Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations - 2

V O L U M E T W O Second Edition Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations Uncompressed Solid Products S a r f a r a z K N i a z i Pharmaceutical Scientist, Inc Deerfield, Illinois, USA Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations Second Edition Volume Series Sarfaraz K Niazi Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Compressed Solid Products Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Uncompressed Solid Products Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Liquid Products Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Semisolid Products Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Over-the-Counter Products Volume Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations: Sterile Products Informa Healthcare USA, Inc 52 Vanderbilt Avenue New York, NY 10017
C 2009 by Informa Healthcare USA, Inc Informa Healthcare is an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8116-0 (Volume 1; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8116-9 (Volume 1: Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8118-7 (Volume 2; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8118-3 (Volume 2; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8123-3 (Volume 3; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8123-7 (Volume 3; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8126-8 (Volume 4; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8126-8 (Volume 4; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8128-4 (Volume 5; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8128-2 (Volume 5; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-8130-6 (Volume 6; Hardcover) International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-8130-5 (Volume 6; Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequence of their use No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC) 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Niazi, Sarfaraz, 1949– Handbook of pharmaceutical manufacturing formulations / Sarfaraz K Niazi – 2nd ed p ; cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-8106-0 (set) (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-4200-8106-3 (set) (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-4200-8116-9 (v 1) (hardcover : alk paper) ISBN-10: 1-4200-8116-0 (v 1) (hardcover : alk paper) [etc.] Drugs–Dosage forms–Handbooks, manuals, etc I Title [DNLM: Drug Compounding–Handbooks Dosage Forms–Handbooks Formularies as Topic–Handbooks Technology, Pharmaceutical–Handbooks QV 735 N577h 2009] RS200.N53 2009 615 19–dc22 2009009979 For Corporate Sales and Reprint Permission call 212-520-2700 or write to: Sales Department, 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, 16th floor, New York, NY 10017 Visit the Informa Web site at www.informa.com and the Informa Healthcare Web site at www.informahealthcare.com to the memory of Takeru Higuchi Preface to the Series—Second Edition The science and the art of pharmaceutical formulation keeps evolving as new materials, methods, and machines become readily available to produce more reliable, stable, and releasecontrolled formulations At the same time, globalization of sourcing of raw and finished pharmaceuticals brings challenges to regulatory authorities and results in more frequent revisions to the current good manufacturing practices, regulatory approval dossier requirements, and the growing need for cost optimization Since the publication of the first edition of this book, a lot has changed in all of these areas of importance to pharmaceutical manufacturers The second edition builds on the dynamic nature of the science and art of formulations and provides an evermore useful handbook that should be highly welcomed by the industry, the regulatory authorities, as well as the teaching institutions The first edition of this book was a great success as it brought under one umbrella the myriad of choices available to formulators The readers were very responsive and communicated with me frequently pointing out to the weaknesses as well as the strengths of the book The second edition totally revised attempts to achieve these by making major changes to the text, some of which include: Complete, revised errors corrected and subject matter reorganized for easy reference Whereas this series has six volumes differentiated on the basis of the type of dosage form and a separate inclusion of the U.S OTC products, ideally the entire collection is needed to benefit from the myriad of topics relating to formulations, regulatory compliance, and dossier preparation Total number of pages is increased from 1684 to 2726 Total number of formulations is expanded by about 30% with many newly approved formulations Novel formulations are now provided for a variety of drugs; these data are collected from the massive intellectual property data and suggest toward the future trend of formulations While some of these formulations may not have been approved in the United States or Europe, these provide additional choices, particularly for the NDA preparation As always, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to assure that the intellectual property rights are not violated A significant change in this edition is the inclusion of commercial products; while most of this information is culled out from the open source such as the FOIA (http://www.fda.gov/foi/default.htm), I have made attempts to reconstruct the critical portions of it based on what I call the generally acceptable standards The drug companies are advised to assure that any intellectual property rights are not violated and this applies to all information contained in this book The freedom of information act (FOIA) is an extremely useful conduit for reliable information and manufacturers are strongly 10 11 v urged to make use of this information Whereas this information is provided free of charge, the process of obtaining the information may be cumbersome, in which case, commercial sources of these databases can prove useful, particularly for the non-U.S companies Also included are the new Good Manufacturing Guidelines (2007) with amendments (2008) for the United States and similar updates for European Union and WHO; it is strongly urged that the companies discontinue using all old documents as there are significant changes in the revised form, and many of them are likely to reduce the cost of GMP compliance Details on design of clean rooms is a new entry that will be of great use to sterile product manufacturers; whereas the design and flow of personnel and material flow is of critical nature, regulatory agencies view these differently and the manufacturer is advised always to comply with most stringent requirements Addition of a self-auditing template in each volume of the series While the cGMP compliance is a complex issue and the requirements diversified across the globe, the basic compliance remains universal I have chosen the European Union guidelines (as these are more in tune with the ICH) to prepare a self-audit module that I recommend that every manufacturer adopt as a routine to assure GMP compliance In most instances reading the template by those responsible for compliance with keep them sensitive to the needs of GMP OTC products cross-referenced in other volumes where appropriate This was necessary since the regulatory authorities worldwide define this class of drug differently It is important to iterate that regardless of the prescription or the OTC status of a product, the requirements for compliance with the cGMP apply equally OTC monograph status is a new section added to the OTC volume and this should allow manufacturers to chose appropriate formulations that may not require a filing with the regulatory agencies; it is important to iterate that an approved OTC monograph includes details of formulation including the types and quantities of active drug and excipients, labeling, and presentation To qualify the exemption, the manufacturer must comply with the monograph in its entirety However, subtle modifications that are merely cosmetic in nature and where there is an evidence that the modification will not affect the safety and efficacy of the products can be made but require prior approval of the regulatory agencies and generally these approvals are granted Expanded discussion on critical factors in the manufacturing of formulations provided; from basic shortcuts to smart modifications now extend to all dosage forms Pharmaceutical compounding is one of the oldest professions and whereas the art of formulations has been vi Preface to the Series—Second Edition relegated to more objective parameters, the art nevertheless remains An experienced formulator, like an artist, would know what goes with what and why; he avoids the pitfalls and stays with conservative choices These sections of the book present advice that is time tested, although it may appear random at times; this is intended for experienced formulators 12 Expanded details on critical steps in the manufacturing processes provided but to keep the size of the book manageable, and these are included for prototype formulations The reader is advised to browse through similar formulations to gain more insight Where multiple formulations are provided for the same drug, it intended to show the variety of possibilities in formulating a drug and whereas it pertains to a single drug, the basic formulation practices can be extended to many drugs of same class or even of diversified classes Readers have often requested that more details be provided in the Manufacturing Direction sections Whereas sufficient details are provided, this is restricted to prototype formulations to keep the size of the book manageable and to reduce redundancy 13 Addition of a listing of approved excipients and the level allowed by regulatory authorities This new section allows formulators a clear choice on which excipients to choose; the excipients are reported in each volume pertaining to the formulation type covered The listing is drawn from the FDA-approved entities For the developers of an ANDA, it is critical that the level of excipients be kept within the range generally approved to avoid large expense in justifying any unapproved level The only category for which the listing is not provided separately is the OTC volume since it contains many dosage forms and the reader is referred to dosage form–specific title of the series The choice of excipients forms keeps increasing with many new choices that can provide many special release characteristics to the dosage forms Choosing correct excipients is thus a tedious exercise and requires sophisticated multivariate statistical analysis Whereas the formulator may choose any number of novel or classical components, it is important to know the levels of excipients that are generally allowed in various formulations to reduce the cost of redundant exercises; I have therefore included, as an appendix to each volume, a list of all excipients that are currently approved by the U.S FDA along their appropriate levels I suggest that a formulator consult this table before deciding on which level of excipient to use; it does not mean that the excipient cannot be used outside this range but it obviates the need for a validation and lengthy justification studies in the submission of NDAs 14 Expanded section on bioequivalence submission was required to highlight the recent changes in these requirements New entries include a comprehensive listing of bioequivalence protocols in abbreviated form as approved by the U.S FDA; these descriptions are provided in each volume where pertinent To receive approval for an ANDA, an applicant must generally demonstrate, among other things, equivalence of the active ingredient, dosage form, strength, route of administration and conditions of use as the listed drug, and that the proposed drug product is bioequivalent to the reference listed drug [21 USC 355(j)(2)(A); 21 CFR 314.94(a)] Bioequivalent drug products show no significant difference in 15 16 17 18 19 the rate and extent of absorption of the therapeutic ingredient [21 U.S.C 355(j)(8); 21 CFR 320.1(e)] BE studies are undertaken in support of ANDA submissions with the goal of demonstrating BE between a proposed generic drug product and its reference listed drug The regulations governing BE are provided at 21 CFR in part 320 The U.S FDA has recently begun to promulgate individual bioequivalence requirements To streamline the process for making guidance available to the public on how to design product-specific BE studies, the U.S FDA will be issuing product-specific BE recommendations (www.fda.gov/cder/ogd/index.htm) To make this vital information available, an appendix to each volume includes a summary of all currently approved products by the U.S FDA where a recommendation on conducting bioequivalence studies is made available by the U.S FDA When filing an NDA or an ANDA, the filer is faced with the choice of defending the methods used to justify the bioavailability or bioequivalence data The U.S FDA now allows application for waiver of bioequivalence requirement; a new chapter on this topic has been added along with details of the dissolution tests, where applicable, approved for various dosage forms Dissolution testing requirements are included for all dosage forms where this testing is required by the FDA Surrogate testing to prove efficacy and compliance is getting more acceptance at regulatory agencies; in my experience, a well-designed dissolution test is the best measure of continuous compliance Coupled with chapters on waivers of bioequivalence testing, this information on dissolution testing should be great value to all manufacturers; it is recommended that manufacturers develop their own in-house specifications, more stringent than those allowed in these listings and the USP Best-selling products (top 200 prescription products) are identified with an asterisk and a brand name where applicable; in all instances, composition of these products is provided and formulation of generic equivalents Despite the vast expansion of pharmaceutical sales and shifting of categories of blockbuster drugs, basic drugs affecting gastrointestinal tract, vascular system, and brain remain most widely prescribed Updated list of approved coloring agents in the United States, Canada, European Union, and Japan is included to allow manufactures to design products for worldwide distribution Tablet-coating formulations that meet worldwide requirements of color selection are included in the Volume (compressed solids) and Volume (OTC) because these represent the products often coated Guidelines on preparing regulatory filings are now dispersed throughout the series depending on where these guidelines are more crucial However, the reader would, as before, need access to all volumes to benefit from the advice and guidelines provided As always, comments and criticism from the readers are welcomed and these can be sent to me at Niazi@pharmsci com or Niazi@niazi.com I would try to respond to any inquiries requiring clarification of the information enclosed in these volumes I would like to express deep gratitude to Sherri R Niziolek and Michelle Schmitt-DeBonis at Informa, the publisher of Preface to the Series—Second Edition this work, for seeing an immediate value to the readers in publishing the second edition of this book and allowing me enough time to prepare this work The diligent editing and composing staff at Informa, particularly Joseph Stubenrauch, Baljinder Kaur and others are highly appreciated Regardless, all errors and omissions remain altogether mine vii In the first edition, I had dedicated each volume to one of my mentors; the second edition continues the dedication to these great teachers Sarfaraz K Niazi, Ph.D Deerfield, Illinois, U.S.A Preface to the Series—First Edition erations have led to the classification of products into these six categories Each volume includes a description of regulatory filing techniques for the formulations described Also included are the current regulatory guidelines on cGMP compliance specific to the dosage form Advice is offered on how to scale up the production batches It is expected that formulation scientists will use this information to benchmark their internal development protocols and cut the race to file short by adopting formulae that have survived the test of time Many of us who have worked in the pharmaceutical industry suffer from a close paradigm when it comes to selecting formulations—”not invented here” perhaps reigns in the mind of many seasoned formulations scientists subconsciously when they prefer to choose only a certain platform for development It is expected that with the quick review of possibilities available to formulate made available in this book, scientists will benefit from the experience of others For the teachers of formulation sciences, this series offers a wealth of information Whether it is a selection of a preservative system or the choice of a disintegrant, the series offers a wide choice to study and rationalize Many have assisted me in the development of this work that has taken years to compile, and I thank scores of my graduate students and colleagues for their help A work of this size cannot be produced without errors, although I hope that these errors not distract the reader from the utility of the book I would sincerely appreciate if readers point out these mistakes for corrections in future editions No industry in the world is more highly regulated than the pharmaceutical industry because of potential threat to a patient’s life from the use of pharmaceutical products The cost of taking a new chemical entity (amortized over the cost of all molecules racing) to final regulatory approval is a staggering $800 million, making the pharmaceutical industry one of the most research-intensive industries in the world In the year 2004, it is anticipated that the industry will spend about $20 billion on research and development The generic market of drugs as the new entities come off patent is one of the fastest growing segments of the pharmaceutical industry, with every major multinational company having a significant presence in this field Whereas many stages of new drug development are inherently constrained with time, the formulation of drugs into desirable dosage forms remains an area where expediency can be practiced with appropriate knowledge by those who have mastered the skills of pharmaceutical formulations The Handbook of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Formulations is the first major attempt to consolidate the available knowledge about formulations in a comprehensive, and by nature a rather voluminous, presentation The book is divided into six volumes, based strictly on the type of formulation science involved in the development of these dosage forms: sterile products, compressed solids, uncompressed solids, liquid products, semisolid products, and OTC products The separation of OTC products, even though they may easily fall into one of the other five categories, is made to comply with the industry norms of separate research divisions for OTC products Sterile products require skills related to sterilization of product, and of less importance is the bioavailability issue, which is an inherent problem of compressed dosage forms These types of consid- Sarfaraz K Niazi, Ph.D Deerfield, Illinois, U.S.A viii Preface to the Volume—First Edition as small proteins, instantly liquefiable powders, and nanoparticles Formulators are strongly urged to review the methodologies described here to serve as a reference point for their own formulations Some combination products or dosage forms are described that are not currently approved by the FDA (i.e., not included in the Orange Book), and they may be in the development phase or in experimental phases As is always the case, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that the formulations used in the production not violate any intellectual property or proprietary practice laws The most effective means of establishing this is through a study of the Orange Book, which lists the exclusivities and unexpired patents The patent numbers provided in the Orange Book should then be searched for collateral patents, the FDA freedom of information (FOI) database, and other literature to ensure that the intellectual or proprietary property rights are not violated Whereas coating solutions are not as important as in the case of compressed solids, nevertheless, some capsules are coated and the granules that are filled in capsules for sustained or timed release are coated, utilizing nonpareil sugar beads most often The coating solutions are described here, but the reader is further referred to Volume for a detailed description of coating solutions that can be easily adapted to the product intended for formulation into a sustained release profile Whereas some forms of powders are meant to be sterile, the sterility considerations are discussed in Volume The subject of powder technology is vast, with applications in many fields The serious reader is referred to the journal Advanced Powder Technology (http://www vsppub.com/journals/jn-AdvPowTec.html) Such advances as inhalation insulin in a powder form and the new science of nanoparticles open a new phase of pharmaceutical research and development Nanotechnology describes the ability to create new materials from building blocks the size of an atom cluster Nanomaterials are powders and materials optimized at the nanoscale (10−9 m or a billionth of a meter in size) Nanopowders consist of particles with dimensions that can be measured by X-ray crystallography to be a few hundred atoms in diameter The formulations are presented in this volume with a scale for each unit: per capsule or per unit dose of powder Quantities are expressed for 1000 units Sometimes, however, a different presentation is chosen for simplicity and clarity It is often customary for manufacturers to scale formulae for a specific weight, such as 100 or 1000 kg to match the mixing vessel requirements This can be done roughly by multiplying the weight of each capsule or unit powder by the quantity desired to calculate the size of the batch The reader should be aware that the actual yield may be different because of differences in the scale and quantity due to differences in the chemical form of drugs used, excesses added, and loss of moisture during manufacturing Further, adjustment of Uncompressed solid products formulations comprise aggregates of powders, such as powders for topical application, for use as insufflations, and for extemporaneous suspensions, as well as hard gelatin capsules or any other form wherein the final form is not compressed The rationale for this clear demarcation of formulations based on their state of aggregation is important to understand Whereas compressed solid products require formulation components to render them compressible while allowing free flow into compression cavities, such considerations are of lesser importance for uncompressed solid products (The flow requirement, nevertheless, stays because the powders must be forced into capsule shells or poured into bottles or other packaging forms.) Uncompressed solid products, on the other hand, offer their own set of formulation problems related to segregation of powders due to static charges, environmental contamination during the filling process, and inevitable problems in wetting and dissolution, thus leading to possible bioavailability problems in vivo In the series of steps that determine the ultimate dissolution of the product, however, uncompressed solid products are one critical step ahead of compressed solid products— disintegration The formulator is advised to read chapter of this volume, which discusses guidelines on the waiver of bioavailability requirements Substantial development costs can be reduced when a drug undergoes fast dissolution, and these considerations must therefore be part of any new formulation effort The reader is also referred to Volume of this series where current and proposed bioavailability guidelines are provided Chapter addresses the fundamental issues of good manufacturing practices (GMPs) The chapter provides access addresses to all major guidelines around the world and also highlights the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines A discussion of the most recent changes in the philosophy of establishing the GMP guidelines based on risk assessment is addressed in this chapter as well Chapter presents a more recent discussion of how the U.S FDA inspectors are supposed to conduct inspections; this topic is of continuous importance to all drug manufacturers Although it is included in this volume, the guidelines apply to all dosage forms Chapter discusses the topic of bioequivalence and bioavailability of solid products Although this is discussed more thoroughly in Volume 1, the emphasis in chapter is placed on the guidelines to request a waiver of bioavailability/bioequivalence testing; this is something of great importance to both the innovator and the generic drug manufacturer Chapter highlights the manufacturing aspects of uncompressed drugs as well as various topics of general and specific interest Part II provides formulations for more than 400 pharmaceutical products Included in part are not only the currently approved products but also several innovative products such ix ... 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