PORSCHA FERMANIS JohI Keats DEAS OF THE E NLIGHTENMENT AND THE John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Porscha Fermanis Edinburgh University Press © Porscha Fermanis, 2009 Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh www.euppublishing.com Typeset in Sabon by Norman Tilley Graphics Ltd, Northampton and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham and Eastbourne A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 7486 3780 (hardback) The right of Porscha Fermanis to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 Contents Acknowledgements Abbreviations Introduction: Keats, Enlightenment and Romanticism Ancients and Moderns: Literary History and the ‘Grand March of Intellect’ in Keats’s Letters and the 1817 Poems vi viii 17 Civil Society: Sentimental History and Enlightenment Socialisation in Endymion and The Eve of St Agnes 39 The Science of Man: Anthropological Speculation and Stadial Theory in Hyperion 65 Political Economy: Commerce, Civic Tradition and the Luxury Debate in Isabella and Lamia 97 Moral Philosophy: Sympathetic Identification, Utility and the Natural History of Religion in The Fall of Hyperion 121 Afterword: Ode to Psyche and Ode on a Grecian Urn 151 Notes 159 Bibliography 191 Index 207 Acknowledgements This book began life as an examination of Keats’s reading of history and only later broadened in scope to include the ideas of the Enlightenment more generally Its aim was always, however, not simply to rehabilitate Keats as a poet alive to the intellectual currents of his time, but also to contribute to our understanding of the relationship between the Romantic period and the Enlightenment, and hence, to what we mean by Romanticism itself, which has been so important a debate in Romantic circles in recent years I would like to thank Fiona Stafford, John Barnard and David Womersely for their assistance and support with the first version of these ideas Two bodies, the University College Oxford Old Members’ Trust Fund and the English Faculty, University of Oxford, provided scholarships and grants during this early stage More recently, I received a postdoctoral fellowship from the Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Sciences for another project, which nonetheless gave me with the time and space to complete this one I owe much, of course, to other scholars of the eighteenth century and Romantic period The debts are clear in the pages of this book, but I would like to mention expressly the work of Alan Bewell, James Chandler, Greg Kucich, Michael O’Neill, Nicholas Roe, Robert Ryan, Clifford Siskin and Daniel Watkins; and on eighteenth-century historiography, Karen O’Brien, Mark Salber Phillips and David Womersley Further debts are owed to the staff of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford; the British Library; the Houghton Library, Harvard University; Keats House, Hampstead; and the Public Records Office, London At Edinburgh University Press I would like to thank Jackie Jones To friends, colleagues and readers I would like to express my sincere thanks, in particular: Andrew Carpenter, Mark Crosby, Kelvin Everest, Robert Gerwarth, Clare Harding, Shelley Meagher, Jon Mee, Michelle O’Connell, Adrian Patterson, Seamus Perry, Stephen Wall and Nerys Williams Finally, to Acknowledgements vii my husband and family, please accept my gratitude for your continued encouragement and support * * * A much shorter version of Chapter of this book won the Keats–Shelley prize in 2005 and appeared as ‘Stadial Theory, Robertson’s History of America, and Hyperion’, Keats–Shelley Review, 19 (2005), 21–31 Chapter was previously published in a slightly different form as ‘Isabella, Lamia, and “Merry old England”’, Essays in Criticism, 56.2 (2006), 139–62 All quotations from Keats’s letters are reprinted by permission of the publisher from The Letters of John Keats, 1814–1821: Volumes I–II, ed Hyder Edward Rollins, 169–70, 184–5, 191–3, 199–200, 210, 224–5, 231–3, 238–9, 278–82, 396–8; 16, 19, 25, 74–5, 79–80, 100–4, 156, 192–4, 208, 212, 322–3, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, © 1958 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All quotations from Keats’s poems are reprinted by permission of the publisher from The Poems of John Keats, ed Jack Stillinger, 23, 42–4, 48–9, 84–5, 88–9, 92, 116, 118–19, 132–3, 186–7, 193–4, 230–1, 243, 248–52, 256–7, 260–1, 266–7, 274, 276, 282, 343–5, 354–8, 361–7, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, © 1978, 1982 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Line and page numbers appear in the text Abbreviations HW The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed P P Howe, 21 vols (London and Toronto: J M Dent, 1930–4) KC The Keats Circle: Letters and Papers, 1816–1878, ed Hyder Edward Rollins, 2nd edn, vols (1948; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965) LJK The Letters of John Keats, 1814–1821, ed Hyder Edward Rollins, vols (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958) PJK The Poems of John Keats, ed Miriam Allott (London: Longman, 1970) Introduction: Keats, Enlightenment and Romanticism Reflecting on the virtues of ancient poetry in his Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian (1763), Hugh Blair claims that ‘an extensive search’ would uncover ‘a certain degree of resemblance among all the most ancient poetic productions’ on the basis that ‘in a similar state of manners, similar objects and passions operating upon the imaginations of men, will stamp their productions with the same general character’ It is, of course, to one of the first ‘states’ or ‘stages’ of society that the poems of Ossian ostensibly belong, and although Blair goes on to argue that the ‘resembling features’ apparent in these early stages tend to dissipate in the face of subsequent revolutions and diversions, he nonetheless continues to see the operation of manners and poetry as mutually dependent throughout the various stages of society, even if the principal effect of a greater degree of refinement is to subdue the vigour and sublimity of the imagination as literature, like language, ‘advances from sterility to copiousness, and at the same time, from fervour and enthusiasm, to correctness and precision’.1 The idea of evolving states or stages of society was fundamental to eighteenth-century understandings of human progress, and Blair’s Dissertation is suggestive of the ways in which Enlightenment developmental models were transferred from historical and sociological writing to representations of literary history in the period It also points to the continuities between historical and other types of literary writing.2 For Blair, as for many other Enlightenment thinkers, literary history was not something inherently different from more general historical studies: the evolution of a society was reflected in the development of its literature, and the history of the imagination was intimately connected to the history of social institutions as well as to theories about the progress of human understanding and moral judgement David Hume saw the first histories of poetry, religion and society as virtually interchangeable in The Natural History of Religion (1757) Historians and social theorists from Blair to Index see also Buffon; Montesquieu; Pauw; Robertson (William); Voltaire Cobbett, William, 101 Cockney School, 9, 11, 27, 32, 37, 49 Colden, Cadwallader History of the Five Indian Nations, 90 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 13, 33, 34, 142 Biographia Literaria, 131 on genius, 131 on the imagination, 131, 188n.27 on mechanism, Colley, Linda, 31 Columbus, Christopher, 68, 79, 83, 86–7, 96 commerce, 97, 102–3, 106, 110, 115, 152, 153 commercialism, 5, 15, 71–2, 97–9, 100–4, 105–6, 106–10, 113, 115–6, 120, 153–4 common sense, philosophy of, 123–4, 131, 146 Commonwealth of Oceana, The (Harrington), 101 Condillac, Étienne Bonnot, Abbé de, 80 ‘Condition of England’, debate on, 98, 99, 100–4, 107–8, 182n.7 Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de, 1, 72 Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humain, 133–4, 135 Congreve, William, 37 Connell, Philip, 148 constitutional reform see reform Corsair, The (Byron), 36 Cortez, Hernando, 95 cosmopolitanism, Cowden Clarke, Charles, 20, 21, 25 commonplace book, 167n.38 Recollections of Writers, 11 Cox, Jeffrey, 27, 32, 122 Critical Dissertation on the Poems of Ossian, A (Blair), 1, 90, 91, 153 Critical Essays on John Keats (Almeida), 10–11 Croker, John Wilson, 37 Cromwell, Oliver, 20 crusades, the, 24, 39–41 Cuvier, Georges An Essay on the Theory of the Earth, 84 see also catastrophism Darnford, John, 136 209 Darnton, Robert, Darwin, Erasmus, 177n.33 Davies, Edmund Celtic Researches, 166n.26 de Almeida see Almeida De l’Esprit (Helvétius), 125 De l’Esprit des lois (Montesquieu), 76–7, 84 de Pauw see Pauw declension, 79 decline, theories of, 79, 100–1, 102–3, 110, 112, 114–15 see also history (pessimistic) Decline and Fall, The (Gibbon), 65, 67, 75, 79, 83, 93–4, 95, 101, 103, 111, 113, 185n.52 Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance, The (Paine), 101 Defence of Poetry, A (Shelley), 122, 123, 143–7, 149, 150, 186n.75, 189n.60 Defoe, Daniel Robinson Crusoe, 129 degeneracy, 77–8, 153 deism, 13, 20, 22, 47, 134, 141–2 Deist, The (Carlile and Holbach), 165–6n.21 Della Cruscans, 39 Dictionnaire historique et critique (Bayle), 116 Dictionnaire philosophique (Voltaire), 15, 22, 24, 25, 26, 104, 119, 155, 167n.39, 181n.112, 188n.29 Diderot, Denis, 134–5 Le Neveu de Rameau, 76 Supplément au voyage de Bougainville, 76 Dilke, Charles, 46, 71, 147 dissent, 15 D’Holbach see Holbach Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity, The (Priestley), 74 Domingo, 87, 95 dreams, 56, 60, 61–2, 131, 149–50, 154 see also Keats (John) Dryden, John, 17, 31 Du Toit, Alexander, 94 Eden, 111–12 Edinburgh Review, 29, 36, 38, 58 education see pedagogy Egyptians, the, 76, 80–1, 177n.41 Elements of Criticism (Kames), 187n.16 Elgin marbles, 80, 157 Elizabeth I, 30 210 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Elizabethan period, 30, 58 Elizabethans, the, 18–19, 22, 26, 29 emigration, 66, 70–1 empire British, 80, 108 Gibbon, 75 Napoleonic, 80 Portuguese, 86 Roman, 23, 59, 75, 103, 111, 113–14 Spanish, 68, 69–70, 73, 86–7, 94–6, 108 empiricism, 4, 5, 12, 13, 24, 129, 140, 151, 154, 155, 158 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2, 45 Endymion (Keats), 3, 14, 15, 19, 27, 42, 46, 47–56, 57, 63–4, 123, 132, 141, 152 England in 1819 (Chandler), 176n.25 Enlightenment, the American, 3, and Christianity, and cosmopolitanism, and Counter–Enlightenment, definitions of, 3–7, 13, 164n.57 elitism of, English, 4, 5, 13, 103, 151 French, 2, 3, 4, 13, 56, 66, 75, 76, 80, 83, 103, 151 historians, 24–5, 95, 121 and the Middle Ages, 59–60 philosophers, 123–4 and progress, and reason, 4, and Romanticism, 4–8 Scottish, 2, 3, 5, 13, 31, 50, 54, 56, 66, 67, 68, 72, 75, 76, 83, 103, 133, 143, 151, 153 and wealth-creation, 97, 98, 103–4, 120 see also deism; glottogenesis; history; Keats (John); moral philosophy; Romanticism; utility Enquirer, The (Godwin), 170n.22, 171n.23 Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An (Hume), 25, 166–7n.34 Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, An (Godwin), 44, 74 Enquiry Concerning the Principle of Morals, An (Hume), 117 enthusiasm, 134 epic, 17, 19, 35, 82, 88, 89, 90, 96, 122 epistemology, historical, Erasmus, of Rotterdam The Praise of Folly, 173n.62 eschatology, 142 Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humain (Condorcet), 133–4, 135 Essai sur les mœurs (Voltaire), 21, 23–4, 25–6, 65, 66, 68, 73–4, 75, 83, 95, 135, 176n.28 ‘Essay on Chivalry’ (Scott), 45 Essay Concerning Human Understanding, An (Locke), 124, 130, 155 Essay on the History of Civil Society, An (Ferguson), 51, 103, 153, 175n.10 ‘Essay on the Moral Principle, An’ (Bailey), 50, 123 Essay on the Principle of Population, An (Malthus), 99 Essay on the Principles of Human Action, An (Hazlitt), 44, 50, 61, 92, 124–7 ‘Essay on Romance’ (Scott), 2, 45 Essay on the Theory of the Earth, An (Cuvier), 84 Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope, An (Warton), 28 Essayes or Counsels, Civill and Moral, The (Bacon), 166n.30 Essays Moral, Political and Literary (Hume), 104, 118 Essays on the Nature and Principle of Taste (Alison), 187n.19 Eve of St Agnes, The (Keats), 14, 15, 41, 47, 56–64, 109, 110, 113, 152, 154 Eve of St Mark, The (Keats), 60 Evert, Walter, 8, 13, 138 Aesthetic and Myth, 163n.48 evocation see history (evocation of) evolution, 2, 68, 74, 79, 153 Examiner, 72, 100–4, 106–8, 116, 148–9 on atonement, 140 on British patriots, 33 on chivalry, 40 on colonisation, 69–71, 108 on commerce, 15, 100–4 on commercialism, 97–8, 99, 100–4, 106–7, 116 on decline, 32, 100–4 and dissent, 15, 32–3 Keats’s reading of, 176n.20 on liberty, 32–3 on luxury, 15, 40, 110, 116 on money–getting, 40, 100–4, 106–7 motto of, 26 on North America, 70–1 Index on parliamentary reform, 32 on poets, 148–9 on public spirit, 33 on sociability, 98, 108, 109 on South America, 69–71 on tradition, 97–8, 112 and ‘Young Poets’ article, 39 see also commercialism; Hunt (Leigh) Excursion, The (Wordsworth), 149, 190n.69 Expostulation and Reply (Wordsworth), 129 factory conditions, 107–8 Faerie Queene, The (Spenser), 41, 42, 52 Fairer, David, 18 Fairfax, Edward, 28 Fall of Hyperion: A Dream, The (Keats), 3, 14, 15, 35, 64, 65, 66, 96, 89, 109, 112, 121–50, 151, 153 fanaticism, 15, 20, 24, 40, 73, 109, 121, 132–3, 134, 135–6, 140, 148, 149, 181n.112 fatalism, 78, 88 Fearon, Henry Bradshaw, 72 Sketches of America, 70 Feast of the Poets, The (Hunt), 28, 33–4, 98 Ferdinand VII, 69, 70 Ferguson, Adam, 50 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, 51, 103, 153, 175n.10 feudalism, 12, 13, 15, 22–4, 47–8, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 63, 64, 69, 83–4, 104, 152, 166n.26 figurality, 134, 139, 142, 149 Florence, 106 Foliage (Hunt), 28, 99 Forbes, Duncan, 24 Ford, John, 29 Four Ages of Poetry, The (Peacock), 36, 84, 133, 143 France, 30, 31, 100 Franklin, Benjamin, 71, 72 French Enlightenment see Enlightenment French revolution, 4, 25, 31, 40 French School, 28, 29–31, 39, 164n.5, 168n.47 friendship, 49, 50–1, 52–3, 56, 64 Fry, Paul H., Galt, John, gardens see landscape gardens, 156 Gay, Peter, 24 211 gender, 61 and civility, 138–9 and ‘negative capability’, 139 geographic upheaval, 84–5 see also catastrophism German School, 34 Gibbon, Edward, 7, 28 on chivalry/the crusades, 40 The Decline and Fall, 65, 67, 75, 79, 83, 93–4, 95, 101, 103, 111, 113, 185n.52 on empire, 75 on feudalism, 47, 60, 152 Keats’s reading of, 11, 12, 13, 65, 124, 151 on luxury, 103, 113 sentimentalism of, 5, 7, 92, 93–4 on the silk trade, 113, 185n.52 Gifford, William, 92 Gilpin, William Observations on the River Wye, 59 see also picturesque glottogenesis, 89–91, 133–4, 144 Godwin, William, 2, 13, 142 Caleb Williams, 43 The Enquirer, 170n.22, 171n.23 Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, 44, 74 and Hazlitt, 43–4 on historical evocation, 44–5 and Keats, 7, 46, 71–2 Life of Geoffrey Chaucer, 44, 45, 46 ‘Of History and Romance’, 44–5 on perfectibility, 71–2, 74 on philosophic history, 44–5 on rationalism, 147 St Leon, 43, 49 sentimentalism of, 44–5 see also millennianism; perfectibility; rationalism Goldsmith, Oliver, 151 The Citizen of the World, 77 A History of the Earth, 77 gothic, 18, 30 Gower, John, 17 Gray, Thomas, 28 The Progress of Poesy, 28 Grob, Alan, 154, 155 Guy Mannering (Scott), 170n.20, 173n.55 Habeas Corpus Act, 32 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 105 Harrington, James The Commonwealth of Oceana, 101 212 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Hartley, David, 124, 131, 151, 155 Observations on Man, 125 Hazlitt, William, 2, 38, 110, 120, 123 on asceticism, 125 on associationism, 124–5 on beauty, 127, 157 Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays, 37, 105, 168n.49 on climatic determinism, 77 on ‘disinterestedness’, 82, 125, 131 Essay on the Principles of Human Action, 44, 50, 61, 92, 124–7 on the French School, 28–30 on Gibbon, 65 on Godwin, 43–4, 46 on the imagination, 43, 92, 125, 126–7, 131 and Keats, 3, 11, 105, 165n.9 ‘Lectures on the Age of Elizabeth’, 2, 29–30, 165n.9 Lectures on the English Comic Writers, 168n.49 Lectures on the English Poets, 2, 18, 29–30, 36, 92, 98, 105–6, 143 A Letter to William Gifford, 92 Mandeville, 170n.20 on mechanism, 124–5 on moral philosophy, 92, 123, 125–6 on the national school, of poetry, 29–30, 34, 105–6 ‘On Burns and the Old English Ballads’, 98 ‘On Chaucer and Spenser’, 105–6 ‘On Dreams’, 61, 62, 131 ‘On the English Novelists’, 43, 46 ‘On Imitation’, 124, 127 ‘On the Living Poets’, 36 ‘On Manner’, 77 ‘On Milton’s Versification’, 28–9 ‘On Poetry in General’, 92, 143, 157–8 ‘On the Tendency of Sects’, 26, 119 The Plain Speaker, 61 on power, 92 primitivism of, 18, 36 A Reply to Malthus, 101 The Round Table, 77, 119 on Scott, 43–4 on sculpture, 92, 143, 157–8 on sectarianism, 119 The Spirit of the Age, 20, 21, 22 on sympathetic identification, 43–4, 92 on Voltaire, 65 ‘Why the Arts are not Progressive’, 18 on Wordsworth, 98 Heart of Midlothian, The (Scott), 170n.20 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 152 Helvétius, Claude Adrien De l’Esprit, 125 Herodotus, of Halicarnassus, 117 Hesiod, 117 Highlanders, 135 Hilson, J C., 91–2 Histoire naturelle (Buffon), 76 Historical Account of the Most Celebrated Voyages, The (Mavor), 86, 87, 95 historicism, 6, 9, 10, 75, 92, 152 see also New Historicism historiography, 3, 5, 9, 10, 17, 18, 27–8, 39, 57, 64, 65, 67, 91–2, 96, 143, 151 history annalistic, 113–14 classical, 18, 20, 23, 27, 43, 103, 151 comparative, 67, 141, 151 conjectural, 13, 66, 67, 133 contrariety models of, 23, 25, 32, 36, 151, 153 cyclical, 14, 15, 23, 32, 36, 79,102, 103, 152 developmental models of, 13, 15, 22–3, 42, 53–6, 57, 63–4, 72–5, 151, 152 evocation of, 15, 44–5, 57–60, 63–4, 152 exemplary, 20, 21, 151 hypothetical see conjectural intellectual, linear, 14, 67, 75 literary, 1–2, 9, 12, 14, 17–22, 26–7, 27–32, 35–8, 54, 154–5 material approaches to, 9, 10 meta-narratives of, 4, narrative, 5, 68 natural, 134–5 pessimistic, 74, 99, 100–4, 140–1 philosophic, 5, 13, 20, 24–5, 42, 43, 44–5, 151 progressive, 4, 5, 13, 18, 22–3, 25–6, 32, 54–5, 63–4, 66, 67–8, 72–3, 75, 95–6, 121, 133–4 religious, 134–5, 141–2 representative, 20–21 revisionary, 75, 92, 95–6, 121 sentimental, 42–3, 46–7, 57–8, 64, 91–2, 143 stadial, 5, 7, 13, 14, 15, 66, 67–8, 72, 75, 94, 121, 133, 143, 151 universal, 4, Index Whig, 33 see also historicism; historiography; natural philosophy History of America, The (Robertson), 7, 54, 65–6, 68, 69, 73, 75–7, 79, 81–4, 86–7, 93, 94, 95–6, 108, 135 History of Charles V, The (Robertson), 21, 22–3, 25, 40, 59, 103, 106, 111, 113, 115 History of the Earth, A (Goldsmith), 77 History of England, The (Hume), 20, 21, 94, 135 History of English Poetry, The (Warton), 12, 17–18, 27, 29, 30, 40, 45 History of the Five Indian Nations (Colden), 90 History of [North] America, The (Robertson), 66, 68, 95–6 History of Rome, The (Livy), 113, 114 History of Scotland, The (Robertson), 22, 59, 94, 135 Hoagwood, Terence, 133, 134, 149 Hobbes, Thomas, 50 Hogg, James, Holbach, Paul Henry Thiry, Baron d’, 47 Le Christianisme dévoilé, 22, 165–6n.21 see also Carlile; Deist, The Holinshed, Raphael, 11 Home, Henry, Lord Kames, 2, 50, 67, 68, 123, 133 Elements of Criticism, 187n.16 Sketches of the History of Man, 183n.24 Hoodwinking of Madeline, The (Stillinger), 163n.46 Hooke, Nathaniel The Roman History, 111 Huguenots, 73 human understanding, theories of, 4, 5, 15, 44, 61–2, 124–32, 154 humanism, 8, 14, 20, 41–2, 97, 121, 142–3, 147–8, 169n.61 Hume, David, 47, 50, 104, 121, 151 on chivalry/the crusades, 40 empiricism of, 24–5 An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 25, 166–7n.34 An Enquiry Concerning the Principle of Morals, 117 Essays Moral, Political and Literary, 104, 117–18 on fanaticism, 135 on feudalism, 47, 60, 152 213 on fiction, 148 The History of England, 20, 21, 94, 135 on human understanding, 123, 124, 155 on literary history, 28, 38 on luxury, 104 moral philosophy, 123 The Natural History of Religion, 1, 134, 148 on philosophy, 117–18, 119 on religion, 134 ‘The Sceptic’, 117–18 sentimentalism of, 92, 94 A Treatise of Human Nature, 118, 148 Hungerford, E B., 13 Hunt, Henry, 26 Hunt, James Henry Leigh, 38, 120 on America, 69–72 on the Augustan poets, 28 and chivalry, 39–40 ‘Christmas and Other National MerryMakings’, 98, 109, 112, 119–20, 182n.9 on commercialism, 99, 110 on contemporary poets, 33–4, 98 coterie of, 27 deism of, 22, 140 The Feast of the Poets, 28, 33–4, 98 Foliage, 28, 99 on the French School, 28, 30, 34, 39, 168n.47 on the German School, 34 Indicator, 182n.9 and Keats, 3, 9, 18–19, 32, 39–40, 88 on moral philosophy, 99 on the national school, of poetry, 28, 34, 98, 105–6 The Religion of the Heart, 141 ‘Robin Hood’ poems, 182n.9 ‘Round Table’, 40 sociability of, 39, 49, 98–9 The Story of Rimini, 100, 108–9, 169n.60 on Wordsworth, 33–4, 148–9 see also Cockney School; Examiner Hurd, Richard, 28 Letters on Chivalry and Romance, 164n.5 Hutcheson, Francis, 50, 126, 146, 151, 158 on aesthetics, 124 on beauty, 124, 144, 147 on benevolence, 124, 144 214 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment An Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, 124 on the moral sense, 126, 136, 144, 147 on sensations, 123–4 A Short Introduction to Moral Philosophy, 124 ‘Hymn to Pan’ (Keats), 47, 48, 56, 152 Hyperion: A Fragment (Keats), 3, 7, 14, 15, 49, 64, 65–96, 112, 113, 121, 122–3, 132, 136, 137, 139, 142, 143, 153, 157, 177n.41 I stood tip-toe upon a little hill (Keats), 14, 27, 35–8, 64 Idea of a Patriot King, The (Bolingbroke), 25, 102 Idealism, 2, 61, 123–4, 143, 158 identity, 81–3 ignobility, 79, 95 illusion, 60–3, 118, 136–7, 148–9 imagination in A Defence of Poetry, 144–5, 146, 147 and philosophy, 116 in Smith’s moral theory, 126, 147 see also Keats (John) Immortality Ode (Wordsworth), 128 imperialism, 4, 31, 68 Incas see Marmontel; Native Americans Incas: Or, The Destruction of the Empire of Peru, The (Marmontel), 68, 95, 176n.19 India, 108 Indicator (Hunt), 182n.9 individualism, 3, 49–50, 54, 72, 110, 115 industrialisation, 107–8 industrialism, 15 influence, 12, 27, 151 innatism, 124 Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue, An (Hutcheson), 124 Ireland, 26, 60, 135 irony, 5, 92, 95 Isabella; or, The Pot of Basil (Keats), 14, 15, 60, 61, 97, 99–100, 104–10, 112, 116, 120, 152, 153 Jansenism, 73 Jaucaourt, Louis de, 134 Java, 108 Jefferson, Thomas, 77 Notes on the State of Virginia, 79 Jeffrey, Francis, 58 on the British landscape, 37–8 on contemporary poetry, 36 on the French School, 29 on manners, 38 on the national school, of poetry, 29, 31 see also Edinburgh Review Joan of Arc, 20 John Keats and Romantic Medicine (Almeida), 179n.59 Johnson, Samuel Lives of the English Poets, 17, 22 Jones, Jack, 157 Jones, James, 82 Kamchatka, 177n.33 Kames, Lord see Home, Henry Kant, Immanuel, 11, 34 Keach, William, 31 Keats, George, 25, 61, 65, 66, 71, 132 emigration of, 66 Keats, Georgiana Augusta Wylie, 25, 61, 65, 71, 132 Keats, John on Adam’s dream, 62, 87, 126 on allegory, life as, 151 on America, 65, 66, 71–2 and ancients/moderns, 18–20 and anti–intellectualism, 11, 130–1 and approaches to his poetry, 8–12, 15, 38, 39, 48 on associationism, 127 and attacks on, by reviewers, 11 and axioms, in philosophy, 130 and axioms, of poetry, 127 and ‘anxiety of influence’, 26–7, 167n.41 on beauty, 53, 126, 127, 147, 158 on beauty/truth dialectic, 124, 126–7, 144, 147, 148 belatedness of, 38 on book-learning, 128–30, 155 ‘burden of the mystery’, 132 ‘burden of the past’, 14 ‘cameleon’ poet, 122, 150, 190n.68 on Carlile, 26 ‘Chamber of Maiden-Thought’, 53, 62, 75 on the Chinese, 77 on Christianity, 4, 140–2 on ‘Circumstance’, 131 ‘cliff of Poesy’, 26 ‘consequitive reasoning’, 4, 7, 11, 46 on custom, 128 on ‘disinterestedness’, 82, 131–2 Index on dreams, 131 on egotism, 19 on the Elizabethans, 2, 8, 18–19, 22, 43 empiricism of, 130, 140, 155, 158 on English cultural authority, 71–2 on the English language, 30 and the Enlightenment, 7–9, 12–13, 14–16 escapism of, 8–12, 48–9, 149–50, 154 finances of, 99 on French corruption, 30 on genius, 14, 22 on Godwin, 7, 46, 71–2 ‘grand democracy’, 52 ‘grand march of intellect’, 22 on great men, 21 on ‘great Poets’, 19, 38 and Hazlitt, 3, 11, 105, 165n.9 ‘holinesss of the Heart’s affections’, 126 on human nature, 72–5 humanism of, 8, 14, 41–2, 121, 142–3, 147–8, 169n.61 on identity, 82, 141 on imagination, 19, 48 , 62, 92, 126–7, 131, 147, 155 on indolence, 128–9, 131 ‘infant chamber’, 84, 137 on instinct, 74–5, 132 on intellectual development, 10, 19–20, 21–2, 151 on intensity, 127 on ‘inter-assimulation’, 49, 132 on intuition, 11, 147 on knowledge, 11, 128–9, 155, 188n.25 on landscape, 19, 36, 37–8 library of, 11, 12 ‘Life of Sensations’, 123 literary imperialism of, 85–6 on ‘literary kings’, 46 on ‘Mammon’, 122 ‘Mansion of Many Apartments’, 3, 34, 53–4, 62, 72, 75 medical training of, 11, 15, 65, 109, 163n.49 ‘Men of Genius’/‘Men of Power’, 72, 82, 131 ‘meridian Line’, 19–20 metaphysical speculations of, 11 on Milton, 3, 19–20, 21, 22, 43, 54, 71, 88, 89, 96, 137 on mist, 129, 130 on money, 72, 98–9 215 on moral philosophy, 11, 15, 46, 92, 122–4 ‘negative capability’, 19, 82, 129, 139 on originality, 128 ‘palpable design’, 34 on passivity, 5, 60, 127–9, 130–2 on pedagogy, 128–31 on perfectibility, 71–2, 74, 141–2, 153 pessimism of, 26, 74, 140–1 on philosophy, 11, 117–20, 147–8 ‘pious frauds of religion’, 60 ‘Pleasure Thermometer’, 48, 49 on the poet, 3, 15, 82, 121, 132–3, 136–43, 147–8, 149 on poetry, 19, 121, 147, 148–9 on politics, 25–6, 32–3 on progress, 22, 25–6, 53–4, 63–4, 72–3, 75, 79–80, 87–8, 121 on purpose, 132 reading of, 8–9, 11–13, 66 on reason, 11, 46 reception of, 8–12 on the Reformation, 21–2, 23 on representative men, 20–1 republicanism of, 14, 15, 52 reviews of, 32, 39, 169n.4 on salvation, system of, 141–2 scepticism of, 8–9, 15, 22, 71, 74, 130, 158 on Scott, 45–6 on sculpture, 92, 142, 143 ‘second consciousness’, 131, 188n.27 ‘self concentration’, 122 on sensations, 11, 61, 124 sentimentalism of, 15, 39, 46–7, 92–6 on sleep, 62, 131 snobbery towards, 11, 163n.45 on sorrow, 41–2, 49, 56, 63, 91–3 on soul/‘Soul-making’, 53–4, 63, 140–2 on spatial magnitude, 19, 37, 137 on speculation see metaphysical speculations ‘spiritual yeast’, 131–2 staged progress of, 10, 14, 53–4, 151 on the state of nature, 73–5 on the state of society, 26 on suffering, 41–2, 49, 56, 63, 65, 73–5, 140–1 on superstition, 22, 25, 60–1, 121 on sympathy, 54, 56, 91, 92, 122–3, 132, 137, 139 on truth, 11, 46, 48, 126 on walking tour, of Scotland and Ireland, 26, 177n.41, 180n.96 216 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment on Wordsworth, 3, 18–20, 21, 22, 26, 35, 43, 54, 128–9, 165n.13 poems of Calidore: A Fragment, 39, 41, 42 Endymion, 3, 14, 15, 19, 27, 42, 46, 47–56, 57, 63–4, 123, 132, 141, 152 The Eve of St Agnes, 14, 15, 41, 47, 56–64, 109, 110, 113, 152, 154 The Eve of St Mark, 60 The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream, 3, 14, 15, 35, 64, 65, 66, 96, 89, 109, 112, 121–50, 151, 153 ‘Hymn to Pan’, 47, 48, 56, 152 Hyperion: A Fragment, 3, 7, 14, 15, 49, 64, 65–96, 112, 113, 121, 122–3, 132, 136, 137, 139, 142, 143, 153, 157, 177n.41 I stood tip-toe upon a little hill, 14, 27, 35–8, 64 Isabella; or, The Pot of Basil, 14, 15, 60, 61, 97, 99–100, 104–10, 112, 116, 120, 152, 153 Lamia, 14, 15, 99–100, 104, 110–20, 153 Lines on the Mermaid Tavern, 98 Lines Written on 29 May, 33 O Solitude, 37 Ode on a Grecian Urn, 14, 124, 147, 156–8 Ode on Indolence, 156–7 Ode to a Nightingale, 35 Ode to Psyche, 14, 154–8 Old Meg, 58 On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer, 35, 66, 85–6, 91 On Seeing the Elgin Marbles, 35 Poems (1817), 14, 21, 27, 41, 42, 58 Robin Hood, 98–9 Sleep and Poetry, 14, 27, 28, 31–5, 37, 38, 39, 62, 64, 98, 151 Specimen of an Induction, 39, 40 To Autumn, 10 To Charles Cowden Clarke, 40 To George Felton Mathew, 37 To Hope, 33 To one who has been long in city pent, 37 Woman! when I behold thee, 39 Keats, Tom, 26, 60 Keats’s Life of Allegory (Levinson), 169n.60, 186n.67 Kosciusko, Andrew Thaddeus Bonaventure, 32 Kucich, Greg, 11, 27, 32, 39, 95, 137 Lafitau, JosephFranỗois Murs des sauvages amộriquains, 76 Lake Poets, 33–4, 39 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier d’, 177n.33 Lamia (Keats), 14, 15, 99–100, 104, 110–20, 153 lamiae, myth of, 112–13 landscape gardens, 156 language, theories of see glottogenesis las Casas, Bartolomé de see Casas le Clerc, Georges Louis see Buffon ‘Lectures on the Age of Elizabeth’ (Hazlitt), 29–30 Lectures on the English Comic Writers (Hazlitt), 168n.49 Lectures on the English Poets (Hazlitt), 2, 18, 36, 92, 98, 105–6, 143 Lectures on Jurisprudence (Smith), 103, 134 Lectures on Rhetoric (Blair), 27, 90, 91 Lectures on Rhetoric (Smith), 90–1 Letter to William Gifford, A (Hazlitt), 92 Letters on Chivalry and Romance (Hurd), 164n.5 Letters from Illinois (Birkbeck), 66, 70 Levinson, Marjorie, 14, 35, 57, 89, 99, 110, 119 Keats’s Life of Allegory, 169n.60, 186n.67 Life of Geoffrey Chaucer (Godwin), 44, 45, 46 Lines on the Mermaid Tavern (Keats), 98 Lines Written on 29 May (Keats), 33 literary history see Blair; Hazlitt; history (literary); Hume; Hunt (Leigh); Jeffrey; Smith Lives (Plutarch), 113, 114 Lives of the English Poets, The (Johnson), 17, 22 Livingston, Donald, 118 Livius, Titus (Livy), 11, 102, 111, 114 The History of Rome, 113, 114 Locke, John, 5, 13, 50, 154, 155 on association, 124, 131 on education, 129–30 An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 124, 130, 155 Keats’s reading of, 129, 151 Of the Conduct of the Understanding, 129, 130, 188n.25 on reading, 130 Index Some Thoughts Concerning Education, 130 Two Treatises of Government, 67 on visual phenomena, 130, 155, 190n.5 Lockhart, John Gibson, 37 Louis XIV, 21, 65, 73–4, 83, 93 Louis XVIII, 52 Luther, Martin, 23 luxury, 15, 100, 103–4, 110–11, 113–20, 153, 183n.23 of the poor, 107 positive and negative forms of, 119 and women, 114 see also Examiner McGann, Jerome, 6, 9, 10 Machiavelli, Niccolò di Bernardo dei, 102 Mackintosh, James, Macpherson, James see Ossian Magritte, Peter, 87 Mahomet II, 21 Maillet, Benoit de, 80 Malthus, Thomas Robert, 101 An Essay on the Principle of Population, 99 Mandeville, Bernard de, 125 Mandeville (Godwin), 170n.20 Manfred (Byron), 170n.15 manners in America, 70–1 British observation of American, 70–2 history of, 14, 20, 24, 27–8, 30, 38, 45, 103, 143, 151, 152 and poetry, 28–30, 31–2 and state of society, 26 see also vitality Marmontel, Jean-Franỗois The Incas: Or, The Destruction of the Empire of Peru, 68, 95 Keats’s reading of, 176n.19 Marvell, Andrew, 33 Mary, Queen of Scots, 94 materialism, 74, 177n.34 Mavor, William Fordyce on Columbus, 86–7 on the Egyptians, 80 on feudalism, 60 Historical Account of the Most Celebrated Voyages, 86, 87, 95 Keats’s reading of, 8, 12, 151, 179n.73 on South America, 87, 95 Universal History, 17, 80 May Day, 112 mechanism, 4, 124–5, 127, 146, 154 217 Medici, Lorenzo de, 103, 106 medieval see Middle Ages Mee, Jon, 127 Merrilies, Meg, 173n.55 mesmerism, Metahistory (White), Mexico, 68, 95 Middle Ages, the, 23–4, 45, 57–60, 152, 173n.59 Midsummer Night’s Dream, A (Shakespeare), 105 Millar, John, 50, 67, 68 millennianism, 142 Milton, John, 29, 33, 46, 71, 72, 74, 137 and Keats, 3, 19–20, 21, 22, 43, 54, 71, 88, 89, 96, 137 Paradise Lost, 30, 113, 122, 184n.33 and representativeness, 19–21 mining, 69, 177n.30, 181n.111, 184n.33 Mœurs des sauvages amériquains (Lafitau), 76 monetary policy, 101–2 see also political economy monotheism, 72, 134–5 Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, 72, 151 on climatic determinism, 76–7 De l’Esprit des lois, 76–7, 84 on feudalism, 84 Moore, Thomas, 10 moral philosophy, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 44, 46, 66, 97, 99, 122, 123–32, 136, 144–5, 150, 154 see also Keats (John) moral sense, philosophy of see common sense moral sentiment see sentiment; sympathy Morales, Francisco de Palmerin of England, 41–2, 52 see also Southey Morte D’Arthur (Southey), Muir, Kenneth, 82, 138 mythology, 13, 47, 49, 76, 92, 114, 122 see also lamiae narrative, 57 narrative history see history (narrative) Napoleonic wars, 30–1, 40, 71 national identity, 27, 29–31 national school, of poetry, 28–31, 34, 98 nationalism, 31 Native Americans, 7, 67–8, 69, 73, 75–6, 77, 79, 81, 82, 83, 93, 94, 95 see also Marmontel; Mexico; Peru 218 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Natural History of Religion, The (Hume), 1, 134, 148 natural law, 68, 72, 79, 112, 113 natural philosophy, 74 natural religion see deism; history (religious) Natural Supernaturalism (Abrams), 160n.6 necessity, 74, 78, 88, 132, 153 neoclassicism, 3, 19, 30 neo-Harringtonians, 15, 102, 103 neo-Platonism, 48 Neveu de Rameau, Le (Diderot), 76 New Historicism, New World, 30, 69, 70, 84, 87, 91, 95, 96 Newey, Vincent, 28, 33, 49, 108, 169n.61 Newtonianism, 24, 155 noble savage, 76, 153 see also ignobility North America see America Notes on a Journey in America (Birkbeck), 70 Notes on the State of Virginia (Jefferson), 79 O Solitude (Keats), 37 O’Brien, Karen, 5, 68, 92 Observations on the effect of the Manufacturing System (Owen), 102–3 Observations on Man (Hartley), 125 Observations on the River Wye (Gilpin), 59 Ode on a Grecian Urn (Keats), 14, 124, 147, 154 156–8 Ode on Indolence (Keats), 156–7 Ode to a Nightingale (Keats), 35 Ode to Psyche (Keats), 14, 154–8 Of the Conduct of the Understanding (Locke), 129, 130, 188n.25 ‘Of History and Romance’ (Godwin), 44–5 Old Cumberland Beggar, The (Wordsworth), 132 Old Meg (Keats), 58 ‘old school’, of poetry, 18, 28, 30, 36, 98, 106 Old World, 70, 77 Olympians, 66, 75, 78, 79, 84, 85–91, 94, 96, 112, 149 ‘On Burns and the Old English Ballads’ (Hazlitt), 98 ‘On Chaucer and Spenser’ (Hazlitt), 105–6 ‘On Dreams’ (Hazlitt), 61, 62, 131 ‘On the English Novelists’ (Hazlitt), 43, 46 On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer (Keats), 35, 66, 85–6, 91 ‘On Imitation’ (Hazlitt), 124, 127 ‘On the Living Poets’ (Hazlitt), 36 ‘On Manner’ (Hazlitt), 77 ‘On Milton’s Versification’ (Hazlitt), 28–9 ‘On Poetry in General’ (Hazlitt), 92, 143, 157–8 On Seeing the Elgin Marbles (Keats), 35 ‘On the Tendency of Sects’ (Hazlitt), 26, 119 O’Neill, Michael, 46, 88, 89, 122, 189n.44 opinion see public opinion oral culture, 133 origins theory, 76–7 see also Buffon; Robertson (William) Ossian, 1, 91, 177n.41 Ovid, 74 Owen, Robert, 102, 142 Observations on the effect of the Manufacturing System, 102–3 Oxford, 123, 124 Paine, Thomas The Decline and Fall of the English System of Finance, 101 Palmerin of England (Morales and Southey), 41–2, 52 pantheism, 134 Paradise Lost (Milton), 30, 113, 122, 184n.33 parliamentary reform see reform party spirit see sectarianism patriotism, 30–1 Pauw, Cornelius Franciscus de, 77 Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains, 76 Peacock, Thomas Love, 2, The Four Ages of Poetry, 36, 84, 133, 143 pedagogy, 5, 128–31, 188n.25 Pentridge uprising, perfectibility, 55, 71–2, 74, 99, 141–2, 153 periodicals, 169n.68 see also Edinburgh Review; Examiner; Indicator periodicity, 6–8, 13, 161n.32, 164n.57 Peru, 68, 95 Index Peterloo massacre, 9, 25 Petzelians, 140 Philip II, of Macedon, 20 Phillips, Mark Salber, 5, 27, 156 philosophic history see history (philosophic) Philosophical View of Reform, A (Shelley), 143, 146, 176n.25 Philosophie de l’histoire, La (Voltaire), 66, 68, 72, 74, 76, 80, 134 philosophy, 117–18 see also Keats (John); moral philosophy; natural philosophy Phoenicians, the, 80 picturesque, 35, 59, 85 Pittock, Murray, Pizarro, Francisco González, 1st Marqués de los Atabillos, 65, 79, 95 Plain Speaker, The (Hazlitt), 61 Plato, 141, 144 The Republic, 117 Platonism, 126 see also neo-Platonism Plutarch, 111 Lives, 113, 114 Pocock, John, Poems (1817) (Keats), 14, 21, 27, 41, 42, 58 political economy, 12, 97–8, 99–100, 101–2, 107–8 see also monetary policy political representation see reform political science, 97 Polybius, 102 polytheism, 134–5 Poor Laws, 107 Pope, Alexander, 17, 26, 28, 31 popery, 135 Popish Plot, the, 135 Porter, Roy, 3, 4, 5, 13 Price, Richard, 74, 142 Priestley, Joseph, 5, 74, 142 The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity, 74 primitive encounter, 15, 66, 79 primitivism, 3, 30, 36, 91, 133, 135–6, 153 private sphere, 56–7, 104–5 privatisation, 109–10, 120 progress, 4, 5, 22, 25–6, 54–5, 63–4, 66, 67–8, 75, 95–6, 133 Progress of Poesy, The (Gray), 28 prophesy, 62, 126 Protestantism, 21 219 providentialism, 68, 74 psychic projection, 123, 132 psychology, 124–7, 156 public opinion, 33 quest-romance, 42, 47 Quietism, 73 Raleigh, Walter, 11 rationalism, 11, 46, 51, 53, 123–4, 128–9, 145, 147, 154 Raynal, Guillaume Thomas Franỗois, 77 reason, 4, 6, 46, 118 Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains (Pauw), 76 Recollections of Writers (Cowden Clarke), 11 refinement, 1, 3, 15, 17, 18, 23, 29, 40, 47, 64, 85, 133, 134, 142 reform, 32–3, 39 Reformation, the, 20, 21–2, 23, 24, 30, 135, 166n.28 Reid, Thomas, 123 relativism, 22 religion see Christianity; history (religious); Keats (John); natural philosophy; salvation Religion of the Heart, The (Hunt), 141 Reply to Malthus, A (Hazlitt), 101 representativeness see history (representative); Keats (John) Republic, The (Plato), 117 republicanism, 14, 15, 52 Restoration, the, 18, 30, 31, 75 Restoration poets, 28, 29, 38 reverie, 56, 61–2, 64, 154, 156–8 revolution in Keats, 78–80 see also American revolution; French revolution Reynolds, John Hamilton, 18, 19, 21, 23, 34, 43, 49, 52, 53, 56, 64, 72, 75, 88, 128, 131 rhetoric, 78, 92, 113, 142 Ricardo, David, 101 Robertson, Fiona, 86–7 Robertson, John, Robertson, William, 11, 28, 38, 92 and attitude to the Americas, 68 on causation on chivalry/the crusades, 40, 60 on climatic theories, 77 on Columbus, 86–7 on degeneracy theories, 77 220 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment on developmental narratives, 22–3, 25, 26, 47, 66, 154 empiricism of, 24 on feudalism, 22–3, 47, 49, 60, 83, 152 The History of America, 7, 54, 65–6, 68, 69, 73, 75–7, 79, 81–4, 86–7, 93, 94, 95–6, 108, 135 The History of Charles V, 21, 22–3, 25, 40, 59, 103, 106, 111, 113, 115 The History of [North] America, 66, 68, 95–6 The History of Scotland, 22, 59, 94, 135 Keats’s reading of, 8, 12, 21, 65–6, 151 on luxury, 103, 115 on narrative, 68 on Native Americans, 7, 76, 79, 81, 82, 83, 94, 95 on origins theories, 76 and philosophic history, 24 on primitive encounter, 79 on progress, 22–3, 26, 67, 73, 95–6, 135 on providentialism, 68 on the Reformation, 23, 166n.28 on Rome, 59 sentimentalism of, 5, 7, 92, 93, 94, 95–6 on the silk trade, 113 on South America, 77, 84, 94–5 on Spanish colonisation, 69–70, 73, 87, 94, 95, 108 on stadial theory, 67–8, 70, 94 Robin Hood, 98–9 Robin Hood (Keats), 98–9 ‘Robin Hood’ poems (Hunt), 182n.9 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 129 Roe, Nicholas, 9, 32, 108 Rogers, Samuel, Roman Empire see empire (Roman) Roman History, The (Hooke), 111 Roman Revolutions, The (Vertot), 111, 115 romance, 104, 110 difference from history, 44–6 Godwin on, 44–5 Hazlitt on, 43–4, 46 Scott on, 2, 45 see also Eve of St Agnes, The; Isabella Romanticism, 3, 4, 6–7 and ‘anxiety of influence’, 28, 38, 167n.41, 167–8n.45 and attitudes to the Enlightenment, 4–8 escapism of, 8–9 and history, 9, 152 Irish, materialist approaches to, 9, 10 psychological approaches to, 10, 14, 27, 28, 38 and Romantic ideology, 6–7 Scottish, self-representation of, 6–7 socio-stylistic approaches to, 10 see also historicism; New Historicism; periodicity Romantics, Rebels and Reactionaries (Butler), 190n.69 Romeo and Juliet (Shakespeare), 105 Round Table, The (Hazlitt and Hunt), 40, 77, 119 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 36, 50, 77 on education, 129 Émile, 129 Keats’s reading of, 13, 151 rudeness, 3, 15, 17, 40, 47 ruins, 59–60, 173n.59 Ruins, The (Volney), 54–5, 139, 141, 177n.34 rupture/recovery narratives, 30–1, 34, 38 Ryan, Robert, 13, 47, 123, 124, 138, 141 Saint Bartholomew Day massacre, 24, 135 St Jerome, 95 St Leon (Godwin), 43, 49 salvation, 139, 141–2 savages, 121, 132–3, 134, 135, 136, 143 see also barbarism; ignobility; noble savage ‘Sceptic, The’ (Hume), 117–18 scepticism, 4, 8–9, 13, 15, 22, 71, 74, 134, 151, 154, 158 see also Keats (John) Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 34 science, of man, 3, 7, 13, 15 Scotch novels (Scott), 45, 46 Scotland, 26, 60, 135 Scott, John The Arabian Nights, 115 Scott, Thomas The Table of Cebes, 156 Scott, Walter, 2, 10, 28, 29, 46 The Antiquary, 170n.20 ‘Essay on Chivalry’, 45 ‘Essay on Drama’, 45 ‘Essay on Romance’, 2, 45 Guy Mannering, 170n.20, 173n.55 Index and Hazlitt, 43–4 The Heart of Midlothian, 170n.20 and Keats, 45–6 The Lay of the Last Minstrel, 58 on manners, 45 on representativeness, 20 on romance, 45 and Smollett, 45–6 Scottish Enlightenment see Enlightenment sectarianism, 26, 167n.39, 73, 119, 154, 167n.39 Selden, John Titles of Honor, 166n.26 sensations, 11, 61, 123–4, 155 see also Keats (John) sensibility, sentimentalism, 5, 7, 8, 15, 92–4 Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of, 123, 146 Shakespeare, William, 18, 29, 30, 33, 37, 105–6 Hamlet, 105 A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 105 Romeo and Juliet, 105 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 2, 120, 147 Adonais, Alastor, 49 on beauty, 147 The Cenci, 122 A Defence of Poetry, 122, 123, 143–7, 149, 150, 186n.75, 189n.60 on ethics, 144 on the imagination, 144–5, 146, 147 on the mirror trope, 147, 148, 190n.65 on moral philosophy, 123, 144–5 A Philosophical View of Reform, 143, 146, 176n.25 on poets as legislators, 144 on reality, 147 and representativeness, 20 on sympathetic identification, 123, 144–5 on utility, 4, 144–6 on volition, 150 Short Introduction to Moral Philosophy, A (Hutcheson), 124 Sidney, Algernon, 21, 33, 71, 72 Sidney, Philip, 71 Siècle de Louis XIV, Le (Voltaire), 20–1, 24, 25, 26, 65, 73–4, 79, 83, 93 silk trade, 113, 185n.52 sincerity, 106, 120 Siskin, Clifford, 6, 8, 161n.32 Sketches of America (Fearon), 70–1 221 Sketches of the History of Man (Kames), 183n.24 slavery, 108 sleep, 61–2, 131 Sleep and Poetry (Keats), 14, 27, 28, 31–5, 37, 38, 39, 62, 64, 98, 151 Smith, Adam, 2, 133, 136, 144–5, 147, 151 on affection, 53 on asceticism, 120 on beauty, 64, 145–6, 147 on civic virtue, 97 on civility, 138–9 on commerce, 97 on division of labour, 97 on friendship, 51, 53 on imagination, 126, 147 on the impartial observer, 123, 126, 138 Keats’s reading of, 12 Lectures on Jurisprudence, 103, 134 Lectures on Rhetoric, 90–1 on literary history, 90–1 on luxury, 103 on moral education, 136 on the moral sense, 126, 136 on poetic evolution, 90–1 on socialisation, 50–1 on stadial theory, 67–8 on sympathetic identification, 51, 123, 125–6, 144–5 The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 2, 12, 51, 53, 120, 123, 125–6, 136, 138–9, 145–6 on utility, 145–6 Wealth of Nations, 97, 103, 153, 176n.21, 183n.23 Smollett, Tobias George, 45–6 sociability, 39, 49, 98–9, 106, 108, 112, 120 social contract, 50–1, 172n.41 socialisation theories, 42, 47, 49, 50–1, 53, 56, 63 sociology, 2, 13, 15, 17, 18, 45, 47, 50, 54, 57, 63, 72, 133, 136, 143, 151–2, 153, 154, 158 Socrates, 74, 117 Some Thoughts Concerning Education (Locke), 130 sophism, 180n.81 sophrosyne, 117 soul see Keats (John) Southey, Robert, 3, 142 Morte D’Arthur, 222 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Palmerin of England, 41–2, 52 Spadafora, David, 5, 12 Specimen of an Induction (Keats), 39, 40 Spectator, The, 156 Spence, Joseph, 28 Spenser, Edmund, 18, 29, 74, 105 The Faerie Queene, 41, 42, 52 sentimentalism of, 41 Sperry, Stuart, 7, 8–9 spirit of the age see history (representative) Spirit of the Age, The (Hazlitt), 20, 21, 22 state of the nation see Carlyle; ‘Condition of England’ stadial history see history (stadial) state of nature, 50, 73–5 state of society, 26 Steele, Richard, 33 Stillinger, Jack, 147, 148, 155 The Hoodwinking of Madeline, 163n.46 Story of Rimini, The (Hunt), 100, 108–9, 169n.60 superstition, 15, 40, 60–1, 109, 121, 134, 135 see also Keats (John) Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (Diderot), 76 Surrey Institute, 65 Swift, Jonathan, 29 Sydney, Algernon see Sidney (Algernon) Sydney, Philip see Sidney (Philip) sympathetic identification, 8, 61–2, 91–4, 122–3, 125–6, 132, 136, 137, 144–5 and Enlightenment historians, 5, and Keats, 7, 15, 56, 91 see also Theory of Moral Sentiments, The system, 6, 101 Table of Cebes, The (Scott), 156 Tales of the East (Weber), 115 Tasso, Torquato, 28 Tatler, The, 156 Taylor, John, 48, 127 Tell, William, 21 Theory of Moral Sentiments, The (Smith), 2, 12, 51, 53, 120, 123, 125–6, 136, 138–9, 145–6 Thomson, Herbert, 145 Times, The, 39 Tintern Abbey (Wordsworth), 34 Titans, 15, 66, 75–6, 78–85, 87–8, 89, 90, 92–3, 94, 96, 112, 136, 137, 138, 139, 142, 149 Titles of Honor (Selden), 166n.26 To Autumn (Keats), 10 To Charles Cowden Clarke (Keats), 40 To George Felton Mathew (Keats), 37 To Hope (Keats), 33 To one who has been long in city pent (Keats), 37 topography, 19, 36, 37–8 devices of, 156–7 poetry of, 35, 169n.60 totalitarianism, tragedy, 15, 21, 93–4, 190n.65 transfer, of ideas, 6–7, 12 translatio imperii, 71 Treatise of Human Nature, A (Hume), 118, 148 Troilus and Cressida (Chaucer), 105 Turgot, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune, 72 Two Treatises of Government (Locke), 67 Ulysses, 43 uneven development, 67, 68, 153 uniformity, 25, 67–8, 72–3, 151–2 universal history see history (universal) Universal History (Mavor), 17, 80 utilitarianism see utility utility, 4, 46, 98, 109, 123, 145–7, 148, 153, 154, 176n.25 see also Bentham; Shelley; Smith Vanbrugh, John, 37 Vane, Henry, 21 Vendler, Helen, 155, 157 Vertot, René Aubert, abbé de Roman Revolutions, 111, 115 vitalism, 78–9, 153 vitality, 17, 28, 30, 31, 34, 36, 38, 91, 133, 143 Voconian law, the, 114 Volney, Constantin Franỗois de Chassebuf, Comte de, 47 The Ruins, 545, 139, 141, 177n.34 Voltaire, Francois Marie Arouet de, 121, 141 on anecdotal history, 21 on barbarism, 68 on chivalry/the crusades, 40, 135 on climatic determinism, 76 deism of, 22, 47, 134, 141 on developmental narratives, 23–4, 25, 26, 53–6, 72–5 Dictionnaire philosophique, 15, 22, 24, Index 25, 26, 104, 119, 155, 167n.39, 181n.112, 188n.29 on the Egyptians, 80 empiricism of, 24 Essai sur les mœurs, 21, 23–4, 25–6, 65, 66, 68, 73–4, 75, 83, 95, 135, 176n.28 on feudalism, 23–4, 47, 60, 83 Keats’s reading of, 8, 11, 12, 13, 20, 21, 65, 128, 151 on luxury, 104, 119 on philosophic history, 24 La Philosophie de l’histoire, 66, 68, 72, 74, 76, 80, 134 on progress, 23–4, 26, 67, 72, 135 on the Reformation, 24 on representativeness, 20–1 scepticism of, 8–9, 15, 74 on sectarianism, 26, 73 on sensations, 155 sentimentalism of, 92, 93 Le Siècle de Louis XIV, 20–1, 24, 25, 26, 65, 73–4, 79, 83, 93 on Spanish America, 24, 95, 135 on superstition, 25, 135 on tragedy, 21, 93 on uniformity, 72–3 Walker, William, Wallace, William, 21 Walpole, Robert, 103 Ward, Aileen, 21 Warton, Joseph An Essay on the Genius and Writings of Pope, 28 Warton, Thomas, 151 on chivalry/the crusades, 40, 60 The History of English Poetry, 12, 17–18, 27, 29, 30, 40, 45 223 Keats’s reading of, 12, 28 on manners, 28, 30, 31, 38 Washington, George, 71, 72 Watkins, Daniel, 10, 47, 52, 57, 109, 110 Wealth of Nations (Smith), 97, 103, 153, 176n.21, 183n.23 Weber, Henry Tales of the East, 115 Whig history see history White, Hayden Metahistory, ‘Why the Arts are not Progressive’ (Hazlitt), 18 Wolfson, Susan, 113, 122, 155–6 Woman! when I behold thee (Keats), 39 Womersley, David, 5, Woodhouse, Richard, 190n.68 Wordsworth, William, 2, 4, 10, 64, 88, 142, 149 on education, 128–9 egotism of, 22, 98, 149 The Excursion, 149, 190n.69 Expostulation and Reply, 129 genius of, 19–20, 22 and Hunt, 33–4 Immortality Ode, 128 insularity of, 98, 148–9 and Keats, 3, 18–20, 21, 22, 26, 35, 43, 54, 128–9 as a ‘modern’ poet, 18–19 The Old Cumberland Beggar, 132 and passivity, 129 representativeness of, 18–20, 21 subjectivity of, 19–20, 43, 122, 132, 154 Tintern Abbey, 34 Wycherley, William, 37 Xenophon, 11 .. .John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment Porscha Fermanis Edinburgh University Press... with the development of the human 14 John Keats and the Ideas of the Enlightenment race, which for the sake of clarity we can call ‘Enlightenment’.57 The book primarily concentrates on Keats s... with the ideas of the Enlightenment and with that period’s complicated and often innovative ways of conceptualising the science of man The ways in which these ideas assist, influence, shape and