Kaplan MCAT review 2015 biology review

MCAT® Biology Review Edited by Alexander Stone Macnow, MD Table of Contents MCAT® Biology Review Cover Title Page Table of Contents The Kaplan MCAT Review Team About Scientific American About the MCAT How This Book Was Created Using This Book Chapter 1: The Cell The Cell Introduction 1.1 Cell Theory 1.2 Eukaryotic Cells 1.3 Classification and Structure of Prokaryotic Cells 1.4 Genetics and Growth of Prokaryotic Cells 1.5 Viruses and Subviral Particles Conclusion Concept Summary 10 Answers to Concept Checks 11 Shared Concepts 12 Practice Questions 13 Answers and Explanations Chapter 2: Reproduction Reproduction Introduction 2.1 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis 2.2 Meiosis 2.3 The Reproductive System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts 10 Practice Questions 11 Answers and Explanations Chapter 3: Embryogenesis and Development Embryogenesis and Development Introduction 3.1 Early Developmental Stages 3.2 Mechanisms of Development 3.3 Fetal Circulation 3.4 Gestation and Birth Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks 10 Shared Concepts 11 Practice Questions 12 Answers and Explanations Chapter 4: The Nervous System The Nervous System Introduction 4.1 Cells of the Nervous System 4.2 Transmission of Neural Impulses 4.3 Organization of the Human Nervous System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts 10 Practice Questions 11 Answers and Explanations Chapter 5: The Endocrine System The Endocrine System Introduction 5.1 Mechanisms of Hormone Action 5.2 Endocrine Organs and Hormones Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts Practice Questions 10 Answers and Explanations Chapter 6: The Respiratory System The Respiratory System Introduction 6.1 Anatomy and Mechanism of Breathing 6.2 Functions of the Respiratory System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts Practice Questions 10 Answers and Explanations Chapter 7: The Cardiovascular System The Cardiovascular System Introduction 7.1 Anatomy of the Cardiovascular System 7.2 Blood 7.3 Physiology of the Cardiovascular System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Equations to Remember 10 Shared Concepts 11 Practice Questions 12 Answers and Explanations Chapter 8: The Immune System The Immune System Introduction 8.1 Structure of the Immune System 8.2 The Innate Immune System 8.3 The Adaptive Immune System 8.4 The Lymphatic System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks 10 Shared Concepts 11 Practice Questions 12 Answers and Explanations 10 Chapter 9: The Digestive System The Digestive System Introduction 9.1 Anatomy of the Digestive System 9.2 Ingestion and Digestion 9.3 Accessory Organs of Digestion 9.4 Absorption and Defecation Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks 10 Shared Concepts 11 Practice Questions 12 Answers and Explanations 11 Chapter 10: Homeostasis Homeostasis Introduction 10.1 The Excretory System 10.2 Skin Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts Practice Questions 10 Answers and Explanations 12 Chapter 11: The Musculoskeletal System The Musculoskeletal System Introduction 11.1 The Muscular System 11.2 The Skeletal System Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks Shared Concepts Practice Questions 10 Answers and Explanations 13 Chapter 12: Genetics and Evolution Genetics and Evolution Introduction 12.1 Fundamental Concepts of Genetics 12.2 Changes in the Gene Pool 12.3 Analytical Approaches in Genetics 12.4 Evolution Conclusion Concept Summary Answers to Concept Checks 10 Equations to Remember 11 Shared Concepts 12 Practice Questions 13 Answers and Explanations 14 About This Book Copyright Information Glossary Index Art Credits Periodic Table of the Elements Special Offer for Kaplan Students The Kaplan MCAT Review Team Alexander Stone Macnow, MD Editor-in-Chief Laura L Ambler Kaplan MCAT Faculty MCAT faculty reviewers Elmar R Aliyev; James Burns; Jonathan Cornfield; Alisha Maureen Crowley; Nikolai Dorofeev, MD; Benjamin Downer, MS; Colin Doyle; M Dominic Eggert; Marilyn Engle; Eleni M Eren; Raef Ali Fadel; Tyra Hall-Pogar, PhD; Scott Huff; Samer T Ismail; Elizabeth A Kudlaty; Kelly Kyker-Snowman, MS; Ningfei Li; John P Mahon; Matthew A Meier; Nainika Nanda; Caroline Nkemdilim Opene; Kaitlyn E Prenger; Uneeb Qureshi; Derek Rusnak, MA; Kristen L Russell, ME; Bela G Starkman, PhD; Michael Paul Tomani, MS; Nicholas M White; Kerranna Williamson, MBA; Allison Ann Wilkes, MS; and Tony Yu Thanks to Kim Bowers; Tim Eich; Samantha Fallon; Owen Farcy; Dan Frey; Robin Garmise; Rita Garthaffner; Joanna Graham; Adam Grey; Allison Harm; Beth Hoffberg; Aaron Lemon-Strauss; Keith Lubeley; Diane McGarvey; Petros Minasi; John Polstein; Deeangelee Pooran-Kublall, MD, MPH; Rochelle Rothstein, MD; Larry Rudman; Sylvia Tidwell Scheuring; Carly Schnur; Karin Tucker; Lee Weiss; and the countless others who made this project possible About Scientific American Scientific American is at the heart of Nature Publishing Group’s consumer media division, meeting the needs of the general public Founded in 1845, Scientific American is the longest continuously published magazine in the United States and the leading authoritative publication for science in the general media In its history, 148 Nobel Prize scientists have contributed 240 articles to Scientific American, including Albert Einstein, Francis Crick, Stanley Prusiner, and Richard Axel Together with scientificamerican.com and in translation in 14 languages around the world, it reaches more than million consumers and scientists Other titles include Scientific American Mind and Spektrum der Wissenschaft in Germany Scientific American won a 2011 National Magazine Award for General Excellence About the MCAT The structure of the four sections of the MCAT is shown below Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems Time Format 95 minutes 59 questions 10 passages 44 questions are passage-based, and 15 are discrete (stand-alone) questions Score between 118 and 132 What It Tests Biochemistry: 25% Biology: 5% General Chemistry: 30% Organic Chemistry: 15% Physics: 25% Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills (CARS) Time Format 90 minutes 53 questions passages All questions are passage-based There are no discrete (stand-alone) questions Score between 118 and 132 What It Tests Disciplines: Humanities: 50% Social Sciences: 50% Skills: Foundations of Comprehension: 30% Reasoning Within the Text: 30% Reasoning Beyond the Text: 40% Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Time Format 95 minutes 59 questions 10 passages 44 questions are passage-based, and 15 are discrete (stand-alone) questions gas exchange in lungs, 207 Ventricular tachycardia (v-tach), 231 Venules blood pressure, 245f circulatory system, 231, 233 hydrostatic vs osmotic pressure, 253 Vertebral column, 139, 381 Vesicles endocytotic, 5f Golgi apparatus, 8, 160 motor proteins carrying, 10 optic vesicles, 94, 99 secretory exocytosis, synapse, 133 Vestigial, 325 Vibrissae, 200, 208 Villi, 322 Virchow, Rudolph, Virions cell theory and, life cycle of virus, 27, 28f, 28–29, 30f negative-sense RNA viruses, 27 retroviruses, 27 Viroids, 31 Virulence factors, 22 Virulent bacteria, 30 Viruses antiviral measures, 26, 28f See also Vaccines as teratogen, 95 bacteriophages, 24, 26, 29, 30, 31f, 407 cell theory and, chickenpox varicella–zoster, 239 cytomegalovirus, 104 cytotoxic T-cells, 286 enveloped viruses, 26, 29 extrusion, 30 genomes, 27, 29, 30, 31f herpes virus, 104 immune response, 288 interferon, 278, 288 life cycle, 28f, 28–30, 30f natural killer (NK) cells, 281 poliovirus, 289 prions, 31, 287 retroviruses, 27 reverse transcriptase, 27, 28f specific immune response, 239 structure, 26 T-cell lymphocytes, 240, 274 vector for transduction, 23f, 23–24 viroids, 31 See also HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) Visceral pleural sac, 201, 202 Vital capacity (VC), 204 Vital signs, 247 Vitamin B7 (biotin), 15, 326 Vitamin B12 and intrinsic factor, 313 Vitamin D calcium absorption in gut, 172 resorption of bone, 385 Vitamin K bacterial source, 15, 325 clotting factors, 15, 326 Vitamins absorption of, 324f, 324–25 fat soluble, 324f, 324–25 reabsorption in kidney, 347, 348 water soluble, 324–25 Vitiligo, 355 Vocal cords, 200 Volkmann’s canals, 384 Vomiting, 311, 318 Vulva, 65 W Warfarin, 234 Waste products capillary diffusion, 207, 233, 247, 248–51 carbon dioxide, 249–51, 250f dialysis, 341 digestion, 308, 326–27 erythrocytes, 238 feces, 325–26 hydrogen ions, 238, 247, 327, 347, 348 kidney excretion, 317, 347 liver detoxification, 317, 318, 347 lysosomes for cellular, 5f, microglia, 126 placenta, 103, 104f, 105 potassium, 347, 348, 350 pulmonary arteries, 207, 232 sphincters of voiding, 325 umbilical arteries, 91, 104, 232 See also Excretory system Water balance absorption in intestines, 314, 322, 325 antidiuretic hormone, 168, 170, 180t, 247 atrial natriuretic peptide, 179, 181t, 247 circulatory system, 253f, 253–54 diuretics, 350 hypothalamus, 165 mineralocorticoids, 174, 181t renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, 174, 175f, 247, 351 See also Osmoregulation Water breaking, 107 White blood cells See Leukocytes White fat, 357 White matter, 138, 139 White muscle fibers, 372–73, 379 Withdrawal reflex, 143 Wobble (genetics), 409 X X chromosome, 62, 402, 417 Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), 411 Y Y chromosome, 62, 63, 67, 402 Yolk sac, 91 Z Z-lines, 374, 378f Zollinger–Ellison syndrome, 313 Zona pellucida, 66, 88 Zygotes biological sex, 62–63 endometrium, 67, 69 fertilization, 88f, 88–89 nondisjunction, 61, 91 ovum vs sperm contribution, 66 speciation, 425 Zymogens, 312, 316 Art Credits Chapter Cover—Image credited to MichaelTaylor3d From Shutterstock Figure 1.1—Image credited to Melissa Thomas From The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride by Cliff Burgess and Fernando Quevado Copyright © 2007 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.2—Image credited to Dana Burns Pizer and Tomo Narashima From Caloric Restriction and Aging by Richard Weindruch Copyright © 1996 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.3—Image credited to Tomo Narashima From Budding Vesicles in Living Cells by James E Rothman and Lelio Orci Copyright © 1996 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.4 (Cell surface illustration)—Image credited to Ryota Matsuura, Robert Ezzell, and Donal E Ingber From The Architecture of Life by Donald E Ingber Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.4 (MF, MT, IF illustrations)—Images credited to Laurie Grace From The Architecture of Life by Donald E Ingber Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.4 (MF and MT photographs)—Images credited to Donal E Ingber From The Architecture of Life by Donald E Ingber Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.4 (IF photograph)—Image credited to Robert D Goldman, Northwestern University Medical School From The Architecture of Life by Donald E Ingber Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.5—Image credited to User: Smartse From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2009 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Figure 1.6—Image credited to Mopic From Shutterstock Figure 1.11—Image credited to Tomo Narashima From The Challenge of Antibiotic Resistance by Stuart B Levy Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.12—Image credited to User: Adenosine From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2011 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Figure 1.13—Image credited to Sally Benunsen From Bacterial Gene Swapping in Nature by Robert V Miller Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 1.14—Image credited to M Komorniczak From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2009 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Figure 1.16—Image credited to Tami Tolpa From The Vaccine Search Goes On by David I Watkins Copyright © 2008 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Chapter Cover—Image credited to Jose Luis Calvo From Shutterstock Figure 2.1—Image credited to User: Zephyris From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2011 Used under licenses: CC-BY-SA-3.0 / GFDL Figure 2.4—Image credited to Dimitry Schidlovsky From The Centrosome by David M Glover, Cayetano Gonzalez and Jordan W Raff Copyright © 1993 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 3.2—Image credited to Gamma Presse From Blastomere Blowup by Charles Q Choi Copyright © 2006 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 3.3—Image credited to Jason Burns/Phototake From Embryonic Stem Cells for Medicine by Roger A Pederson Copyright © 1999 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 3.8—Image credited to Andrew Swift From The Stem Cell Challenge by Robert Lanza and Nadia Rosenthal Copyright © 2004 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 3.9—Image credited to User: Egelberg From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2012 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Chapter Cover—Image credited to whitehoune From Shutterstock Figure 4.2 (micrograph)—Image credited to Varsha Shukla From White Matter Matters by R Douglas Fields Copyright © 2008 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.2 (illustration)—Image credited to Alan Hoofring, NIH Medical Arts From White Matter Matters by R Douglas Fields Copyright © 2008 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.2 (inset)—Image credited to Alan Hoofring, NIH Medical Arts and Jen Christiansen From White Matter Matters by R Douglas Fields Copyright © 2008 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.6—Image credited to Jeff Johnson, Hybrid Medical Animation From The Other Half of the Brain by R Douglas Fields Copyright © 2004 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.7—Image credited to Jared Schneidman Design From The Toxins of Cyanobacteria by Wayne W Carmichael Copyright © 1994 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.8—Image credited to Tomo Narashima From The Neurobiology of Depression by Charles B Nemeroff Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 4.11—Image credited to Alila Medical Media From Shutterstock Figure 4.12—Image credited to Alila Medical Media From Shutterstock Chapter Cover—Image credited to Dmitry Lobanov From Shutterstock Figure 5.2—Image credited to Tomo Narashima From Designer Estrogens by V Craig Jordan Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 5.10—Image credited to User: BruceBlaus From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2013 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Chapter Cover—Image credited to Guzel Studio From Shutterstock Chapter Cover—Image credited to decade3d From Shutterstock Figure 7.5—Image credited to User: Yaddah From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2006 Used under licenses: CC-BY-SA-3.0 / GFDL Figure 7.6 (illustration and chart)—Image credited to Johnny Johnson; Source: Biology, by Neil Campbell From The Search for Blood Substitutes by Mary L Nucci and Abraham Abuchowski Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 7.6 (erythrocytes)—Image credited to Dr Dennis Kunkel/Phototake From The Search for Blood Substitutes by Mary L Nucci and Abraham Abuchowski Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 7.6 (basophil and lymphocyte)—Images credited to Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc From The Search for Blood Substitutes by Mary L Nucci and Abraham Abuchowski Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 7.6 (neutrophil, eosinophil, monocyte, and platelets)—Image credited to Dorothea ZuckerFranklin New York Medical Center/Phototake From The Search for Blood Substitutes by Mary L Nucci and Abraham Abuchowski Copyright © 1998 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 7.12—Image credited to Jen Christiansen From Integrins and Health by Alan F Horwitz Copyright © 1997 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 8.1—Image credited to Tami Tolpa From Immunity’s Early-Warning System by Luke A J O’Neill Copyright © 2005 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 8.2—Image credited to Dimitry Schidlovsky and Tomo Narashima From Life, Death and the Immune System by Sir Gustav J V Nossal Copyright © 1993 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 8.6—Image credited to Jen Christiansen From A Malignant Flame by Gary Stix Copyright © 2007 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Figure 8.7—Image credited to Ian Worpole From How the Immune System Recognizes Invaders by Charles A Janeway, Jr Copyright © 1993 by Scientific American, Inc All rights reserved Chapter Cover—Image credited to Juan Gaertner From Shutterstock Figure 9.2—Image credited to Olek Remesz From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2007 Used under licenses: CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 Figure 9.4—Image credited to User: BruceBlaus From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2013 Used under license: CC-BY-3.0 Figure 10.6—Image credited to User: BruceBlaus From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2014 Used under license: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Figure 10.7—Image credited to Mikael Häggström From Wikimedia Commons Copyright © 2010 Used under licenses: CC-BY-SA-3.0 / GFDL Chapter 11 Cover—Image credited to Ramona Kaulitzki From Shutterstock Figure 11.11—Image credited to OpenStax College In: Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Web site Copyright © 2013 Used under license: CC-BY-3.0 Periodic Table of the Elements ... sending an email to KaplanMCATfeedback @kaplan. com Using This Book Kaplan MCAT Biology Review, along with the other six books in the Kaplan MCAT Review series, brings the Kaplan classroom experience.. .MCAT? ? Biology Review Edited by Alexander Stone Macnow, MD Table of Contents MCAT? ? Biology Review Cover Title Page Table of Contents The Kaplan MCAT Review Team About Scientific... 828-0690 www.aamc.org /mcat mcat@aamc.org How This Book Was Created The Kaplan MCAT Review project began in November 2012 shortly after the release of the Preview Guide for the MCAT 2015 Exam, 2nd edition