Series Editor BRIAN H ROSS Beckman Institute and Department of Psychology University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, USA 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, UK The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK First edition 2016 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions This book and the individual contributions 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the material herein ISBN: 978-0-12-804790-3 ISSN: 0079-7421 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com Publisher: Zoe Kruze Acquisition Editor: Kirsten Shankland Editorial Project Manager: Hannah Colford Production Project Manager: Radhakrishnan Lakshmanan Designer: Victoria Pearson Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals CONTRIBUTORS Anne E Cook University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States Michael D Dodd University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States Fernanda Ferreira University of California, Davis, CA, United States John R Hibbing University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States Nate Kornell Williams College, Williamstown, MA, United States Lee Nevo Lamprey University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States Matthew W Lowder University of California, Davis, CA, United States Ralf Mayrhofer University of G€ ottingen, G€ ottingen, Germany Edward L Munnich University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States Robert M Nosofsky Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, United States Edward J O’Brien University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States Michael Andrew Ranney University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States Kevin B Smith University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States Nash Unsworth University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States Kalif E Vaughn Northern Kentucky University, Highland Heights, KY, United States Michael R Waldmann University of G€ ottingen, G€ ottingen, Germany ix j CHAPTER ONE The Many Facets of Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity Nash Unsworth University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, United States E-mail: nashu@uoregon.edu Contents Introduction Importance of Working Memory A Theoretical Framework for Working Memory Capacity Multiple Facets Influence Individual Differences in Working Memory Capacity 4.1 Capacity of Primary Memory 4.2 Attention Control 4.3 Secondary Memory Measurement of Working Memory Capacity Heterogeneity of Working Memory Capacity Limitations Conclusions References 2 7 16 25 32 36 37 37 Abstract This chapter reviews prior research and our current thinking on individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC), the nature of WMC limitations, and the relation between WMC and higher-order cognition (in particular fluid intelligence) Evidence is reviewed suggesting that individual differences in WMC arise from multiple different facets These facets include differences in the capacity of primary memory, attention control abilities, and secondary memory abilities We review evidence suggesting that each facet is related to overall individual differences in WMC and part of the reason for the predictive power of WMC Furthermore, we outline the role of each facet in various measures of WMC including complex span tasks, simple span tasks, and visual arrays change detection tasks We argue that to understand WMC and individual differences in WMC, we must delineate and understand the various facets that make up WMC Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Volume 65 ISSN 0079-7421 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.plm.2016.03.001 © 2016 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved j Nash Unsworth INTRODUCTION Researchers interested in both experimental and differential psychology have long argued for the need to include individual differences in theory construction (Cohen, 1994; Cronbach, 1957; Kosslyn et al., 2002; Melton, 1967; Underwood, 1975) In particular, it has been suggested that theories of memory and attentional processes (and cognition in general) need to attempt to account for individual differences in the ability to carry out the processes specified in the theory Although interest in individual differences in cognitive processes has waxed and waned over the years, one area that has seen fairly continual interest is that of immediate memory processes This chapter reviews prior research and our current thinking on individual differences in working memory capacity (WMC), the nature of WMC limitations, the role of WMC in cognitive tasks, and the relation between WMC and higher-order cognition Although there are many other excellent research programs studying working memory and individual differences in WMC, here we primarily focus on our own work As will be seen, our work draws on prior reviews published in this series including Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), Baddeley and Hitch (1974), Cowan, Morey, Chen, Gilchrist, and Saults (2008), and Engle and Kane (2004), among others Like prior calls to combine experimental and differential methods, we use individual differences as a means of not only understanding differences among individuals in cognitive capabilities, but also to better understand the nature and function of working memory more broadly IMPORTANCE OF WORKING MEMORY Research examining immediate memory is typically cast in frameworks distinguishing information that is utilized over the short-term from information that is utilized over the long-term Initially, immediate memory was conceptualized as a somewhat passive repository of information before that information was transferred to long-term or secondary memory In early modal models of memory, immediate memory was seen as having limited capacity and important task-relevant information was maintained primarily via verbal rehearsal If the information was not rehearsed, then it was rapidly lost from the system Despite the importance of immediate memory and a wealth of data supporting a division between immediate and long-term memory, it soon Individual Differences in WMC became clear that immediate memory, as initially conceptualized, was overly simplistic in terms of being a simple passive buffer With this limitation clearly in mind Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971) and Baddeley and Hitch (1974), among others, argued for a dynamic memory system where the function of immediate memory was to carry out cognitive operations important for a wide variety of tasks Specifically, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argued for a memory system that could simultaneously manipulate the currents contents of memory as well as update information in memory to accomplish task goals They called this system working memory to emphasize the need for actively working with information rather than simply passively holding onto the information (see also Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, 1971; Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960) Early prominent models of working memory suggested that it was not only a system responsible for actively maintaining task-relevant information, but also a system composed of many important control processes that ensure proper maintenance, storage, and retrieval of that information (eg, Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, 1971; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) These control processes included rehearsal, coding, organization, and retrieval strategies Importantly, these control processes were thought to be needed for coordinating the many subcomponent processes necessary for processing new information and to retrieve relevant old information This conceptualization placed working memory at the forefront of explaining complex cognitive activities Given the theoretical importance of working memory in a broad array of tasks and situations, research over the last 35 plus years has been aimed at examining the predictive power of working memory That is, the capacity of working memory should be related to a number of measures that rely on working memory Largely beginning with Daneman and Carpenter (1980) research has found that individual differences in WMC are one of the best predictors of a broad array of cognitive capabilities Specifically, research has shown that measures of WMC are related to reading and language comprehension (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980), complex learning (Kyllonen & Stephens, 1990), performance on standardized achievement tests (Engle, Tuholski, Laughlin, & Conway, 1999), and vocabulary learning (Daneman & Green, 1986) Thus, as theorized, measures of WMC demonstrate strong and consistent relations with a broad array of cognitive abilities that are thought to rely on working memory processes Beginning with the work of Kyllonen and Christal (1990) research has suggested that there is a strong link between individual differences in WMC and intelligence (see also Engle et al., 1999; Kane et al., 2004) In Nash Unsworth particular, this work suggests that at an individual task level, measures of WMC correlate with fluid intelligence (gF) around 0.45 (Ackerman, Beier, & Boyle, 2005) and at the latent level, WMC and gF are correlated around 0.72 (Kane, Hambrick, & Conway, 2005) Thus, at a latent level WMC and gF seem to share approximately half of their variance As a further example of this relation, we reanalyzed data from 867 participants from our laboratory each of which had completed three WMC measures and three gF measures Shown in Fig is the resulting latent variable model As can be seen, WMC and gF abilities were strongly related These examples demonstrate that WMC and gF are strongly related and share a good deal of common variance Furthermore, these results demonstrate that this important relation is domain-general in nature given that both the WMC and gF factors were made up by tasks varying in their content This suggests that whatever the reasons for the relation between WMC and fluid abilities, they are likely domain-general and cut across multiple different types of tasks Additionally, not only has WMC been implicated in higher-order cognition, but WMC is also implicated in other research domains For example, measures of WMC predict early onset Alzheimer’s disease (Rosen, Bergeson, Putnam, Harwell, & Sunderland, 2002), one’s ability to deal with life-event stress (Klein & Boals, 2001), aspects of personality (Unsworth Figure Confirmatory factor analysis for working memory capacity (WMC) and fluid intelligence (gF) Ospan ¼ operation span; Symspan ¼ symmetry span; Rspan ¼ reading span; Raven ¼ Raven Advanced Progressive Matrices; LS ¼ letter sets; NS ¼ number series All paths and loadings are significant at the p < 0.05 level Individual Differences in WMC et al., 2009), susceptibility to choking under pressure (Beilock & Carr, 2005), and stereotype threat (Schamader & Johns, 2003) Furthermore, various neuropsychological disorders, including certain aphasias (Caspari, Parkinson, LaPointe, & Katz, 1998), Alzheimer’s disease (Kempler, Almor, Tyler, Andersen, & MacDonald, 1998), schizophrenia (Stone, Gabrieli, Stebbins, & Sullivan, 1998), and Parkinson’s disease (Gabrieli, Singh, Stebbins, & Goetz, 1996), have been linked to deficits in WMC Thus, the utility of WMC is not merely limited to performance on high-level cognitive tasks, but is also important in a variety of situations that impact people on a day-to-day basis A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY Based on prior work we have developed a theory of individual differences in WMC which suggests that individual differences in WMC result from multiple facets, each of which is important for performance on a variety of tasks (Unsworth, 2014; Unsworth & Engle, 2007; Unsworth, Fukuda, Awh, & Vogel, 2014; Unsworth & Spillers, 2010a) Similar to prior conceptions, we think of working memory as consisting of memory units active above some threshold that can be represented via a variety of different codes (phonological, visuospatial, semantic, etc.), as well as a set of general purpose control processes (eg, Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971; Cowan, 1988; 1995) Specifically, in line with classic dual-component models of memory, we suggest that there is a limited capacity component important for maintaining information over short time intervals and a larger more durable component important for maintaining information over longer time intervals (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1980) Similar to James (1890), we refer to these two components as primary memory (PM) and secondary memory (SM; c.f Craik, 1971; Craik & Levy, 1976) Thus, similar to the model initially proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971), working memory represents both the activated portion of the long-term repository and the set of control processes that act on those activated representations to bring them into a heightened state of activation and actively maintain them in the face of distraction (see also Engle et al., 1999) In this framework, attention control processes serve to actively maintain a few distinct representations for online processing in PM These representations include things such as goal states for the current task, action plans, partial solutions to reasoning problems, and item representations in list Nash Unsworth memory tasks In this view, as long as attention is allocated to these representations, they will be actively maintained in PM (Craik & Levy, 1976) This continued allocation of attention serves to protect these representations from interfering internal and external distraction (eg, Engle & Kane, 2004; Unsworth & Engle, 2007) However, if attention is removed from the representations due to internal or external distraction or due to the processing of incoming information that exceed capacity, these representations will no longer be actively maintained in PM and therefore, will have to be retrieved from SM if needed Accordingly, SM relies on a cue-dependent search mechanism to retrieve items (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1980; Shiffrin, 1970) Additionally, the extent to which items can be retrieved from SM will be dependent on overall encoding abilities, the ability to reinstate the encoding context at retrieval, and the ability to focus the search on target items and exclude interfering items (ie, proactive interference) Similar to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971) this framework suggests that working memory is not only a state of activation, but also represents the set of control processes that are needed to maintain that state of activation, to prevent other items from gaining access to this state of activation, and to bring other items into this state of activation via controlled retrieval (Engle et al., 1999) Thus, working memory represents a dynamic interface between information present in the environment and our repository of past experiences Within the current framework, individual differences in WMC arise from multiple different factors Specifically, as discussed more thoroughly throughout, individual differences in WMC arise from differences in the capacity of PM, differences in attention control processes that serve to maintain task-relevant information in PM, and differences in control processes that ensure that task-relevant information is properly encoded in and retrieved from SM Thus, we will suggest that there are three primary reasons for differences in WMC, and each of these different facets is important for the predictive power of WMC That is, measures of WMC are related to performance in a wide variety of tasks and situations It seems unlikely that there is a single cause/mechanism responsible for these relations Indeed, prior research has consistently shown that if you covary out one primary cause (such as attention control) the relation between WMC and some other variable (eg, gF) is reduced but not completely eliminated (ie, Unsworth, 2014; Unsworth & Spillers, 2010a) Thus, it is unlikely that individual differences in WMC reduce to a single common cause Here we suggest that WMC represents a number of important related facets, each of which is important for higher-order cognitive processes Furthermore, we suggest Individual Differences in WMC that individuals may differ on some, or all of these facets, thereby determining the relation with other measures Collectively, this suggests that there are multiple functional roles that WMC plays, and points to the multifaceted nature of individual differences in WMC In the next sections, we discuss in detail ours and related work on these facets MULTIPLE FACETS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN WORKING MEMORY CAPACITY 4.1 Capacity of Primary Memory We consider PM as the small set of items that are in heightened state of activation and the current focus of processing That is, the small set of items that an individual is currently consciously working with We have argued that the function of PM is to maintain a distinct number of separate representations active for ongoing processing These representations remain active via the continued allocation of attention This is consistent with prior work by Craik and Levy (1976) who suggested that “the capacity of primary memory is the number of events that can be attended to simultaneously or the number of internal representations that can be simultaneously activated by the process of attention” (Craik & Levy, 1976, p 166) Thus, PM is the small set of items that are being maintained in mind from the environment or the small set of items that are reactivated from our long-term repository Craik and Levy (1976) go on to note that “information is ‘in PM’ only by virtue of the continued allocation of attention; when attention is diverted the trace is left in SM” (p 166) Similar to Craik and Levy (1976) we assume that an item is in PM if it is currently be attended to If attention is directed elsewhere, due to processing new information or having attention captured by internal (mind-wandering) or external distraction, representations will be displaced from PM Similar to the view advocated here, Craik and Levy (1976) argued that the capacity of PM is the capacity to maintain a distinct number of representations by continually paying attention to those representations This suggests that a key aspect to PM is the ability to individuate and apprehend multiple items and maintain those items in an active state to facilitate the further processing of task-relevant information (Cowan, 2001) PM is also thought to be a highly flexible component that changes depending on the current context and goals (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968, 1971; Davelaar, Goshen-Gottstein, Ashkenazi, Haarmann, & Usher, 2005) That is, PM is not simply a buffer limited to a particular number 314 F Face-in-the-crowd paradigm, 299–300 Familiarity-only model, 77, 80 Familiarity-plus-categorization model, 77 FC See Cause event (FC) FE See Effect event (FE) Feedback fragments as, 202–203 timing, 194–195 Fermi problems, 156–157 First fixation path ratio, 299–300 Flanker effects, 295–296 Flanker task, 294–296 fMRI See functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Force dynamics, 91–92 Forward modeling, 223 400-word text, 173–174 Fragments as feedback, 202–203 Free-viewing task, 281 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 8–9, 227 G Garden-path processing, 219 Garden-path sentences, 219–221 Gauging mechanistic knowledge/ignorance boundaries, 137–140 Michael Ranney’s top 40 numbers, 135t–136t one’s numerical knowledge/ignorance boundaries, 134–137 Gaze cueing, 287 effect, 287–290 paradigm, 285–287, 292–293 Gaze cueing effects, 290–292 Gaze direction, 287 Generative ignorance, 133 Genetic model, 278–279 Germane, nondeceitful, information “lifts all wisdoms”, 168 future directions with GW as touchstone, 169–171 Global warming (GW), 134, 139 conceptual change about, 161–163 400-word text, 173–174 Index increasing acceptance numerically and/or mechanistically, 163–164 Bex studies, 165–167 NDI findings, 164 “perfect intervention”, 167–168 supra-nationalist statistics, 166t textual mechanistic descriptions, 167 Michael Ranney’s picking with sources, 175–178 for top 40 numbers, 174–175 Good-enough language processing, 219–223, 235–240 See also Prediction and top-down processing in broader context, 222–223 garden-path sentences, 219–220 good-enough reanalysis, 220–222 garden-path sentences, 221 research, 223 Good-enough reanalysis, 220–222 GW See Global warming (GW) H HGWW See HowGlobal WarmingWorks.org (HGWW) Hot-button social issues, 278–279 HowGlobalWarmingWorks.org (HGWW), 161 Hybrid accounts, 97–99 Hybrid causal representations, 87, 95–96 See also Causal reasoning dependencies, processes, and dispositions, 114–121 dispositional intuitions and dependency representations interaction, 99–109 hybrid accounts, 97–99 mutual constraints between dispositional intuitions and dependency knowledge, 110–114 relative frequency of causal-agency assignments, 121f unitary vs pluralistic causal theories, 96–97 Hybrid theory, 99 I IAPS See International Affective Pictures System (IAPS) 315 Index Ignorance, 130–134 gauging mechanistic knowledge/ignorance boundaries, 137–140 one’s numerical knowledge/ignorance boundaries, 134–137 Immediate memory, Impairment to lung function, 108–109 Information processing benefits, 223 structure, 218–219, 232–240 garden-path phenomena, 233 Integration stage (I stage), 252–253 International Affective Pictures System (IAPS), 280–281 Inverting faces, 297–299 Item difficulty, 187 J Journalists numeric-analytic abilities, 155–157 L Language processing, 230 Language production incremental theories, 235 LC-NE system See Locus coeruleus norepinephrine system (LC-NE system) Learning, 130–134 Liberals differential biases, 282–284 emotion processing, 293–302 fixate aversive images, 281–282 political temperament, 302–303 Linguistic contexts, 228 Linguists, 218–219 Locus coeruleus norepinephrine system (LC-NE system), 23–25 Long-term conceptual change as holy grail, 157 long-term retention, 160–161 numerical information using regarding global warming, 158t–159t Long-term memory (LTM), 70 Long-term probe recognition extended EBRW model, 67–74 modeling application, 74–76 review of empirical findings, 64–67 LTM See Long-term memory (LTM) M Markov violations as test case, 105–108 MDS See Multidimensional-scaling (MDS) Mechanism-only condition, 167–168 Mechanism-plus condition, 167–168 Mechanistic information, 140–142 Mechanistic knowledge/ignorance boundaries, gauging, 137–140 Memory-impaired older adults, 198–199 “Memory-scanning” paradigm, 49 Metacognitive awareness, 199 Metcalfe, 202–203 Michael Ranney’s picking with sources, 175–178 for top 40 numbers, 174–175 Michotte Task, 114–121 Model-based dependency theories, 89 Multidimensional-scaling (MDS), 54 Mutual constraints between dispositional intuitions and dependency knowledge, 110 contingency information, 113f experiment, 112–114, 119f probabilistic force model, 110–112 dispositional vector model of causation, 111f N NDI See Numerically driven inferencing (NDI) New theory of disuse (NTD), 203–204 hypothetical amounts of learning, 205f retrieval strength, 205–206 retrieval success vs failure, 206 test trials, 204 Noisy channel models of processing, 228 Noisy Newton model, 115–116 Nomological machines, 92–93 Nonlinguistic contexts, 236 Nonsurprise intervals, 137 Normative methods, 86 NTD See New theory of disuse (NTD) 316 Nuclear Stress rule, 233–234 Numeric-analytic abilities improving journalists, 155–157 improving precollege students, 153–154 Numerical and mechanistic co-influences, 149 averaging study, 150f Bex-experiment participants, 152 GW studies, 153 stasis theory, 152–153 Numerical information, 140–142 laboratory’s studies, 141f Numerically driven inferencing (NDI), 142–144 accommodation, 147 “cool cognition” processes, 148 to improving people’s analytic abilities, 153 improving journalists’ numeric-analytic abilities, 155–157 improving precollege students numeric-analytic abilities, 153–154 individuals reactions to feedback, 145 Jews-in-Germany question, 144–145 live births–variant estimators, 148 prototypical NDI method, 146 O Older adults, 197–199 “On-the-border” hypothesis, 143 P Parsimony, 87 Parsing, 218–219 Physical space, 291–292 Physiological investigation, 282–284 Physiological reactivity manifestation, 280 mean dwell time values, 283f mean skin conductance change, 284f Pluralistic causal theories, 96–97 PM See Primary memory (PM) PNI See Preference for numerical information (PNI) Political temperament, 279–280, 297–299, 302 interaction, 302–303 mean reaction times, 289t Index note on sample characteristics, 291f sample trial sequence of valid cue trial, 288f Political temperament, 285–286 choice eye movement task, 293 gaze cueing effects, 290–292 gaze direction, 287 mean reaction times, 289t note on sample characteristics, 291f predictive directional cues, 286 reaction time task, 292–293 sample trial sequence of valid cue trial, 288f SOA, 287, 290 standard gaze cueing paradigm, 292–293 symbolic cues, 286 target detection task, 293 Pop-out effect, 297–299 POR-thoughts, 102–103 Postfirst fixation path ratio, 299–300 Power law of memory strength, 62–64 Precollege students numeric-analytic abilities, 153–154 Prediction, 224 in comprehension, 218–219, 223–232, 235–240 information processing benefits, 223 specific words, 224–229 syntactic structure, 224 engine, 223 error, 223 failure, 240 key function, 229 purpose, 238–239 of specific words, 224 cloze contexts, prediction in, 225–227 surprisal and entropy, prediction as, 226–227 of syntactic structure, 224 and VWP, 227–228 Prediction and top-down processing, 230 See also Good-enough language processing language processing, 230 surprisal effects on fixation times, 230–231 Predictive directional cues, 286 Index Preference for numerical information (PNI), 156 Pretesting effect moderators, 194 feedback timing, 194–195 metacognitive awareness, 199 older adults, 197–199 scholastic materials, 196–197 trivia questions, 195–196 Pretesting procedures, 191–192 Primary memory (PM), 5, See also Secondary memory (SM) CDA, 13 confirmatory factor analysis for WMC, 14f–15f for high and low working memory individuals, 11f individual differences in WMC, 10–11 neural and physiological evidence, 8–9 phasic pupillary responses, 9–10, 16f physiological studies, variability in, 15–16 visual working memory, 12–13 Probabilistic Bayesian inference, 115–116 Probabilistic force model, 110–112, 115f dispositional vector model of causation, 111f Process framework, 94–95 Productive failure group, 197 Prosody, 233–234 Psych verbs, 101 Psycholinguists, 218–219 Pythagoras’s theorem, 160–161 R Radical top-down processing, 224 Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), 221 Reaction times (RTs), 22–23 task, 292–293 Reading time, 219 REH See Retrieval effort hypothesis (REH) Reinforced theistic manifest destiny theory (RTMD theory), 164–165 Resolving discrepancies and investigating mechanisms, 296–302 317 Resonance, Integration, validation model (RI-Val model), 251–252 comprehension process, 252 activation, integration, and validation processes, 255–256 C–I model, 254–255 CT manipulation, 268–270 mediating influences on validation, 259–263 validation, 263–268 validation process, 253 world knowledge vs contextual influences, 256–259 implications, 270–271 Resonance stage (R stage), 252–255 Response times (RTs), 48 Retrieval, 184 See also Exemplar-retrieval model kinds of evidence, 186 experimental control of retrieval success, 188 item difficulty, 187 retrieval difficulty, 186–187 pretesting effect moderators, 194 feedback timing, 194–195 metacognitive awareness, 199 older adults, 197–199 scholastic materials, 196–197 trivia questions, 195–196 routes, 200 success, 188–189, 199 copy trial, 200–201 fragments as feedback, 202–203 target memory, 201–202 theories of test-enhanced learning, 203–210 trial types in research, 185f two-stage framework, 192–194, 193f unsuccessful retrieval improving memory, 189 pretesting procedures, 191–192 test-potentiated learning, 189–191, 190f Retrieval effort hypothesis (REH), 206–207 318 RI-Val model See Resonance, Integration, validation model (RI-Val model) RSVP See Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) RTMD theory See Reinforced theistic manifest destiny theory (RTMD theory) RTs See Reaction times (RTs); Response times (RTs) “Rule of 72”, 155–156 S Sample-based dependency theories, 89 Scholastic materials, 196–197 Script-based texts, 257 Search set theory, 208–209 Secondary memory (SM), 5, 25–26 See also Primary memory (PM) confirmatory factor analysis for WMC, 27f proportion of reported strategy, 28f prior research, 31–32 WMC and, 26, 29–31 Short-term probe recognition in continuous-dimension similarity space, 54 EBRW modeling, 55–56 individual-subject level, 54 observed and exemplar-based random walk–predicted error rates, 57f summary data from, 55f summary-trend predictions, 56–58 discrete stimuli, 58 EBRW model, 59–62 mean RTs and error rates, 59 observed and exemplar-based random walk–predicted data, 60f–61f and previous memory sets incorporation extended EBRW model, 67–74 modeling application, 74–76 review of empirical findings, 64–67 Similarity-scaling procedures, 54 Simon effect, 302 Simplicity, 87 Single cause–effect relation, 101f SM See Secondary memory (SM) Index SOA See Stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) Society Works Best scale, 281 specific words, prediction of, 224–229 Standard gaze cueing paradigm, 292–293 Stasis theory, 152–153 Stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA), 287, 290 Supra-nationalist statistics, 166t Surprisal, prediction as, 226–227 Symbolic cues, 286 Syntactic forms, 235–236 Syntactic prediction type, 224 Syntactic structure prediction, 224 T Target detection task, 287, 293 Target memory, 201–202 Target type function, 299–300 TBR See To-be-remembered (TBR) TEC See Theory of Explanatory Coherence (TEC) Test-enhanced learning theories, 203 ECA, 209–210 ERH, 207–208 NTD, 203–206 REH, 206–207 search set theory, 208–209 Test-potentiated learning, 189–191, 190f Test-potentiation, 190 Theory of Explanatory Coherence (TEC), 142–144 data-priority principle, 156 To-be-remembered (TBR), 32–34 Top-down language processing, 231 Trivia questions, 195–196 Two-stage framework, 192–194, 193f Two-stage models, 251–252 U Unitary causal theories, 96–97 Unsuccessful retrieval improving memory, 189 pretesting procedures, 191–192 test-potentiated learning, 189–191, 190f 319 Index V Validation failure, 263–264 coherence threshold, 268 context and general world knowledge, 266f high-context condition, 264–267 low-context condition, 267 sample passage, 265t mediating influences on, 259 long-term memory, 260–263 RI-Val model’s asynchrony assumption, 260 sample passage, 261t–262t world knowledge and episodic discourse, 263 Varied-mapping condition (VM condition), 65 Vector model, 93–94 Visual cognition between liberals and conservatives background, 278–280 emotion processing, 293–302 flanker task, 294–296 visual search, 296–302 physiological reactivity manifestation, 280–284 mean dwell time values, 283f mean skin conductance change, 284f political temperament, 285–293, 297–299 interaction, 302–303 mean reaction times, 289t note on sample characteristics, 291f sample trial sequence of valid cue trial, 288f Visual search, 296–299 anger-superiority effect, 296–297 face-in-the-crowd paradigm, 299–300 mean first fixation path ratio, 301f mean postfirst fixation path ratio, 301f mean response time, 298f pop-out effect, 297–299 Visual world paradigm (VWP), 227–228, 231 VM condition See Varied-mapping condition (VM condition) Volitional action, 118 VWP See Visual world paradigm (VWP) W Wilsone–Patterson conservatism scale, 278–280 Wisdom, 130–134 deficit, 131 Working memory capacity (WMC), Alzheimer’s disease, 4–5 confirmatory factor analysis for, 4f heterogeneity of limitations, 36–37 immediate memory, and intelligence, 3–4 measurement, 32–34 immediate memory tasks, 36 operation span task, 33f process of displacement, 34 visual arrays, 35–36 multiple facets influencing individual differences in AC, 16–25 PM capacity, 7–16 SM, 25–32 task-relevant information, theoretical framework for, 5–7 World knowledge vs contextual influences, 256–257 delayed effect of appropriateness, 258–259 RI-Val models, 257–258 sample passage, 258t script-based texts, 257 CONTENTS OF PREVIOUS VOLUMES VOLUME 40 Different Organization of Concepts and Meaning Systems in the Two Cerebral Hemispheres Dahlia W Zaidel The Causal Status Effect in Categorization: An Overview Woo-kyoung Ahn and Nancy S Kim Remembering as a Social Process Mary Susan Weldon Neurocognitive Foundations of Human Memory Ken A Paller Structural Influences on Implicit and Explicit Sequence Learning Tim Curran, Michael D Smith, Joseph M DiFranco, and Aaron T Daggy Recall Processes in Recognition Memory Caren M Rotello Reward Learning: Reinforcement, Incentives, and Expectations Kent C Berridge Spatial Diagrams: Key Instruments in the Toolbox for Thought Laura R Novick Reinforcement and Punishment in the Prisoner’s Dilemma Game Howard Rachlin, Jay Brown, and Forest Baker Index VOLUME 41 Categorization and Reasoning in Relation to Culture and Expertise Douglas L Medin, Norbert Ross, Scott Atran, Russell C Burnett, and Sergey V Blok On the Computational basis of Learning and Cognition: Arguments from LSA Thomas K Landauer Multimedia Learning Richard E Mayer Memory Systems and Perceptual Categorization Thomas J Palmeri and Marci A Flanery Conscious Intentions in the Control of Skilled Mental Activity Richard A Carlson Brain Imaging Autobiographical Memory Martin A Conway, Christopher W Pleydell-Pearce, Sharon Whitecross, and Helen Sharpe The Continued Influence of Misinformation in Memory: What Makes Corrections Effective? Colleen M Seifert Making Sense and Nonsense of Experience: Attributions in Memory and Judgment Colleen M Kelley and Matthew G Rhodes Real-World Estimation: Estimation Modes and Seeding Effects Norman R Brown Index VOLUME 42 Memory and Learning in FiguredGround Perception Mary A Peterson and Emily Skow-Grant Spatial and Visual Working Memory: A Mental Workspace Robert H Logie Scene Perception and Memory Marvin M Chun Spatial Representations and Spatial Updating Ranxiano Frances Wang Selective Visual Attention and Visual Search: Behavioral and Neural Mechanisms Joy J Geng and Marlene Behrmann 321 j 322 Categorizing and Perceiving Objects: Exploring a Continuum of Information Use Philippe G Schyns From Vision to Action and Action to Vision: A Convergent Route Approach to Vision, Action, and Attention Glyn W Humphreys and M Jane Riddoch Eye Movements and Visual Cognitive Suppression David E Irwin What Makes Change Blindness Interesting? Daniel J Simons and Daniel T Levin Index VOLUME 43 Ecological Validity and the Study of Concepts Gregory L Murphy Social Embodiment Lawrence W Barsalou, Paula M Niedinthal, Aron K Barbey, and Jennifer A Ruppert The Body’s Contribution to Language Arthur M Glenberg and Michael P Kaschak Using Spatial Language Laura A Carlson In Opposition to Inhibition Colin M MacLeod, Michael D Dodd, Erin D Sheard, Daryl E Wilson, and Uri Bibi Evolution of Human Cognitive Architecture John Sweller Cognitive Plasticity and Aging Arthur F Kramer and Sherry L Willis Index VOLUME 44 Goal-Based Accessibility of Entities within Situation Models Mike Rinck and Gordon H Bower Contents of Previous Volumes The Immersed Experiencer: Toward an Embodied Theory of Language Comprehension Rolf A Zwaan Speech Errors and Language Production: Neuropsychological and Connectionist Perspectives Gary S Dell and Jason M Sullivan Psycholinguistically Speaking: Some Matters of Meaning, Marking, and Morphing Kathryn Bock Executive Attention, Working Memory Capacity, and a Two-Factor Theory of Cognitive Control Randall W Engle and Michael J Kane Relational Perception and Cognition: Implications for Cognitive Architecture and the Perceptual-Cognitive Interface Collin Green and John E Hummel An Exemplar Model for Perceptual Catego-rization of Events Koen Lamberts On the Perception of Consistency Yaakov Kareev Causal Invariance in Reasoning and Learning Steven Sloman and David A Lagnado Index VOLUME 45 Exemplar Models in the Study of Natural Language Concepts Gert Storms Semantic Memory: Some Insights From Feature-Based Connectionist Attractor Networks Ken McRae On the Continuity of Mind: Toward a Dynamical Account of Cognition Michael J Spivey and Rick Dale Action and Memory Peter Dixon and Scott Glover Self-Generation and Memory Neil W Mulligan and Jeffrey P Lozito 323 Contents of Previous Volumes Aging, Metacognition, and Cognitive Control Christopher Hertzog and John Dunlosky The Psychopharmacology of Memory and Cognition: Promises, Pitfalls, and a Methodological Framework Elliot Hirshman Conversation as a Site of Category Learning and Category Use Dale J Barr and Edmundo Kronmuller Using Classification to Understand the Motivation-Learning Interface W Todd Maddox, Arthur B Markman, and Grant C Baldwin Index Index VOLUME 46 The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Category Learning F Gregory Ashby and John M Ennis Knowledge, Development, and Category Learning Brett K Hayes Concepts as Prototypes James A Hampton An Analysis of Prospective Memory Richard L Marsh, Gabriel I Cook, and Jason L Hicks Accessing Recent Events Brian McElree SIMPLE: Further Applications of a Local Distinctiveness Model of Memory Ian Neath and Gordon D.A Brown What is Musical Prosody? Caroline Palmer and Sean Hutchins Index VOLUME 47 Relations and Categories Viviana A Zelizer and Charles Tilly Learning Linguistic Patterns Adele E Goldberg Understanding the Art of Design: Tools for the Next Edisonian Innovators Kristin L Wood and Julie S Linsey Categorizing the Social World: Affect, Motivation, and Self-Regulation Galen V Bodenhausen, Andrew R Todd, and Andrew P Becker Reconsidering the Role of Structure in Vision Elan Barenholtz and Michael J Tarr VOLUME 48 The Strategic Regulation of Memory Accuracy and Informativeness Morris Goldsmith and Asher Koriat Response Bias in Recognition Memory Caren M Rotello and Neil A Macmillan What Constitutes a Model of Item-Based Memory Decisions? Ian G Dobbins and Sanghoon Han Prospective Memory and Metamemory: The Skilled Use of Basic Attentional and Memory Processes Gilles O Einstein and Mark A McDaniel Memory is More Than Just Remembering: Strategic Control of Encoding, Accessing Memory, and Making Decisions Aaron S Benjamin The Adaptive and Strategic Use of Memory by Older Adults: Evaluative Processing and Value-Directed Remembering Alan D Castel Experience is a Double-Edged Sword: A Computational Model of the Encoding/Retrieval Trade-Off With Familiarity Lynne M Reder, Christopher Paynter, Rachel A Diana, Jiquan Ngiam, and Daniel Dickison Toward an Understanding of Individual Differences In Episodic Memory: Modeling The Dynamics of Recognition Memory Kenneth J Malmberg Memory as a Fully Integrated Aspect of Skilled and Expert Performance K Anders Ericsson and Roy W Roring Index 324 VOLUME 49 Short-term Memory: New Data and a Model Stephan Lewandowsky and Simon Farrell Theory and Measurement of Working Memory Capacity Limits Nelson Cowan, Candice C Morey, Zhijian Chen, Amanda L Gilchrist, and J Scott Saults What Goes with What? Development of Perceptual Grouping in Infancy Paul C Quinn, Ramesh S Bhatt, and Angela Hayden Co-Constructing Conceptual Domains Through Family Conversations and Activities Maureen Callanan and Araceli Valle The Concrete Substrates of Abstract Rule Use Bradley C Love, Marc Tomlinson, and Todd M Gureckis Ambiguity, Accessibility, and a Division of Labor for Communicative Success Victor S Ferreira Lexical Expertise and Reading Skill Sally Andrews Index VOLUME 50 Causal Models: The Representational Infrastructure for Moral Judgment Steven A Sloman, Philip M Fernbach, and Scott Ewing Moral Grammar and Intuitive Jurisprudence: A Formal Model of Unconscious Moral and Legal Knowledge John Mikhail Law, Psychology, and Morality Kenworthey Bilz and Janice Nadler Protected Values and Omission Bias as Deontological Judgments Jonathan Baron and Ilana Ritov Attending to Moral Values Rumen Iliev, Sonya Sachdeva, Daniel M Bartels, Craig Joseph, Satoru Suzuki, and Douglas L Medin Contents of Previous Volumes Noninstrumental Reasoning over Sacred Values: An Indonesian Case Study Jeremy Ginges and Scott Atran Development and Dual Processes in Moral Reasoning: A Fuzzy-trace Theory Approach Valerie F Reyna and Wanda Casillas Moral Identity, Moral Functioning, and the Development of Moral Character Darcia Narvaez and Daniel K Lapsley “Fools Rush In”: AJDM Perspective on the Role of Emotions in Decisions, Moral and Otherwise Terry Connolly and David Hardman Motivated Moral Reasoning Peter H Ditto, David A Pizarro, and David Tannenbaum In the Mind of the Perceiver: Psychological Implications of Moral Conviction Christopher W Bauman and Linda J Skitka Index VOLUME 51 Time for Meaning: Electrophysiology Provides Insights into the Dynamics of Representation and Processing in Semantic Memory Kara D Federmeier and Sarah Laszlo Design for a Working Memory Klaus Oberauer When Emotion Intensifies Memory Interference Mara Mather Mathematical Cognition and the Problem Size Effect Mark H Ashcraft and Michelle M Guillaume Highlighting: A Canonical Experiment John K Kruschke The Emergence of Intention Attribution in Infancy Amanda L Woodward, Jessica A Sommerville, Sarah Gerson, Annette M.E Henderson, and Jennifer Buresh 325 Contents of Previous Volumes Reader Participation in the Experience of Narrative Richard J Gerrig and Matthew E Jacovina Aging, Self-Regulation, and Learning from Text Elizabeth A L Stine-Morrow and Lisa M.S Miller Toward a Comprehensive Model of Comprehension Danielle S McNamara and Joe Magliano Index VOLUME 52 Naming Artifacts: Patterns and Processes Barbara C Malt Causal-Based Categorization: A Review Bob Rehder The Influence of Verbal and Nonverbal Processing on Category Learning John Paul Minda and Sarah J Miles The Many Roads to Prominence: Understanding Emphasis in Conversation Duane G Watson Defining and Investigating Automaticity in Reading Comprehension Katherine A Rawson Rethinking Scene Perception: A Multisource Model Helene Intraub Components of Spatial Intelligence Mary Hegarty Toward an Integrative Theory of Hypothesis Generation, Probability Judgment, and Hypothesis Testing Michael Dougherty, Rick Thomas, and Nicholas Lange The Self-Organization of Cognitive Structure James A Dixon, Damian G Stephen, Rebecca Boncoddo, and Jason Anastas Index VOLUME 53 Adaptive Memory: Evolutionary Constraints on Remembering James S Nairne Digging into Dé a Vu: Recent Research on Possible Mechanisms Alan S Brown and Elizabeth J Marsh Spacing and Testing Effects: A Deeply Critical, Lengthy, and At Times Discursive Review of the Literature Peter F Delaney, Peter P J L Verkoeijen, and Arie Spirgel How One’s Hook Is Baited Matters for Catching an Analogy Jeffrey Loewenstein Generating Inductive Inferences: Premise Relations and Property Effects John D Coley and Nadya Y Vasilyeva From Uncertainly Exact to Certainly Vague: Epistemic Uncertainty and Approximation in Science and Engineering Problem Solving Christian D Schunn Event Perception: A Theory and Its Application to Clinical Neuroscience Jeffrey M Zacks and Jesse Q Sargent Two Minds, One Dialog: Coordinating Speaking and Understanding Susan E Brennan, Alexia Galati, and Anna K Kuhlen Retrieving Personal Names, Referring Expressions, and Terms of Address Zenzi M Griffin Index VOLUME 54 Hierarchical Control of Cognitive Pro-cesses: The Case for Skilled Typewriting Gordon D Logan and Matthew J.C Crump Cognitive Distraction While Multitasking in the Automobile David L Strayer, Jason M Watson, and Frank A Drews 326 Psychological Research on Joint Action: Theory and Data G€ unther Knoblich, Stephen Butterfill, and Natalie Sebanz Self-Regulated Learning and the Allocation of Study Time John Dunlosky and Robert Ariel The Development of Categorization Vladimir M Sloutsky and Anna V Fisher Systems of Category Learning: Fact or Fantasy? Ben R Newell, John C Dunn, and Michael Kalish Abstract Concepts: Sensory-Motor Grounding, Metaphors, and Beyond Diane Pecher, Inge Boo, and Saskia Van Dantzig Thematic Thinking: The Apprehension and Consequences of Thematic Relations Zachary Estes, Sabrina Golonka, and Lara L Jones Index VOLUME 55 Ten Benefits of Testing and Their Applications to Educational Practice Henry L Roediger III, Adam L Putnam and Megan A Smith Cognitive Load Theory John Sweller Applying the Science of Learning to Multimedia Instruction Richard E Mayer Incorporating Motivation into a Theoretical Framework for Knowledge Transfer Timothy J Nokes and Daniel M Belenky On the Interplay of Emotion and Cognitive Control: Implications for Enhancing Academic Achievement Sian L Beilock and Gerardo Ramirez There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory Robert S Siegler, Lisa K Fazio, and Aryn Pyke Contents of Previous Volumes The Power of Comparison in Learning and Instruction: Learning Outcomes Supported by Different Types of Comparisons Bethany Rittle-Johnson and Jon R Star The Role of Automatic, Bottom-Up Processes: In the Ubiquitous Patterns of Incorrect Answers to Science Questions Andrew F Heckler Conceptual Problem Solving in Physics Jose P Mestre, Jennifer L Docktor, Natalie E Strand, and Brian H Ross Index VOLUME 56 Distinctive Processing: The Coaction of Similarity and Difference in Memory R Reed Hunt Retrieval-Induced Forgetting and Inhibition: A Critical Review Michael F Verde False Recollection: Empirical Findings and Their Theoretical Implications Jason Arndt Reconstruction from Memory in Naturalistic Environments Mark Steyvers and Pernille Hemmer Categorical Discrimination in Humans and Animals: All Different and Yet the Same? Edward A Wasserman and Leyre Castro How Working Memory Capacity Affects Problem Solving Jennifer Wiley and Andrew F Jarosz Juggling Two Languages in One Mind: What Bilinguals Tell Us About Language Processing and its Consequences for Cognition Judith F Kroll, Paola E Dussias, Cari A Bogulski and Jorge R Valdes Kroff Index 327 Contents of Previous Volumes VOLUME 57 Meta-Cognitive Myopia and the Dilemmas of Inductive-Statistical Inference Klaus Fiedler Relations Between Memory and Reasoning Evan Heit, Caren M Rotello and Brett K Hayes The Visual World in Sight and Mind: How Attention and Memory Interact to Determine Visual Experience James R Brockmole, Christopher C Davoli and Deborah A Cronin Spatial Thinking and STEM Education: When, Why, and How? David H Uttal and Cheryl A Cohen Emotions During the Learning of Difficult Material Arthur C Graesser and Sidney D’Mello Specificity and Transfer of Learning Alice F Healy and Erica L Wohldmann What Do Words Do? Toward a Theory of Language-Augmented Thought Gary Lupyan Index VOLUME 58 Learning Along With Others Robert L Goldstone, Thomas N Wisdom, Michael E Roberts, Seth Frey Space, Time, and Story Barbara Tversky, Julie Heiser, Julie Morrison The Cognition of Spatial Cognition: Domain-General within Domainspecific Holly A Taylor, Tad T Brunyé Perceptual Learning, Cognition, and Expertise Philip J Kellman, Christine M Massey Causation, Touch, and the Perception of Force Phillip Wolff, Jason Shepard Categorization as Causal Explanation: Discounting and Augmenting in a Bayesian Framework Daniel M Oppenheimer, Joshua B Tenenbaum, Tevye R Krynski Individual Differences in Intelligence and Working Memory: A Review of Latent Variable Models Andrew R.A Conway, Kristof Kovacs Index VOLUME 59 Toward a Unified Theory of Reasoning P.N Johnson-Laird, Sangeet S Khemlani The Self-Organization of Human Interaction Rick Dale, Riccardo Fusaroli, Nicholas D Duran, Daniel C Richardson Conceptual Composition: The Role of Relational Competition in the Comprehension of Modifier-Noun Phrases and Noun–Noun Compounds Christina L Gagné, Thomas L Spalding List-Method Directed Forgetting in Cognitive and Clinical Research: A Theoretical and Methodological Review Lili Sahakyan, Peter F Delaney, Nathaniel L Foster, Branden Abushanab Recollection is Fast and Easy: Pupillometric Studies of Face Memory Stephen D Goldinger, Megan H Papesh A Mechanistic Approach to Individual Differences in Spatial Learning, Memory, and Navigation Amy L Shelton, Steven A Marchette, Andrew J Furman When Do the Effects of Distractors Provide a Measure of Distractibility? Alejandro Lleras, Simona Buetti, J Toby Mordkoff Index VOLUME 60 The Middle Way: Finding the Balance between Mindfulness and MindWandering 328 Jonathan W Schooler, Michael D Mrazek, Michael S Franklin, Benjamin Baird, Benjamin W Mooneyham, Claire Zedelius, and James M Broadway What Intuitions Are and Are Not Valerie A Thompson The Sense of Recognition during Retrieval Failure: Implications for the Nature of Memory Traces Anne M Cleary About Practice: Repetition, Spacing, and Abstraction Thomas C Toppino and Emilie Gerbier The Rise and Fall of the Recent Past: A Unified Account of Immediate Repetition Paradigms David E Huber Does the Concept of Affordance Add Anything to Explanations of Stimulus– Response Compatibility Effects? Robert W Proctor and James D Miles The Function, Structure, Form, and Content of Environmental Knowledge David Waller and Nathan Greenauer The Control of Visual Attention: Toward a Unified Account Shaun P Vecera, Joshua D Cosman, Daniel B Vatterott, and Zachary J.J Roper Index VOLUME 61 Descriptive and Inferential Problems of Induction: Toward a Common Framework Charles W Kalish and Jordan T Thevenow-Harrison What Does It Mean to be Biased: Motivated Reasoning and Rationality Ulrike Hahn and Adam J.L Harris Probability Matching, Fast and Slow Derek J Koehler and Greta James Cognition in the Attention Economy Paul Atchley and Sean Lane Memory Recruitment: A Backward Idea About Masked Priming Glen E Bodner and Michael E.J Masson Contents of Previous Volumes Role of Knowledge in Motion Extrapolation: The Relevance of an Approach Contrasting Experts and Novices André Didierjean, Vincent Ferrari, and Colin Bl€attler Retrieval-Based Learning: An Episodic Context Account Jeffrey D Karpicke, Melissa Lehman, and William R Aue Consequences of Testing Memory Kenneth J Malmberg, Melissa Lehman, Jeffrey Annis, Amy H Criss, and Richard M Shiffrin Index VOLUME 62 Heuristic Bias and Conflict Detection During Thinking Wim De Neys Dual Processes and the Interplay Between Knowledge and Structure: A New Parallel Processing Model Simon J Handley and Dries Trippas People as Contexts in Conversation Sarah Brown-Schmidt, Si On Yoon and Rachel Anna Ryskin Using Multidimensional Encoding and Retrieval Contexts to Enhance Our Understanding of Stochastic Dependence in Source Memory Jason L Hicks and Jeffrey J Starns A Review of Retrieval-Induced Forgetting in the Contexts of Learning, Eyewitness Memory, Social Cognition, Autobiographical Memory, and Creative Cognition Benjamin C Storm, Genna Angello, Dorothy R Buchli, Rebecca H Koppel, Jeri L Little and John F Nestojko Perceiving Absolute Scale in Virtual Environments: How Theory and Application Have Mutually Informed the Role of Body-Based Perception Sarah H Creem-Regehr, Jeanine K Stefanucci and William B Thompson Index Contents of Previous Volumes VOLUME 63 Conducting an Eyewitness Lineup: How the Research Got It Wrong Scott D Gronlund, Laura Mickes, John T Wixted and Steven E Clark The Role of Context in Understanding Similarities and Differences in Remembering and Episodic Future Thinking Kathleen B McDermott and Adrian W Gilmore Human Category Learning: Toward a Broader Explanatory Account Kenneth J Kurtz Choice from among Intentionally Selected Options Patrick Shafto and Elizabeth Bonawitz Embodied Seeing: The Space Near the Hands Richard A Abrams, Blaire J Weidler and Jihyun Suh The Analysis of Visual Cognition in Birds: Implications for Evolution, Mechanism, and Representation Robert G Cook, Muhammad A.J Qadri and Ashlynn M Keller Index VOLUME 64 Beyond Born versus Made: A New Look at Expertise David Z Hambrick, Brooke N Macnamara, Guillermo Campitelli, Fredrik Ullén and Miriam A Mosing 329 Explaining the Basic-Level Concept Advantage in Infants.or Is It the Superordinate-Level Advantage? Gregory L Murphy Believing that Humans Swallow Spiders in Their Sleep: False Beliefs as Side Effects of the Processes that Support Accurate Knowledge Elizabeth J Marsh, Allison D Cantor and Nadia M Brashier The Role of Stimulus Structure in Human Memory Robert L Greene The Role of Motor Action in Memory for Objects and Words René Zeelenberg and Diane Pecher Understanding Central Processes: The Case against Simple Stimulus-Response Associations and for Complex Task Representation Eliot Hazeltine and Eric H Schumacher What Dot-Based Masking Effects Can Tell Us About Visual Cognition: A Selective Review of Masking Effects at the Whole-Object and Edge-Based Levels Todd A Kahan Technology-Based Support for Older Adult Communication in Safety-Critical Domains Daniel Morrow Index ... argue that to understand WMC and individual differences in WMC, we must delineate and understand the various facets that make up WMC Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Volume 65 ISSN 0079-7421... lapses of attention and mind-wandering For example, in a recent study we found that both mind-wandering and filtering predicted WMC, but that mindwandering and filtering were unrelated and accounted... from PM and resulting in erratic and reduced performance In general, there are two main types of lapses of attention (internal and external) both of which can derail the current train of thought