Application-Guide-for-the-Automation-of-Distribution-Feeder-Capacitors

Application Guide for the Automation of Distribution Feeder Capacitors Technical Report Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available in accordance with Section 734.3(b)(3) and published in accordance with Section 734.7 of the U.S Export Administration Regulations As a result of this publication, this report is subject to only copyright protection and does not require any license agreement from EPRI This notice supersedes the export control restrictions and any proprietary licensed material notices embedded in the document prior to publication Application Guide for the Automation of Distribution Feeder Capacitors 1010655 Final Report, December 2005 EPRI Project Manager A Sundaram ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 • USA 800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC (EPRI) NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT ORGANIZATION THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT EPRI Solutions, Inc NOTE For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or e-mail askepri@epri.com Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc Copyright © 2005 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc All rights reserved CITATIONS This report was prepared by EPRI Solutions, Inc 942 Corridor Park Blvd Knoxville, TN 37932 Principal Investigators D Crudele T Short This report describes research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Application Guide for the Automation of Distribution Feeder Capacitors, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005 1010655 iii PRODUCT DESCRIPTION This is the fourth and final report in the Electrical Power Research Institute’s (EPRI’s) capacitor reliability study, and it deals with automating distribution capacitors Prior reports dealt with nuisance fuse operations, operating and construction practices, and lighting protection and grounding of capacitor controllers This guide is concerned with applying automated switched capacitors to distribution systems Consideration is given to applications involving locally controlled capacitor banks and to systems utilizing centrally controlled, switched capacitor banks The guide is designed for the distribution engineer considering capacitor automation for his or her system Results and Findings The Application Guide for the Automation of Distribution Feeder Capacitors attempts to provide the utility engineer with the background needed to sufficiently understand automated capacitor control and the ways it might be applied to his or her distribution system This guide discusses commonly applied capacitor control schemes, including both locally applied and centralized control schemes The reader is presented with resources for locating a variety of capacitor control equipment currently available from several prominent manufacturers in this area This guide also discusses the issues of system integration, capacitor protection, control schemes, and capacitor-related power quality issues Challenges and Objectives This guide is intended to provide the necessary background for a distribution engineer to quickly acquire a working knowledge of the issues associated with capacitor automation, including: • Types of capacitor automation schemes (local control versus centralized control) • Ways capacitor automation is employed • Advantages and drawbacks of different types of capacitor controls • Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems for capacitor control • Communication systems used for capacitor control • Capacitor bank sizing and protection issues • Capacitor power quality issues Due to the potential variability of the capacitor control system from one utility to the next, it is difficult to assign costing figures that will cover all capacitor automation systems Therefore, this Guide attempts to describe the various payback streams that come from implementing v sophisticated capacitor automation schemes This will allow readers to assign their own dollar savings to each category and determine their own potential payback Applications, Values, and Use Distribution automation has emerged as a tremendous resource for increasing efficiency and decreasing operating costs for the modern electric utility Advancements in communication and control technologies have made many automation programs—never-before available—a part of the daily operation of utilities around the United States Among the array of attractive distribution automation technologies are automated capacitor controls, which lead the way as perhaps the most desirable control technology in terms of increasing operating efficiency and providing a quick return on utility investments This guide provides a detailed look at many of the aspects of distribution capacitor automation in order to help the distribution engineer quickly gain the background needed to seriously examine capacitor automation applications EPRI Perspective Capacitor automation technology has advanced greatly in recent years Utilities now have access to intelligent, automated capacitor controllers from numerous manufacturers Many controllers on the market also have advanced communication capabilities allowing them to be easily integrated into SCADA systems These advances in capacitor automation technology, coupled with the modern utility’s need to operate ever more efficiently, have utilities taking a closer examination of how capacitor automation can benefit their distribution systems This guide is intended to aid the distribution engineer or planner in determining how capacitor automation can be a benefit to their distribution system as well as provide the background information and automation fundamentals needed to seriously examine how to automate the capacitors on their system Approach The project team began by researching all available information on state-of-the-art capacitor automation systems currently in use by utilities From this research, sections have been added to discuss the various types of control schemes used for capacitor automation and local control verses centralized control topologies The project team also researched SCADA systems used for modern capacitor automation and have attempted to provide a detailed overview of SCADA systems so readers may better understand how these systems can be utilized in distribution automation No discussion of utility SCADA is complete without examining the many communication channels available to transfer data from the central station to field units and back Therefore, one chapter of this Guide is dedicated to examining SCADA communication media, with particular attention paid to which companies currently offer commercial communication services for each medium Finally, basic capacitor application information is presented in chapters dedicated to capacitor installation sizing, location, protection, and power quality issues Keywords Capacitor automation Switched capacitor SCADA VARs vi Capacitor control Distribution automation Volt/VAR management EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The EPRI Capacitor Reliability Study Utilities have a substantial investment in distribution line capacitors These investments are justified, based on certain derived benefits to the power delivery system, the utilities, and the end-users When capacitors are not available due to some failure or operating error (or are otherwise off-line), the anticipated benefits will not be achieved Experience at utilities reveals that capacitors are unavailable for operation too frequently This project series was established, therefore, to improve capacitor reliability Initial scoping helped identify and prioritize several issues affecting the overall reliability of capacitors The EPRI capacitor reliability study spans several years, from 2002 through the present Each year a report is prepared dealing with a different aspect of capacitor reliability Reports from previous years have covered: • Utility Survey and Literature Search (2002): This study was a utility survey and literature search to assess the issues related to the reliability of switched capacitor banks used in distribution systems (EPRI 1001691) • Fusing and Transmission Support (2003): This study investigated causes of nuisance fuse operations on capacitor banks Additionally, utility practices for providing transmission level VAR support with distribution capacitors were reviewed, and additional utility needs were assessed (EPRI 1002154) • Grounding and Lightning Protection of Capacitor Controllers (2004): Investigate the two primary factors influencing the magnitude of surges reaching capacitor controllers and provide controller mounting and wiring configurations for minimizing surge magnitude The first recommendation involves the physical location at which the capacitor controller should be mounted with regard to the control power transformer (CPT) from which it draws power The second recommendation involves grounding considerations for the controller supply power (EPRI 1008573) This year’s report, 2005, examines automating switched capacitors at the distribution level This guide attempts to provide the utility engineer with the background needed to sufficiently understand automated capacitor control and the ways it could be applied to their distribution system This guide discusses commonly applied capacitor control schemes, including locally applied control and centralized control schemes The reader is presented with a variety of resources for locating capacitor control equipment from several prominent manufacturers in this area This guide also discusses the issues of system integration, capacitor protection, control schemes, and capacitor-related power quality issues vii Project Objectives The primary focus of this guide is to provide distribution engineers with the necessary information to examine options for applying a switched capacitor automation scheme on their distribution system This guide provides a detailed discussion of the all the key aspects of distribution capacitor automation, including: • Control Schemes: VAR, voltage, current, time, temperature, date, and combination control programs • Control Intelligence Location: Local control, central coordinated control, local control with central station override • Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems: Components commonly found in SCADA-based capacitor control systems, with examples cited from prominent manufacturers • Voltage and Current Measurements: Information on line parameters typically measured and the potential for modern capacitor controllers to gather and report a wide array of line data to aid distribution engineers in investigations beyond VAR management • Capacitor Sizing and Placement: Detailed information size and placement of capacitor banks on the distribution system • Capacitor Installation Protection: Detailed information on proper application of fuses to protect capacitor banks, with additional information regarding protecting capacitor controllers from line surges and lighting strikes Background There is considerable industry activity in applying distribution feeder capacitors Automated line capacitors are being added by many utilities Automation and communication technologies are more advanced, more readily available, and more reasonably priced than even before These advancements in automation control and communication allow utilities to operate switched distribution capacitors in a manner that has never before been possible Utilities are using capacitors in a variety of ways—to supplement transmission VARs, as substitutes for substation capacitors, to manage distribution voltage profiles, and to reduce line losses Communication technology allows centralized control of distribution capacitors as if they were substation banks This adds the benefit of having the capacitors located closer to the loads they service, thereby further improving their operating efficiency A typical switched capacitor bank installation is shown in Figure ES-1 Although Figure ES-1 only shows the capacitor assembly near the pole top, the capacitor controller is mounted lower on the pole, approximately 10 ft (3 m) above the ground There are many types of controllers on the market, with many different configurations viii Capacitor Bank Power Quality and Reliability Issues amount of flicker also depends on the type of lamp Voltage fluctuations can also cause televisions and computer monitors to waver Figure 11-10 GE Flicker Curve Annoying lamp flicker can occur when rapid changes in load current cause the power system voltage to fluctuate Both incandescent and fluorescent lamps can flicker during voltage fluctuations The standards for measuring and limiting lamp flicker are based on the 60-W incandescent lamp Flicker is a difficult problem to quantify and to solve Flicker becomes a problem when some deviation in voltage supplying lighting circuits combines with the presence of a person viewing a change in light intensity resulting from the voltage deviation Because the human factor significantly complicates the issue, flicker has historically been deemed a problem of perception The voltage deviations involved are often much less than the thresholds of susceptibility, even for the most sensitive electronic equipment Only in rare cases does flicker actually cause system operating problems To observers in homes and offices, however, voltage deviations on the order of to 2% could produce extremely annoying changes in light output, especially if the range of repetitive deviation is to 15 Hz Due to the clear coupling of voltage fluctuations and lamp output changes, the term flicker often means different things to different people, with the interpretations primarily governed by point of view In each case, the deviation, which may or may not be strictly periodic, is usually expressed as a change relative to the steady-state level For voltage variations, the change is usually expressed as ∆V/V There is a similar expression for light intensity variations as well In contrast to the behavior of incandescent, filament-type lamps, fluorescent gaseous discharge lamps have very little thermal inertia—and they respond even faster The time constant for a 60-W, 120-V, incandescent lamp is about 28 ms and the time constant for a 230-V lamp of the 11-14 Capacitor Bank Power Quality and Reliability Issues same wattage is about 19 ms A typical fluorescent lamp, on the other hand, has a time constant of less than ms Also, fluorescent lamps are usually not amplifying the voltage changes in their corresponding change in light output This is why incandescent lamps are historically the most sensitive and are used to set standards for allowable voltage fluctuations Flicker prediction and measurement can be challenging The IEEE flicker curve, which was first developed by General Electric in the 1920s, provides a good calibration of the threshold of where voltage fluctuations at a specific frequency will cause visible lamp flicker However, there is no IEEE standard on how to measure the flicker level in a complex varying voltage Because the IEC does have an effective measurement standard, the IEEE working group on flicker recently voted to adopt the IEC standards The number of this standard is IEC 61000-4-15 11-15 12 ECONOMICS Utilizing automated, intelligent capacitor bank switching controls provides several channels of return on investment (ROI), which generally yields a very fast payback In fact, a utility can undertake few capital projects that will provide a faster return Automated capacitor control generates three main areas of cost saving These include: • Energy Savings: Energy savings, also referred to as loss reduction, involves reducing line and transformer losses by using intelligent capacitor control to effectively reduce the amount of reactive current flowing in the line Since energy is wasted in heating conductors, it cannot be delivered to the customer nor can its use be billed (thus it generates no revenue) Line and transformer losses also contribute to fatigue on line conductors and apparatuses through heating • Capacity Savings: Also referred to as demand reduction Capacity savings (also referred to as demand reduction) involves improving the line power factor through proper application of capacitors This reduces the total line current thus reduces kVA demand The benefits provided by released capacity are twofold First, releasing line capacity allows more billable energy to be transferred to the customers, increasing the revenue that the line can generate Second, releasing line capacity enables the deferral of equipment upgrades Improving the power factor releases transmission and generation capacity as well as distribution capacity • Operation and Maintenance Savings: Required labor hours can be greatly decreased when upgrading to intelligent, centralized capacitor control via SCADA SCADA control greatly reduces labor costs by enabling the centralization of switching control and monitoring of all capacitor banks, thus dramatically reducing time required in traveling to location and adjusting capacitor-control banks onsite Additional cost savings come from the ability to remotely monitor capacitor bank status to determine when capacitors fail By eliminating the need for technicians to travel to capacitor installations to inspect bank functioning every year, a utility can save considerable man hours The ability to quickly identify and fix failed capacitors also means that fewer capacitors will need to be installed in the system; because a very high percentage will be operational all the time This further means that over time, some capacitor banks can be taken out of service and used for future installations, providing savings in capital costs Capital costs for capacitor control systems can vary greatly, depending on the level of sophistication being employed and what, if any, existing utility infrastructure can be utilized for the system However, the level of existing hardware also plays a role in determining the design of the capacitor control system For example, a utility with an extensive 900-MHz radio system in place will likely utilize that system for their capacitor control communications A utility with no communication system is place, however, may opt for a commercially provided 12-1 Economics communication system, such as a cellular-control channel, rather than building its own communication network Even utilities that have a communication network in place may opt for commercially provided communications, since it requires no infrastructure maintenance from the utility Since capital costs depend on the type of system being installed and the utility’s existing infrastructure, it is difficult to provide economic examples that cover the range of variability Furthermore, there are few technical documents within the industry that outline the costs associated with individual, real-world capacitor control systems Energy Savings One manner of calculating the energy loss savings from capacitor automation is to first estimate the yearly kWh that each new automated capacitor would save The saved kWh multiplied by the cost per kWh determines the yearly savings as shown below (Marx 2003): • $saved/year = (kWsave)*(hours/year)*($/kWh) • Where, kWsave = kW saved when the capacitor is switched on • hours/year = the number of hours per year the capacitor operates each year • $/kWh = value of avoided energy The yearly loss reduction used in the above equation can by calculated as follows: W = (3*Rline)*[2*IIND*ICAP- ICAP2 ] Eq 12-1 Where Rline = single-phase line resistance in ohms IIND = single-phase load inductive current in amps ICAP = single-phase capacitor current in amps W = 3-phase line real power loss reduction in watts Capacity Savings Capacity savings result from reduction in line current when the capacitor serves the reactive portion of the load current Therefore, the first step in determining the capacity savings is to determine the reduction in line current due to the capacitor The line current with the capacitor bank switched onto the line can be determined from the following equation: ILine = •(Iresistive2 +( ICAP- ICAP2)) 12-2 Eq 12-2 Economics Where Iresistive = single-phase load resistive current in amps IIND = single-phase load inductive current in amps ICAP = single-phase capacitor current in amps ILine = single-phase line current in amps The reduction in line demand can be found by comparing the pre-capacitor demand to the postcapacitor demand Line demand is calculated as follows: Demand = 3*ILine*(kV/•3) Eq 12-3 Where ILine = single-phase line current in amps: For pre-capacitor demand use pre- capacitor line current For post-capacitor demand use post-capacitor line current kV = the line-to-line voltage Demand = the line demand in kVA A 30% reduction in peak line demand is not uncommon from properly applied switched capacitor banks Marx suggests a typical demand reduction value to be $80/year/kVA, based on a 5-year write-off cycle for capital equipment The yearly demand savings from the capacitor installation would be, then, the demand savings multiplied by the dollar value, per year, per kVA Demand reduction is affected by the magnitude of the resistive current; therefore, it is more difficult to reduce the kVA demand when the power factor is high It should also be noted that capacitors that cause a line to go leading, either intentionally or unintentionally, increase the line kVA demand, thereby reducing optimum demand savings When a capacitor switches onto the line, it causes the line voltage to increase, which creates a corresponding increase in line demand This increase in line demand must also be factored into the final evaluation of cost savings from demand reduction Equation 12-3 does not account for the slight increase in demand from increased line voltage, so it must be calculated separately and subtracted from the overall reduction In a typical model, the peak demand for a diversified load will increase by 1.6 times for each 1% increase of the voltage, and the long-term average demand will increase 1/3 to 1% for each 1% voltage increase Therefore, the demand increase resulting from the capacitor-induced rise in voltage would be calculated as follows: Demand Increase (%) = (% Voltage Increase)*(% Long-Term Load Change) Eq 12-4 For example, if the voltage increases by 1.5% and the long-term load increases at 0.5% per 1% voltage increase, then the demand increase would be: 12-3 Economics Demand Increase = (1.5)*(0.5) = 0.75% Eq 12-5 The demand increase due to higher line voltage must be accounted for when calculating the total demand reduction Therefore, the total demand savings are found by subtracting the demand increase from the yearly demand savings Equation 12-3 Operation and Maintenance Savings In addition to demand and energy savings, automated capacitor control systems also provide payback through reduced operation and maintenance costs A major component of these savings is achieved through elimination of routine capacitor patrols Automated capacitors not require manual switching by a field technician on a periodic basis Centralized control also provides positive feedback of capacitor operation which allows failing capacitors to be identified from the control center rather than via field inspection The potential for man-hour reduction via capacitor automation is huge One utility reported that before enacting a capacitor automation system, technicians were driving 24,000 (38,600 km) or more per year to adjust and maintain timed capacitor banks This workload was reduced by approximately man-months in the first year that capacitor automation was implemented (Goodrich 2004) Estimated Cost Breakdown Kansas City Power & Light (KCPL) has implemented an extensive capacitor automation project than began in the early 1990s As part of their capacitor automation project, KCPL developed an economic value added model to help evaluate the costs and benefits associated with upgrading capacitor-control technologies As part of their model development, KCPL made several assumptions, including, 1) they would retrofit 600 capacitor banks with programmable controls, 2) they would improve average power factor on distribution circuits, 3) they would defer the purchase and installation of 110 MVAR of capacitors in the first five years of the project, and 4) they could eliminate capacitor patrols on automated banks (Goeckeler 1999) Using these assumptions, the KCPL engineers estimated the costs and benefits of applying capacitor automation, as shown in Table 12-1 and Table 12-2 12-4 Economics Table 12-1 Estimated Benefits from Instituting Automated Capacitor Control on the Kansas City Power & Light Distribution Systems Estimated Benefits of Capacitor Automation Benefit Percent of Total Benefit Avoided Capacity Cost – Generation 28.9% Marginal Energy Savings 24.5% Avoided Capacity Cost – Substation and Distribution 13.3% Capacitor Banks Avoided Costs 11.5% Avoided Capacity Cost – Transmission 9.5% Reduced Operations and Maintenance 8.0% Controls Salvage Value 4.3% Source: (Goeckeler 1999) Table 12-2 Estimated Cost of Instituting Automated Capacitor Control on the Kansas City Power & Light Distribution Systems Estimated Cost of Capacitor Automation Cost Percent of Total Cost Equipment and Installation 58.0% Equipment Lease Charges 26.3% Engineering 8.1% Software Purchase & Development 7.6% Source: (Goeckeler 1999) According to KCPL’s estimates in Table 12-1, the greatest percentage of savings would come from avoided generation capacity This savings was followed very closely by the marginal energy savings associated with moving to the automated capacitor control system As Table 12-2 indicates, the greatest portion of the costs associated with implementing capacitor automation tends to be the purchase and installation of the necessary equipment Capacitor controller prices generally range from $400 to $800 per controller Special communication requirements or other non-standard features can push this cost considerably higher, particularly for very sophisticated control systems Switched capacitor banks cost approximately $8/kVAR installed; however, that figure doesn’t include radio or SCADA infrastructure that may be needed to communicate effectively 12-5 13 REFERENCES ANSI C57.12.28-1998 Pad-Mounted Equipment Enclosure Integrity ANSI/IEEE Std 18-1992 IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors Bedell, P (2001) Wireless Crash Course New York, NY, McGraw-Hill Begovic, M., D Novosel, et al (2000) Impact of Distribution Efficiency on Generation and Voltage Stability 33rd Annual Hawaii Int Conference Systems Sciences, Maui, HI Bellei T A., O'Leary R P., et al "Evaluating Capacitor-Switching Devices for Preventing Nuisance Tripping of Adjustable-Speed Drives Due to Voltage Magnification." IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery 11(3): 1373-8 Brady, P., C Dai, et al (2003) Need to Revise Switched Capacitor Controls on Feeders with Distributed Generation IEEE Transmission and Distribution Conference Proceedings Brown, R A (1979) Capacitor Fusing IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Expo Burrage, L M (1981) High Frequency Characteristics of Capacitors and Fuses Applied in High-Voltage Shunt Banks IEEE/PES Transmission and Distribution Conference CEA 288 D 747 (1998) Application Guide for Distribution Fusing, Canadian Electrical Association 10 Clark, G L (2001) Development of the Switched Capacitor Bank Controller for Independent Phase Switching on the Electric Distribution System Distributech 2001, San Diego, CA 11 Clarke, G., D Reynders, et al (2004) Practical Modern SCADA Protocols: DNP3, IEC 60870.5 and Related Systems London, Elsevier 12 de Vos, A., S E Widergren, et al (2001) "XML for CIM Model Exchange." Power Industry Computer Applications 13 DNP Users Group (2005) "Distributed Network Protocol Users Group." from http://www.dnp.org 14 EPRI 1001691 (2002) Improved Reliability of Switched Capacitor Banks and Capacitor Technology Palo Alto, CA, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California 15 EPRI 1001801 (2002) EPRI Common Information Model (CIM) Status and Guidelines for Transmission and Distribution Applications Palo Alto, Ca, EPRI 16 EPRI 1002154 (2004) Improved Reliability of Switched Capacitor Banks and Capacitor Technology - Fusing Recommendations and Using Distribution Capacitors for Transmission Support Palo Alto, Ca, EPRI 17 EPRI 1008573 (2005) Grounding and Lightning Protection of Capacitor Banks Palo Alto, CA, EPRI 18 Ezell, B C (1998) Risks of Cyber Attacks to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisiton for Water Supply, University of Virginia Master of Science 19 Ezell, B C (2005) Quantifying Vulnerability to Critical Infrastructure, Old Dominion University Doctor of Philosophy 13-1 References 20 Fisher Pierce (2000) POWERFLEX 4400 and 4500 Series Instruction Manual 21 Girotti, T B., N B Tweed, et al (February 1990) "Real-Time VAR Control By SCADA." IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 5(1) 22 Goeckeler, C (1997) Beyond SCADA: Capacitor Automation at KCPL Transmission & Distribution World 23 Goeckeler, C (1999) "Progressive Capacitor Automation Yields Economic and Practical Benefits at KCPL." Utility Automation 24 Goodrich, D (2004) Reaping the Rewards of Automated Capacitor Control Transmission and Distribution World 25 Grainger, J J and S H Lee (1981) "Optimum Size and Location of Shunt Capacitors for Reduction of Losses on Distribution Feeders." IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-100(3): 1005-18 26 Harris, S (2001) Evaluating Wireless Technologies for Distribution Automation Utility Automation 27 IEEE-SA TR 1550-1999 "Utility Communications Architecture (UCA) Version 2.0." 28 IEEE C2-1997 National Electrical Safety Code 29 IEEE Std 18-2002 IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors 30 IEEE Std 1036-1992 IEEE guide for application of shunt power capacitors 31 IEEE Std C37.48-1997 IEEE guide for the application, operation, and maintenance of highvoltage fuses, distribution enclosed single-pole air switches, fuse disconnecting switches, and accessories 32 Kirshner, D and P Giorsetto (1984) "Statistical Tests of Energy Savings Due to Voltage Reduction." IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-103(6): 1205-10 33 Marx, T (2003) The Why and How of Power Capacitor Switching, Fisher Pierce 34 McCarthy, C A and J Josken "Applying Capacitors to Maximize Benefits of Conservation Voltage Reduction." 35 Milosevic, B and M Begovic (2004) "Capacitor Placement for Conservative Voltage Reduction on Distribution Feeders." IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery 19(3) 36 Neagle, N M and D R Samson (1956) "Loss Reduction from Capacitors Installed on Primary Feeders." AIEE Transactions 75: 950-9 37 Newcomb, G R (1980) Film/Foil Power Capacitor IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Boston, MA 38 ORNL/TM-2001/215 (2002) Evaluation of Distribution Analysis Software for DER Applications D T Rizy and R H Staunton, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 39 Pollet, J (2002) Developing a Solid SCADA Security Strategy Sensors for Industry Conference, Houston, TX 40 Priess, R F and V J Warnock (1978) "Impact of Voltage Reduction on Energy and Demand." IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS - 97(5): 1665-71 41 RCCS (2005) "Radio Control Central Stations." from http://www.rccscontrols.com/Overview/consult.htm 42 Sanders, T (2002) "Threats to 900 MHz Broadband Wireless." Broadband Wireless Online, from Shorecliff Communications LLC - http://www.shorecliffcommunications.com 43 Short, T A (2004a) Distribution Capacitor Reliability and Changes in Fusing Practices T&D World Expo, Indianapolis, IN 44 Short, T A (2004b) Electric Power Distribution Handbook New York, CRC Press 13-2 References 45 Wang, X and N N Schulz (2003) "CIM Extensions to Electrical Distribution and CIM XML for IEEE Radial Test Feeders." Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on 18(3): 1021-1028 46 Weisman, C J (1999) The Essential Guide to RF and Wireless Upper Saddle River, NJ, Prentice Hall PTR 47 Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1959) Electric Utility Engineering Reference Book, Volume 3: Distribution Systems 48 Xiaofeng, W and N N Schulz (2000) "The Extension of EPRI's CIM to Distribution Power Systems." Proceedings of 32nd Annual North American Power Symposium 49 Young, H E (1999) Wireless Basics Overland Park, KS, Intertec Publishing Corporation 13-3 Export Control Restrictions The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Access to and use of EPRI Intellectual Property is granted with The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), with major locations in the specific understanding and requirement that responsibility Palo Alto, California, and Charlotte, North Carolina, was established for ensuring full compliance with all applicable U.S and in 1973 as an independent, nonprofit center for public interest foreign export laws and regulations is being undertaken by energy and environmental research EPRI brings together members, you and your company This includes an obligation to ensure participants, the Institute’s scientists and engineers, and other leading that any individual receiving access hereunder who is not a experts to work collaboratively on solutions to the challenges of electric U.S citizen or permanent U.S resident is permitted access power These solutions span nearly every area of electricity generation, under applicable U.S and foreign export laws and delivery, and use, including health, safety, and environment EPRI’s regulations In the event you are uncertain whether you or members represent over 90% of the electricity generated in the your company may lawfully obtain access to this EPRI United States International participation represents nearly 15% of Intellectual Property, you acknowledge that it is your EPRI’s total research, development, and demonstration program obligation to consult with your company’s legal counsel to determine whether this access is lawful Although EPRI may Together Shaping the Future of Electricity make available on a case-by-case basis an informal assessment of the applicable U.S export classification for specific EPRI Intellectual Property, you and your company acknowledge that this assessment is solely for informational purposes and not for reliance purposes You and your company acknowledge that it is still the obligation of you and your company to make your own assessment of the applicable U.S export classification and ensure compliance accordingly You and your company understand and acknowledge your obligations to make a prompt report to EPRI and the appropriate authorities regarding any access to or use of EPRI Intellectual Property hereunder that may be in violation of applicable U.S or foreign export laws or regulations © 2005 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc All rights reserved Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc Program: Power Delivery Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE 3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA 800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com 1010655