an organic compound containing the carbonyl group bonded to at least one hydrogen atom Alkali metal a Group metal Alkaline earth metal a Group metal Alkane a saturated hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n؉2 Alkene an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon– carbon double bond The general formula is CnH2n Alkyne an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon– carbon triple bond The general formula is CnH2n؊2 Alloy a mixture of elements that has metallic properties Alloy steel a form of steel containing carbon plus metals such as chromium, cobalt, manganese, and molybdenum Alpha (␣) particle a helium nucleus produced in radioactive decay Alpha-particle production a common mode of decay for heavy radioactive nuclides resulting in a loss of in mass number and a loss of in atomic number Amine a hydrocarbon derived from ammonia in which one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic groups ␣-Amino acid an organic acid in which an amino group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group are attached to the carbon atom next to the carboxyl group Ampere the unit of measurement for electric current; ampere is equal to coulomb of charge per second Amphoteric substance a substance that can behave either as an acid or as a base Anion a negatively charged ion Anode the electrode in a galvanic cell at which oxidation occurs Aqueous solution a solution with water as a solvent Aromatic hydrocarbon one of a special class of cyclic unsaturated hydrocarbons, the simplest of which is benzene Arrhenius concept of acids and bases a concept postulating that acids produce hydrogen ions in solution, whereas bases produce hydroxide ions in solution Atmosphere the mixture of gases that surrounds the earth’s surface Atom the fundamental unit of which elements are composed Atomic mass unit (amu) a small unit of mass equal to 1.66 ϫ 10؊24 grams Atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus of a given atom Atomic radius half of the distance between the atomic nuclei in a molecule consisting of identical atoms Atomic solid a solid that contains atoms at the lattice points Auto-ionization the transfer of a proton from one molecule to another of the same substance Average atomic mass (weight) the weighted average of the masses of all of the isotopes of an element Avogadro’s law equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles (atoms or molecules) Avogadro’s number the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C, equal to 6.022 ϫ 1023 Ball-and-stick model a molecular model that distorts the sizes of atoms but shows bond relationships clearly Barometer a device that measures atmospheric pressure Base a substance that produces hydroxide ions in solution; a proton acceptor Basic oxide an ionic oxide that dissolves in water to produce a basic solution Battery a group of galvanic cells connected in series Beta () particle an electron produced in radioactive decay Beta-particle production a decay process for radioactive nuclides in which the mass number remains constant and the atomic number increases by one The net effect is to change a neutron to a proton Binary compound a two-element compound Binary ionic compound a two-element compound consisting of a cation and an anion Binding energy (nuclear) the energy required to decompose a nucleus into its component nucleons Biochemistry the study of the chemistry of living systems Biomolecule a molecule that functions in maintaining and/or reproducing life Bond (chemical bond) the force that holds two or more atoms together and makes them function as a unit Bond energy the energy required to break a given chemical bond Bond length the distance between the nuclei of the two atoms that are connected by a bond Glossary • A49 Bonding pair a pair of electrons that are shared between two atoms forming a covalent or polar-covalent bond Boyle’s law the pressure of a given sample of a gas is inversely related to the volume of the gas at constant temperature PV ϭ k Breeder reactor a nuclear reactor in which fissionable fuel is produced while the reactor runs Brønsted–Lowry model a model proposing that an acid is a proton donor and that a base is a proton acceptor Buffer capacity the ability of a buffered solution to absorb protons or hydroxide ions without a significant change in pH Buffered solution a solution that resists a change in pH when either an acid or base is added Buret a device for the accurate measurement of the delivery of a given volume of liquid or solution Calorie the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one Celsius degree Calorimeter a device used to determine the heat associated with a chemical or physical change Calorimetry the science of measuring heat flow Carbohydrate a polyhydroxyl ketone or polyhydroxyl aldehyde or a polymer composed of these Carbon steel an alloy of iron containing up to about 1.5% carbon Carboxyl group the XCOOH group in an organic acid Carboxylic acid a hydrocarbon derivitave (XCOOH) containing the carboxyl group Catalyst a substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed Cathode the electrode in a galvanic cell at which reduction occurs Cathode rays the “rays” emanating from the negative electrode (cathode) in a partially evacuated tube; a stream of electrons Cathodic protection the connection of an active metal, such as magnesium, to steel to protect the steel from corrosion Cation a positively charged ion Cell the smallest unit in living things that exhibits the properties normally associated with life, such as reproduction, metabolism, mutation, and sensitivity to external stimuli Cell potential (electromotive force) the driving force in a galvanic cell that pushes electrons from the reducing agent in one compartment to the oxidizing agent in the other Cellulose the major structural component of woody plants and natural fibers, such as cotton; a polymer of glucose Chain reaction (nuclear) a self-sustaining fission process caused by the production of neutrons that proceed to split other nuclei Charles’s law the volume of a given sample of a gas is directly related to the temperature of the gas at constant pressure V ϭ bT Chemical change the change of substances into other substances through a reorganization of the atoms; a chemical reaction A50 • Glossary Chemical equation a representation of a chemical reaction using the formulas of the starting substances that react and the new substances that are formed Chemical equilibrium a dynamic state in which the concentrations of the reactants and the products remain constant over time, as long as the conditions are not changed Chemical formula a representation of a molecule in which the symbols for the elements are used to indicate the types of atoms present and subscripts are used to show the relative numbers of atoms Chemical kinetics the area of chemistry that concerns reaction rates Chemical property characteristic that describes the ability of a substance to change to a different substance Chemical reaction a process in which one or more substances are changed into one or more new substances by the reorganization of component atoms Chemical stoichiometry the quantities of materials consumed and produced in a chemical reaction Chemistry the science of materials and the changes that these materials undergo Coal a solid fossil fuel mostly consisting of carbon Coefficient the number written in front of the chemical formulas in a balanced chemical equation; coefficients indicate the relative numbers of reactants and products in the reaction Colligative property a property that depends only on the number of solute particles present in solution Collision model molecules must collide in order to react; used to account for the fact that reaction rate depends on temperature and concentrations of reactants Combustion reaction a chemical reaction involving oxygen as one of the reactants that produces enough heat so that a flame results Complete ionic equation a chemical equation for a reaction in solution representing all strong electrolytes as ions Compound a substance made of two or more different elements joined together in a specific way Concentrated describes a solution in which a relatively large amount of solute is dissolved in a solution Condensation the process in which a vapor is converted to a liquid Condensation polymerization the process in which a small molecule such as water is produced for each extension of the polymer chain Condensed states of matter liquids and solids Conjugate acid the substance formed when a proton is added to a base Conjugate acid–base pair two substances related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single proton Conjugate base the remaining substance when a proton is lost from an acid Continuous spectrum a spectrum that exhibits all the wavelengths of visible light Control rods in a nuclear reactor, rods composed of substances that absorb neutrons These rods regulate the power level of the reactor Conversion factor a ratio used to convert from one unit to another Copolymer a polymer consisting of two different types of monomers Core electron an inner electron in an atom; one that is not in the outermost principal energy level of an atom Corrosion the process by which metals are oxidized in the atmosphere Covalent bonding a type of bonding in which atoms share electrons Critical mass the mass of fissionable material required to produce a chain reaction Critical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which exactly one neutron from each fission event causes another fission event, thus sustaining the chain reaction Crystalline solid a solid characterized by the regular arrangement of its components Dalton’s atomic theory a theory established by John Dalton in the early 1800s, used to explain the nature of materials Dalton’s law of partial pressures for a mixture of gases in a container, the total pressure exerted is the sum of the partial pressures of each of the gases Decomposition reaction a chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down into simpler compounds, or into the component elements Denaturation the breaking down of the three-dimensional structure of a protein, resulting in the loss of its function Density the mass of a substance per a given volume of that substance Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) a huge nucleotide polymer having a double-helical structure with complementary bases on the two strands Its major functions are protein synthesis and the storage and transport of genetic information Diatomic molecule a molecule composed of two atoms Dilution the process of adding solvent to a solution to lower the concentration of solute Dimensional analysis the process of using conversion factors to change from one unit to another Dimer a molecule consisting of two monomers joined together Dipole–dipole attraction the attractive force between the positively charged end of one polar molecule and the negatively charged end of another polar molecule Dipole moment a property of a molecule whereby the charge distribution can be represented by a center of positive charge and a center of negative charge Disaccharide a sugar formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycoside linkage Distillation a method for separating the components of a liquid mixture that depends on the different boiling points of the substances Double bond a covalent or polar covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms Dry cell battery a common battery used in calculators, watches, radios, and tape players Electrical conductivity the ability to conduct an electric current Electrochemistry the study of the interchange of chemical and electrical energy Electrolysis a process that involves forcing a current through a cell to cause a chemical reaction that would not otherwise occur Electrolyte a material that dissolves in water to give a solution that conducts an electric current Electrolytic cell a cell that uses electrical energy to produce a chemical change that would not otherwise occur Electromagnetic radiation radiant energy that exhibits wavelike behavior and travels through space at the speed of light in a vacuum Electron a negatively charged subatomic particle Electronegativity the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself Element a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means It consists of atoms all having the same atomic number End point the point in a titration at which the indicator changes color Endothermic refers to a process in which energy (as heat) flows from the surroundings into the system Energy the ability to work or to produce heat Enthalpy at constant pressure, a change in enthalpy equals the energy flow as heat Entropy a function used to keep track of the natural tendency for the components of the universe to become disordered; a measure of disorder or randomness Enzyme a large molecule, usually a protein, that catalyzes biological reactions Equilibrium the exact balance of two processes, one of which is opposite of the other Equilibrium constant the value obtained when equilibrium concentrations of the chemical species are substituted into the equilibrium expression Equilibrium expression the expression (from the law of mass action) equal to the product of the product concentrations divided by the product of the reactant concentrations, each concentration having first been raised to a power represented by the coefficient in the balanced equation Equilibrium position a particular set of equilibrium concentrations of all reactants and products in a chemical system Equivalence point (stoichiometric point) the point in a titration at which enough titrant has been added to react exactly with the substance in solution that is being titrated Equivalent of an acid the amount of acid that can furnish one mole of hydrogen ions (H؉) Equivalent of a base the amount of base that can furnish one mole of hydroxide ions (OH؊) Equivalent weight the mass (in grams) of one equivalent of an acid or a base Essential elements the 30 elements currently known to be essential to human life Ester a hydrocarbon derivative produced by the reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol Exothermic refers to a process in which energy (as heat) flows out of the system into the surroundings Fat (glyceride) an ester composed of glycerol and fatty acids Glossary • A51 Fatty acid a long-chain carboxylic acid Filtration a method for separating the components of a mixture containing a solid and a liquid First law of thermodynamics a law stating that the energy of the universe is constant Fission the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two more stable nuclei with smaller mass numbers Fossil fuel fuel that consists of carbon-based molecules derived from decomposition of once-living organisms; coal, petroleum, or natural gas Frequency the number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point in space Fuel cell a galvanic cell for which the reactants are continuously supplied Functional group an atom or group of atoms in a hydrocarbon derivative that contains elements in addition to carbon and hydrogen Fusion the process of combining two light nuclei to form a heavier, more stable nucleus Galvanic cell a device in which chemical energy is converted spontaneously to electrical energy by means of oxidation–reduction reaction Galvanizing a process in which steel is coated with zinc to prevent corrosion Gamma (␥) ray a high-energy photon produced in radioactive decay Gas one of the three states of matter; substance with no definite shape or volume Geiger–Müller counter (Geiger counter) an instrument that measures the rate of radioactive decay by registering the ions and electrons produced as a radioactive particle passes through a gas-filled chamber Gene a given segment of the DNA molecule that contains the code for a specific protein Glycogen the main carbohydrate reservoir in animals; a polymer of glucose Glycoside linkage the CXOXC bond formed between monosaccharide rings in a disaccharide Greenhouse effect the process by which an atmosphere warms a planet Ground state the lowest possible energy state of an atom or a molecule Group a vertical column of elements on the periodic table Haber process the manufacture of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen, carried out at high pressure and high temperature with the aid of a catalyst Half-life (of a radioactive sample) the time required for half of the original sample of radioactive nuclides to decay Half-reactions the two parts of an oxidation–reduction reaction, one representing oxidation, the other reduction Halogen a Group element Halogenation an addition reaction in which a halogen is a reactant Hard water water from natural sources that contains relatively large concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions Heat flow of energy due to a temperature difference A52 • Glossary Heating/cooling curve a plot of temperature versus time for a substance, where energy is added at a constant rate Heisenberg uncertainty principle a principle stating that there is a fundamental limitation to how precisely we can know both the position and the momentum of a particle at a given time Herbicide a pesticide applied to kill weeds Hess’s Law the change in enthalpy in going from a given set of reactants to a given set of products does not depend on the number of steps in the reaction Heterogeneous equilibrium an equilibrium system in which all reactants and products are in different states Heterogeneous mixture a mixture that has different properties in different regions of the mixture Heterogeneous reaction reaction involving reactants and products in different states Homogeneous equilibrium an equilibrium system in which all reactants and products are in the same state Homogeneous mixture a mixture that is the same throughout Homogeneous reaction reaction involving reactants and products in the same state Homopolymer a polymer consisting of a single type of monomer Hydration the interaction between solute particles and water molecules Hydrocarbon a compound of carbon and hydrogen Hydrogen bonding unusually strong dipole–dipole attractions that occur among molecules in which hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom Hydrogenation reaction an addition reaction in which H2 is a reactant Hydronium ion the H3O؉ ion; a hydrated proton Hypothesis one or more assumptions put forth to explain observed phenomena Ideal gas a hypothetical gas that exactly obeys the ideal gas law A real gas approaches ideal behavior at high temperature and/or low pressure Ideal gas law an equation relating the properties of an ideal gas, expressed as PV ϭ nRT, where P ϭ pressure, V ϭ volume, n ϭ moles of the gas, R ϭ the universal gas constant, and T ϭ temperature on the Kelvin scale This equation expresses behavior closely approached by real gases at high temperature and/or low pressure Indicator a chemical that changes color and is used to mark the end point of a titration Indicator paper a strip of paper coated with a combination of acid–base indicators Insoluble solid a solid that dissolves to such a small degree that it is not detectable to the naked eye Intermolecular forces attraction forces that occur between molecules Internal energy the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all particles in the system Intramolecular forces attractive forces that occur between atoms in a molecule; chemical bonds Ion an atom or a group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge Ionic bonding the attraction between oppositely charged ions Ionic compound a compound that results when a metal reacts with a nonmetal to form cations and anions Ionic solid a solid containing cations and anions that dissolves in water to give a solution containing the separated ions, which are mobile and thus free to conduct an electric current Ionization energy the amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion Ion-product constant (Kw) the equilibrium constant for the auto-ionization of water; Kw ϭ [H؉][OH؊] At 25 °C, Kw equals 1.0 ϫ 10؊14 Isomers species that have the same chemical formula but different properties Isotopes atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons Joule a unit of measurement for energy; calorie ϭ 4.184 joules Ketone a hydrocarbon derivative containing the carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms Kinetic energy _1_mv2 energy due to the motion of an object Kinetic molecular theory (KMI) a model that assumes that an ideal gas is composed of tiny particles (atoms or molecules) in constant motion ( ) Lanthanide series a group of fourteen elements following lanthanum on the periodic table, in which the 4f orbitals are being filled Lattice a three-dimensional system of points designating the positions of the centers of the components of a solid (atoms, ions, or molecules) Law of chemical equilibrium a general description of the equilibrium condition; it defines the equilibrium expression Law of conservation of energy energy can be converted from one form to another but can be neither created nor destroyed Law of conservation of mass mass is neither created nor destroyed Law of constant composition a given compound always contains elements in exactly the same proportion by mass Law of mass action (also called the law of chemical equilibrium) a general description of the equilibrium condition; it defines the equilibrium expression Law of multiple proportions a law stating that when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with one gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers Lead storage battery a battery used in cars in which the anode is lead, the cathode is lead coated with lead dioxide, and the electrolyte is sulfuric acid Le Châtelier’s principle if a change is imposed on a system at equilibrium, the position of the equilibrium will shift in a direction that tends to reduce the effect of that change Lewis structure a representation of a molecule or polyatomic ion showing how valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in the molecule or ion Limiting reactant (limiting reagent) the reactant that is completely used up when a reaction is run to completion Line spectrum a spectrum showing only certain discrete wavelengths Linear accelerator a type of particle accelerator in which a changing electrical field is used to accelerate a beam of charged particles along a linear path Lipids water-insoluble substances that can be extracted from cells by nonpolar organic solvents Liquid one of the three states of matter; has a definite volume that takes the shape of its container London dispersion forces relatively weak intermolecular forces resulting from a temporarily uneven distribution of electrons that induces a dipole in a neighbor Lone pair electron pairs in a Lewis structure that are not involved in bonding Main-group (representative) elements elements in the groups labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and on the periodic table The group number gives the sum of the valence s and p electrons Mass the quantity of matter in an object Mass number the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of a given atom Mass percent the percent by mass of a component of a mixture or of a given element in a compound Matter the material of the universe Measurement a quantitative observation Metal an element that gives up electrons relatively easily and is typically lustrous, malleable, and a good conductor of heat and electricity Metalloid (semi-metals) an element that has both metallic and nonmetallic properties Metallurgy the process of separating a metal from its ore and preparing it for use Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) a unit of measurement for pressure, also called a torr; 760 mm Hg ϭ 760 torr ϭ 101,325 Pa ϭ standard atmosphere Mixture a substance with variable composition Model (theory) a set of assumptions put forth to explain the observed behavior of matter The models of chemistry usually involve assumptions about the behavior of individual atoms or molecules Moderator a substance used in a nuclear reactor to slow down the neutrons Molar heat of fusion the energy required to melt one mole of a solid Molar heat of vaporization the energy required to vaporize mol of a liquid Molar mass the mass in grams of one mole of a compound Molar volume the volume of one mole of an ideal gas; equal to 22.42 liters at standard temperature and pressure Molarity moles of solute per volume of solution in liters Mole (mol) the number equal to the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C: Avogadro’s number One mole represents 6.022 ϫ 1023 units Glossary • A53 Mole ratio (stoichiometry) the ratio of moles of one substance to moles of another substance in a balanced chemical equation Molecular equation a chemical equation showing the complete (undissociated) forms of all reactants and products Molecular formula the actual formula of a compound, giving the types of atoms and the number of each type of atom Molecular solid a solid composed of molecules Molecular structure the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule Molecular weight (molar mass) the mass in grams of one mole of a substance Molecule a collection of atoms bonded together that behave as a unit Monoprotic acid an acid with one acidic proton Natural gas a gaseous fossil fuel mostly consisting of methane and usually associated with petroleum deposits Natural law a statement that summarizes generally observed behavior Net ionic equation a chemical equation for a reaction in solution showing only those components that are directly involved in the reaction Strong electrolytes are represented as ions Network solid an atomic solid containing strong directional covalent bonds Neutralization reaction an acid–base reaction Neutron a subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus with no charge Noble gas a Group element Nonelectrolyte a substance that, when dissolved in water, gives a nonconducting solution Nonmetal an element that does not exhibit metallic characteristics Chemically, a typical nonmetal accepts electrons from a metal Normal boiling point the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is exactly one atmosphere; the boiling temperature under one atmosphere of pressure Normal melting/freezing point the melting/freezing temperature of a liquid under one atmosphere of pressure Normality the number of equivalents of a substance dissolved in a liter of solution Nuclear atom a concept of the atom as having a dense center of positive charge (the nucleus) surrounded by moving electrons Nuclear transformation the change of one element into another Nucleon a particle in an atomic nucleus, either a neutron or a proton Nucleotide a monomer of DNA and RNA consisting of nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group Nucleus the relatively small, dense center of positive charge in an atom Nuclide the general term applied to each unique atom; represented by AZX, where X is the symbol for a particular element A54 • Glossary Octet rule the observation that atoms of nonmetals form the most stable molecules when they are surrounded by eight electrons (to fill their valence orbitals) Orbital the three-dimensional region in which there is a high probability of finding an electron in an atom Organic acid an acid with a carbon-atom backbone and a carboxyl group Organic chemistry the study of carbon-containing compounds (typically containing chains of carbon atoms) and their properties Oxidation an increase in oxidation state; a loss of electrons Oxidation–reduction (redox) reaction a chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons Oxidation states a concept that provides a way to keep track of electrons in oxidation–reduction reactions according to certain rules Oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) a reactant that accepts electrons from another reactant Oxyacid an acid in which the acidic proton is attached to an oxygen atom Oxyanion a polyatomic ion containing at least one oxygen atom and one or more atoms of at least one other element Ozone O3, a form of elemental oxygen much less common than O2 in the atmosphere near the earth Partial pressures the independent pressures exerted by a gas in a mixture of gases Particle accelerator a device used to accelerate nuclear particles to very high speeds Pascal the SI unit of measurement for pressure; equal to one newton per square meter Pauli exclusion principle in a given atom, no two electrons can occupy the same atomic orbital and have the same spin Percent yield the actual yield of a product as a percentage of the theoretical yield Periodic table a chart showing all the elements arranged in columns in such a way that all the elements in a given column exhibit similar chemical properties Petroleum a thick, dark liquid composed mostly of hydrocarbon compounds pH meter a device used to measure the pH of a solution pH scale a log scale based on 10 and equal to Ϫlog[H؉]; a convenient way to represent solution acidity Phenyl group the benzene molecule minus one hydrogen atom Phospholipid an ester of glycerol containing two fatty acids; consists of a long nonpolar “tail” and a polar substituted-phosphate “head” Photochemical smog air pollution produced by the action of light on oxygen, nitrogen oxides, and unburned fuel from auto exhaust to form ozone and other pollutants Photon a particle of electromagnetic radiation Physical charge a change in the form of a substance that does not affect the composition of a substance Physical property characteristic of a substance that can change without the substance’s becoming a different substance Polar covalent bond a covalent bond in which the electrons are not shared equally because one atom attracts the shared electron more strongly than the other atom Polar molecule a molecule that has a permanent dipole moment Polyelectronic atom an atom with more than one electron Polymer a large, usually chain-like molecule made from small molecules called monomers Polymerization a process in which small molecules called monomers are joined together to form a large molecule Polyprotic acid an acid with more than one acidic proton It dissociates in a stepwise manner, one proton at a time Polysaccharide polymers containing many monosaccharide units Positron production a mode of nuclear decay in which a particle is formed that has the same mass as an electron but opposite charge The net effect is to change a proton to a neutron Potential the “pressure” on electrons to flow from the anode to the cathode in a battery Potential energy energy due to position or composition Precipitate the solid that forms in a precipitation reaction Precipitation the formation of a solid in a chemical reaction Precipitation reaction a reaction in which a solid forms and separates from the solution as a solid Precision the degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity; the reproducibility of a measurement Primary structure (of a protein) the order or sequence of amino acids in the protein chain Probability distribution (orbital) a representation indicating the probabilities of finding an electron at various points in space Product the new substance formed by a chemical reaction It is shown to the right of the reaction arrow Protein a natural polymer formed by condensation reactions between amino acids Proton a positively charged subatomic particle located in the atomic nucleus Pure substance a substance with constant composition; a pure element or a pure compound Radioactive decay (radioactivity) the spontaneous decomposition of a nucleus to form a different nucleus Radiocarbon dating (carbon-14 dating) a method for dating ancient wood or cloth on the basis of the radioactive decay of the carbon-14 nuclide Radiotracer a radioactive nuclide introduced into an organism and traced for diagnostic purposes Random error an error that has an equal probability of being high or low Rate of decay the change per unit time in the number of radioactive nuclides in a sample Reactant the starting substance of a chemical reaction shown to the left of the reaction arrow Reactor core the part of a nuclear reactor in which the fission reaction takes place Reducing agent (electron donor) a reactant that donates electrons to another substance, reducing the oxidation state of one of its atoms Reduction a decrease in oxidation state (a gain of electrons) Rem a unit of radiation dosage that accounts for both the energy of the dose and its effectiveness in causing biological damage (from roentgen equivalent for man) Resonance a condition occurring when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a particular molecule Ribonucleic acid (RNA) large nucleotide polymer that along with DNA, functions to transport genetic material Salt an ionic compound Salt bridge a U-tube containing an electrolyte that connects the two compartments of a galvanic cell, allowing ion flow without extensive mixing of the different solutions Saponification the process of breaking down a triglyceride by treatment with aqueous sodium hydroxide to produce glycerol and the fatty acid salts; the fatty acid salts produced are soaps Saturated describes a hydrocarbon in which all carboncarbon bonds are single bonds Saturated solution a solution that contains as much solute as can be dissolved in that solution at that temperature Scientific method a process of studying natural phenomena that involves making observations, forming laws and theories, and testing theories by experimentation Scientific notation expresses a number in the form N ϫ 10M; a convenient method for representing a very large or very small number and for easily indicating the number of significant figures Scintillation counter an instrument that measures the rate of radioactive decay by sensing flashes of light that the radiation produces in a detector Second law of thermodynamics the entropy of the universe is always increasing Secondary structure (of a protein) the arrangement in space of the chain of the protein chain (for example, ␣-helix, random coil, or pleated sheet) SI units International System of units based on the metric system and on units derived from the metric system Sigma () bond a covalent bond in which the electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line running between the atoms Significant figures the certain digits and the first uncertain digit of a measurement Silica the fundamental silicon–oxygen compound, which has the empirical formula SiO2 and forms the basis of quartz and certain types of sand Silicates salts that contain metal cations and polyatomic silicon–oxygen anions that are usually polymeric Single bond a covalent or polar covalent bond in which one pair of electrons is shared by two atoms Solid one of the three states of matter; has a fixed shape and volume Glossary • A55 Solubility the amount of a substance that dissolves in a given volume of solvent or solution at a given temperature Solubility product the constant for the equilibrium expression representing the dissolving of an ionic solid in water Soluble solid a solid that readily dissolves in water Solute a substance dissolved in a solvent to form a solution Solution a homogeneous mixture Solvent the dissolving medium in a solution Somatic damage radioactive damage to an organism resulting in its sickness or death Specific gravity the ratio of density of a given liquid to the density of water at °C Specific heat another name for specific heat capacity Specific heat capacity the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one Celsius degree Spectator ions ions present in solution that not participate directly in a reaction Standard atmosphere a unit of measurement for pressure equal to 760 mm Hg or 101, 325 Pa Standard solution a solution in which the concentration is accurately known Standard temperature and pressure (STP) the condition °C and atmosphere of pressure Starch the main carbohydrate reservoir in plants; a polymer of glucose State function a property that is independent of the pathway States of matter the three different forms in which matter can exist: solid, liquid, and gas Stoichiometric quantities quantities of reactants mixed in exactly the amounts that result in their all being used up at the same time Stoichiometry the process of using a balanced chemical equation to determine the relative masses of reactants and products involved in a reaction Stoichiometry of a reaction the relative quantities of reactants and products involved in the reaction Strong acid an acid that completely dissociates (ionizes) to produce H؉ ions in solution Strong base a base that completely dissociates to produce OH؊ ions in solution Strong electrolyte a substance that dissolves in water, dissociating completely into ions Structural formula the representation of a molecule in which the relative positions of the atoms are shown and the bonds are indicated by lines Structural isomerism describes what occurs when two molecules have the same atoms but different bonds Subcritical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which fewer than one of the neutrons from each fission event causes another fission event and the process dies out Sublimation the process by which a substance goes directly from the solid state to the gaseous state without passing through the liquid state Substitution reaction (hydrocarbons) a reaction in which an atom, usually a halogen, replaces a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon A56 • Glossary Substrate the molecule that interacts with an enzyme Sucrose table sugar; a disacchradie formed between glucose and fructose Supercooling the process of cooling a liquid to a temperature below its freezing point without its changing to a solid Supercritical reaction (nuclear) a reaction in which more than one of the neutrons from each fission event causes another fission event The process rapidly escalates to a violent explosion Superheating the process of heating a liquid to a temperature above its boiling point without its boiling Supersaturated describes a solution that contains more solute than a saturated solution will hold at that temperature Surfactant a wetting agent that assists water in suspending nonpolar materials; soap is a surfactant Surroundings everything in the universe surrounding a thermodynamic system System (thermodynamic) that part of the universe on which attention is to be focused Systematic error an error that always occurs in the same direction Temperature measure of the random motions (average kinetic energy) of the components of a substance Tertiary structure (of a protein) the overall shape of a protein, long and narrow or globular, maintained by different types of intramolecular interactions Theoretical yield the maximum amount of a given product that can be formed when the limiting reactant is completely consumed Theory (model) a set of assumptions put forth to explain some aspect of the observed behavior of matter Thermodynamics the study of energy Titration a technique in which a solution of known concentration is used to determine the concentration of another solution Titration curve (pH curve) a plot of the pH of a given solution versus the volume of titrant added to the solution Torr another name for millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) Trace elements first-row transition metals present in very small (trace) amounts in the human body Transition metals several series of elements in which inner orbitals (d or f orbitals) are being filled Transuranium elements the elements beyond uranium that are made artificially by particle bombardment Triglyceride a fat that is an ester of glycerol Triple bond a covalent or polar covalent bond in which three pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms Uncertainty (in measurement) the characteristic reflecting the fact that any measurement involves estimates and cannot be exactly reproduced Unit factor an equivalence statement between units that is used for converting from one set of units to another Units the part of the measurement telling us the scale being used Universal gas constant the combined proportionality constant in the ideal gas law; 0.08206 L atm/K mol, or 8.314 J/K mol Unsaturated describes a hydrocarbon containing carboncarbon multiple bonds Unsaturated solution a solution in which more solute can be dissolved than is dissolved already at that temperature Valence electrons the electrons in the outermost principal energy level of an atom Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) model a model used to predict molecular geometry Based on the idea that pairs of electrons surrounding an atom repel each other and that the atoms in a molecule are positioned to minimize this repulsion Vapor pressure the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid phase at a certain temperature Vaporization (evaporation) the process in which a liquid is converted to a gas Viscosity the resistance of a liquid to flow Volt the unit of measurement for electric potential; it is defined as one joule of work per coulomb of charge transferred Volume the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by a substance Wavelength the distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave Waxes a class of lipids that involve monohydroxy alcohols instead of glycerol Weak acid an acid that dissociates to a slight extent in aqueous solution Weak base a base that reacts with water to produce hydroxide ions to only a slight extent in aqueous solution Weak electrolyte a material that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution that conducts only a small electric current Weight the force exerted on an object by gravity Work force acting over a distance Glossary • A57 Photo/Illustration Credits Chapter Chapter pp 2–3, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 3, PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 4, (top right) © David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; p 4, (bottom left) Bart Eklund; p 5, (bottom right) © David Katzenstein/CORBIS; p 5, (top right) Sean Brady; p 7, SW Productions/Index Stock Imagery; p 8, Kaz Mori/The Image Bank/Getty Images; p 11, (center) © Don Mason/CORBIS; p 11, (center right) Sean Brady; p 17, © Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit pp 92–93, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 93, Comstock Images/Index Stock Imagery; p 94, © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works; p 96, Scala/Art Resource, NY; p 99, Sean Brady; p 105, (top left) Sean Brady; p 105, (top right) Sean Brady; p 108, Dr Gopal Muri/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 116, Dan Suzio/Photo Researchers, Inc Chapter pp 22–23, Royalty-Free/Materfile; p 23, Sean Brady; p 24, (center left) Sean Brady; p 24, (bottom left) IBM Almaden Research Center; p 25, (center right) Dr Jeremy Burgess/ Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 25, (top right) Chuck Place; p 25, (bottom left) The Art Archive/ Chicago Art Institute; p 25, (center left) The Art Archive/ Chicago Art Institute; p 27, (bl) Mark A Schneider/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 27, (bottom center) © Daniel Templeton/ Alamy Images; p 27, (top center) Don Farall/PhotoDisc/ Getty Images; p 27, (top right) Sean Brady; p 28, (center left) Lawrence Lawry/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 28, (center) © Lester V Bergman/CORBIS; p 28, (center right) Tom Pantages; p 29, (top right) Fred Hirschmann; p 29, (bottom right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 31, Sean Brady; p 34, Jim Pickerell/Stone; p 36, © JupiterMedia/ Alamy; p 38, (center right) © Ulrike Welsch/PhotoEdit; p 38, (center left) PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 39, (center left) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 39, (center) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 45, Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc Chapter pp 124–125, Phillip Hayson/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 125, Sean Brady p 129, NASA; p 132, Courtesy Mettler-Toledo; p 134, Russel D Curtis/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 135, University Archives, Iowa State University Library; p 137, © Jim Craigmyle/CORBIS; p 141, (top left) © Royalty-Free/ CORBIS; p 141, (top right) © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; p 141, (bottom) David Fleetham/Index Stock Imagery; p 147, © Davis Barber/PhotoEdit; p 154, Warner Brothers/ The Kobal Collection; p 160, Dan McCoy/Rainbow; p 161, Tom Pantages; p 162, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS Chapter pp 170–171, © Iconotec/Alamy; p 171, Jeff Greenberg/ Visuals Unlimited; p 172, Siede Preis/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 173, PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 179, (center left) Ken O’Donoghue; p 179, (center right) Ken O’Donoghue; p 180, Ken O’Donoghue; p 182, Sean Brady; p 183, GK Hart/Vikki Hart/The Image Bank/Getty Images; p 187, © Digital Archive Japan/Alamy; p 189, Michael P Gadomski/ Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 190, © Don Mason/CORBIS; p 191, © Don Mason/CORBIS; p 201, The Granger Collection, New York; p 208, © Susan Van Etten/PhotoEdit Chapter Chapter pp 48–49, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 50, The Granger Collection, New York; p 52, (top right) © Spencer Grant/ PhotoEdit; p 52, (bottom left) © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 52, (bottom center) © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 52, (bottom right) The Granger Collection, New York; p 53, (top left) © Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit; p 53, (top right) © Will & Deni McIntyre/CORBIS; p 55, Ulf E Wallin/The Image Bank/ Getty Images; p 57, Reproduced by permission, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society; p 59, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS; p 61, © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 66, Sean Brady; p 70, API/Explorer/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 71, Mark A Schneider/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 73, (bottom left) Sean Brady; p 73, (bottom center) Sean Brady; p 73, (center right) Sean Brady; p 75, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 80, © Dynamic Graphics Group/Creatas/Alamy; p 81, ER Degginger A58 • Credits pp 216–217, Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 217, J.C Allen/Stock Boston; p 218, (bottom left) © Spencer Grant/Photo Edit; p 218, (center) Sean Brady; p 219, (bottom left) © Ingram Publishing/SuperStock; p 219, (bottom center) © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 219, (bottom center) © Brand X Pictures/Alamy; p 219, (bottom center) © Royalty-Free/ CORBIS; p 219, (top left) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 219, (top right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 219, (center right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 219, (center left) Sean Brady; p 222, (center left) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 222, (center) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 222, (center right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 223, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 229, Thomas Eisner and Daniel Aneshansley, Cornell University; p 231, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 232, Sean Brady; p 234, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 235, © Paul A Souders/CORBIS Chapter Chapter 13 pp 238–239, © Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, New York; p 239, © BananaStock/Alamy; p 240, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 242, Brigitte Wegner/ StockFood Creative/Getty Images; p 247, Sean Brady; p 252, © GRANT HEILMANGrant Heilman Photography; p 254, (center) © foodfolio/Alamy; p 254, (center right) Lars Klove/ The Image Bank/Getty Images; p 257, Bruce Roberts/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 259, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 260, Sean Brady; p 265, Courtesy, Morton Thiokol; p 267, © Michael Newman/PhotoEdit pp 440–441, Juerg Alean; p 441, Photo by Jean-Francois Luy with the kind authorization of Beitling SA; p 443, (top left) Sean Brady; p 443, (top center) Sean Brady; p 445, Ken O’Donoghue; p 449, Dave Jacobs/Stone/Getty Images; p 451, John A Rizzo/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 463, Sean Brady; p 464, Kurt Amsler/Vandystadt/Allsort USA; p 471, Courtesy, Ford Motor Company Chapter pp 486–487, Photodisc/Getty Images; p 487, Ray McVay/ PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 489, © David Taylor/Alamy; p 492, © Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works; p 493, © Royalty-Free/John Foster/Masterfile; p 494, © Flip Nicklin/Minden Pictures; p 499, (top right) Terry Doyle/ Stone/ Getty Images; p 499, (bottom right) © Bettmann/ CORBIS; p 501, David Chasey/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 504, (bottom left) Sean Brady; p 504, (bottom center) Sean Brady; p 504, (bottom right) Mark A Schneider/ Visuals Unlimited; p 505, Erich Schrempp/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 507, (bottom right) James Worrell/Photonica/Getty Images; p 507, (top left) Ken O’Donoghue; p 507, (top right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 508, (bottom right) M Freeman/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 508, (top left) © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 509, T.J Florian/ Rainbow p 510, (top left) Jose Luis Pelaez Inc./Blend Images/Getty Images; p 510, (bottom right) © Nicholas Eveleigh/SuperStock; p 510, (center left) Sean Brady; p 510, (center) Sean Brady; p 510, (center right) Sean Brady pp 278–279, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 280, © Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; p 282, © Bill Bachmann/PhotoEdit; p 287, PhotoLink/Photodisc/Getty Images; p 290, (top left) Sean Brady; p 290, (center left) Sean Brady; p 293, Larry Larimer/Brand X Pictures/PictureQuest; p 296, Raoul Minsart/Masterfile; p 299, © GRANT HEILMAN/Grant Heilamn; p 304, Ken O’Donoghue; p 308, (top right) Sean Brady; p 308, (center) Sean Brady; p 308, (top left) © Joseph Sohm; Visions of America/CORBIS Chapter 10 pp 318–319, DesignPics Inc./Index Stock Imagery; p 319, Chad Ehler/Stock Connection/PictureQuest; p 320, Lester Lefkowitz/Getty Images; p 325, Image Source/PictureQuest; p 327, Sean Brady; p 331, Neil Lucas/BBC Wild; p 333, Associated Press, AP; p 336, Argonne National Laboratory; p 338, John Pinkston and Laura Stern/USGS, Menlo Park; p 341, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 342, (top right) © Bettmann/ CORBIS; p 342, (top left) © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 343, © Alan Oddie/PhotoEdit; p 345, Courtesy, National Biodiesel Fuel Board; p 349, Courtesy, FPL Energy LLC Chapter 11 pp 358–359, © Studio Photogram/Alamy; p 360, Associated Press, AP; p 363, Agricultural Research Service, USDA; p 364, Sean Brady; p 369, AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives; p 370, The Granger Collection, New York; p 374, © Yann Arthus-Bertrand/CORBIS; p 382, Courtesy of Professor Andrey K Geim/High Field Magnet Laboratory/University of Nijmegen; p 383, Dan McCoy/Rainbow; p 385, Associated Press, THE CHARLESTON DAILY MAIL; p 389, PhotoLink/PhotoDisc/PictureQuest; p 390, AP Photo/Terry Renna; p 392, Sean Brady Chapter 12 pp 398–399, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 399, Tino Hammid; p 406, © Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; p 414, The Bancroft Library; p 418, Stockbyte/Getty Images; p 423, (center left) Frank Cox; p 423, (bottom left) Frank Cox; p 424, (top right) © Comstock Images/Alamy; p 424, (center left) © Dennis MacDonald/PhotoEdit; p 424, (bottom right) Andy Crawford/ Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images; p 425, Frank Cox Chapter 14 Chapter 15 pp 518–519, Martin Rogers/Stone/Getty Images; p 519, Siede Preis/Photoisc/Getty Images; p 523, © Najiah Feanny/ CORBIS SABA; p 525, Charles D Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 526, D Yeske/Visuals Unlimited; p 527, Courtesy MIT Museum; p 533, Tom Pantages; p 539, Tom Pantages; p 542, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 543, Ken O’Donoghue; p 550, Photo Researchers, Inc Chapter 16 pp 560–561, PhotoLink/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 561, PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 562, Sean Brady; p 564, Sean Brady; p 566, Sean Brady; p 568, Sean Brady; p 576, Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 577, David Woodfall/ Stone/Getty Images; p 579, (center right) Sean Brady; p 579, (bottom right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 581, Copyright Los Angeles Times Syndicate Photo from Chemical Heritage Foundation; p 583, (top left) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 583, (top center) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 583, (top right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 585, Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman, Inc Credits • A59 Chapter 17 Chapter 19 pp 594–595, Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers Inc.; p 595, Sean Brady; p 598, (top left) NASA/Photo Reseachers, Inc.; p 598, (bottom right) Courtesy, Amana; p 599, Tom Pantages; p 600, (top left) Associated Press, AP; p 600, (bottom right) C Squared Studios/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 610, (bottom left) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 610, (bottom right) Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 611, Rod Planck/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 614, © GOODSHOOT/Alamy; p 615, (top right) Paul Silverman/Fundamental Photographs; p 615, (bottom right) Sean Brady; p 620, (top left) Sean Brady; p 620, (center left) Sean Brady; p 622, CNRI/Photo Researchers, Inc pp 666–667, © John Joannides/Alamy; p 667, © James L Amos/CORBIS; p 670, Kopal/Mediamed Publiphoto/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 672, Bettman/CORBIS; p 675, Culver Pictures; p 677, Ken O’Donoghue; p 678, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab; p 679, Mark A Philbrick/BYU; p 680, Smithsonian Institution, Natural History Museum, Department of Mineral Sciences; p 681, (top left) SIU/Visuals Unlimited; p 681, (top center) SIU/Visuals Unlimited; p 686, © Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; p 687, NASA; p 688, NASA; p 689, Associated Press/Lennox McLendon Chapter 18 pp 634–635, © Jeff J Daly/Visuals Unlimited; p 635, Sean Brady; p 636, (top left) Sean Brady; p 636, (top center) Ken O’Donoghue; p 636, (top center) Ken O’Donoghue; p 636, (top right) Sean Brady; p 637, Sean Brady; p 641, © GOODSHOOT/Alamy; p 643, © Royalty-Free/CORBIS; p 644, Sean Brady; p 645, Paul Chesley/Stone/Getty Images; p 648, (top left) Ken O’Donoghue; p 648, (center left) Ken O’Donoghue; p 651, Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs; p 653, © Tom Wagner/CORBIS; p 654, © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 657, © Owen Franken/CORBIS; p 659, (center) © B RUNK/S SCHOENBERGER / Grant Heilman Photography; p 659, (bottom right) The Granger Collection, New York A60 • Credits Chapter 20 pp 698–699, © Marbo Stock/Alamy; p 699, Tom Pantages; p 705, CORBIS Images/PictureQuest; p 710, Tony Freeman/ PhotoEdit; p 721, © Shaffer/Smith/SuperStock; p 726, Agricultural Research/USDA/Photo by Scott Bauer; p 731, Sean Brady; p 737, John A Rizzo/PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 738, Laguna Design/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 740, Dr Harold Rose/Photo Researchers, Inc Chapter 21 pp 750–751, John Cumming/Digital Vision/Getty Images; p 751, Volker Steger/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 753, Michael Abbey/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.; p 758, D Yeske/Visuals Unlimited; p 761, Courtesy, Genzyme Transgenics Corporation; p 762, (bottom left) USDA; p 762, (bottom right) Mitch Hrdlicka/ PhotoDisc/Getty Images; p 765, RDF/Visuals Unlimited; p 767, M Freeman/PhotoLink/PhotoDisc/PictureQuest; p 773, (center right) Digital Vision/Getty Images; p 773, (bottom right) © Bettmann/CORBIS; p 773, (top right) Will and Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers, Inc ... V1 _ V2 _ n1 ϭ n2 Final Conditions n1 ϭ 0.50 mol n2 ϭ 0.33 mol V1 ϭ 12. 2 L V2 ϭ ? V1 _ V2 n2 ϫ _ n1 ϭ n2 ϫ n2 n2 V1 ϫ _ n1 ϭ V2 Solving Avogadro’s law for V2 gives n2 0.33 mol _ V2 ϭ V1... P2V2 _ ϭ nR ϭ _ T1 T2 or P1V1 P2V2 _ ϭ _ T1 T2 We can now solve for V2 by dividing both sides by P2 and multiplying both sides by T2 P1V1 P2V2 V2 ϭ _ ϫ _ _ ϭ _ ϫ _ P2 T1 T2 P2... ϫ _ P2 T1 T2 P2 T2 P1V1 V ϭ _2 ϫ T2 ϭ V2 T2 ϫ _ P2T1 T2 4 62 • Chapter 13 • Gases That is, T2P1V1 _ ϭ V2 P2T1 It is sometimes convenient to think in terms of the ratios of the initial temperature