Springer mobile virtual work a new paradigm 2006 j andriessen et al

Mobile Virtual Work J H Erik Andriessen ´ Matti Vartiainen (Editors) Mobile Virtual Work A New Paradigm? With 60 Figures and 26 Tables 12 Professor J H Erik Andriessen Delft University of Technology Department of Work and Organisational Psychology Jaffalaan 2628 Delft The Netherlands j.h.t.h.andriessen@tbm.tudelft.nl Professor Matti Vartiainen Helsinki University of Technology Laboratory of Work Psychology and Leadership P.O Box 5500 02015 TKK Espoo Finland matti.vartiainen@tkk.fi ISBN-10 3-540-28364-1 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-3-540-28364-5 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Control Number: 2005932315 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springeronline.com ° Springer Berlin ´ Heidelberg 2006 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use Hardcover-Design: Erich Kirchner, Heidelberg SPIN 11541707 42/3153-5 ± Printed on acid-free paper Preface Dear Reader This is a book about mobile virtual work It aims at clarifying the basic concepts and showing present practices and future challenges The roots of the book are in the collaboration of few European practitioners and researchers, who met each other under the umbrella of the Swedish SALTSA programme (see next page) in January 2002 in Stockholm The group was first called ‘ICT, Mobility and Work Organisation’ but redefined itself quickly as ‘Mobile Virtual Cooperative Work’ group The change of the name reflects the development of reasoning in the group We could not find much material on mobile work, certainly not systematic studies, although a growing interest in mobile technologies and services could be found Practices of telework and virtual organizations were better known, but we were convinced that the combination with mobile work was something different and new Our main target became to understand what it was all about The next step was an expert meeting in October 2004 at Rånäs Castle again in Sweden A wider group of experts was invited to present their views on mobile virtual work and ideas about book chapters from different perspectives of working life Some of the expertise could be found through the network of the AMI@Work family created by the New Working Environments unit of the European Commission’s Information Society Directorate-General Also close collaboration was developed with the related MOSAIC program Today, much more is known about mobile work systems as can be seen in the following chapters There are now many other researchers and practitioners in this field Mobile business models are being developed, bringing along human, organizational and societal challenges With this book we realise our intention to present a ‘state of the art’ collection of knowledge on this subject We very much hope that you will find the discussion about present day reality and future challenges of mobile virtual work as exciting as we It is possibly a new paradigm Erik Andriessen Delft, The Netherlands Matti Vartiainen Helsinki, Finland VI Preface SALTSA A Joint Programme for Working Life Research in Europe SALTSA is a programme for research on European working life run in close co-operation by the National Institute for Working Life in Sweden and the Swedish Confederation of Trade Unions (LO), the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employess (TCO) and the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations (SACO) The aim of SALTSA is to generate applicable research results of high academic standard and practical relevance Research is carried out in areas like labour market and employment, labour law, work organisation and health and safety http://www.arbetslivsinstitutet.se/saltsa HTU UTH Contents Preface V Part Concepts and Prevalence 1 Emerging Mobile Virtual Work Erik Andriessen and Matti Vartiainen 1.1 Fundamental changes and driving forces 1.2 What is Mobile Virtual Work? 1.3 Objectives and general design of a research program 1.4 The contributions to this book References 12 Mobile Virtual Work – Concepts, Outcomes and Challenges 13 Matti Vartiainen 13 2.1 Emergence of new concepts 13 2.2 What is mobile? 14 2.2.1 Mobile spaces and places as working contexts 15 2.2.2 Mobile subject 17 2.2.3 Mobile tools 17 2.2.4 Mobile object of work 18 2.2.5 Mobility in organisations and business models 19 2.3 What is virtual? 20 2.4 What is Telework? 21 2.5 Forms of physical and virtual mobility 22 2.5.1 Emergence of eWork 22 2.5.2 Types of physically mobile employees 24 2.6 Mobile work systems in distributed organisations 26 2.6.1 Complexity of tasks 28 2.6.2 Complexity of context 28 2.6.3 Internal processes of individual and collective subjects 37 2.7 Outcomes and challenges 38 Acknowledgements 42 References 42 VIII Contents Mapping the Mobile eWorkforce in Europe 45 Karsten Gareis, Stefan Lilischkis and Alexander Mentrup 45 3.1 eWork and physical mobility 45 3.2 Drivers 47 3.2.1 Drivers of worker mobility 47 3.2.2 Physical and virtual mobility 49 3.2.3 ICTs as drivers of mobile work 49 3.3 Conceptualising mobile eWork 51 3.4 Mobile work and mobile eWork today 54 3.4.1 Mobile work 54 3.4.2 Mobile eWork 57 3.4.3 Tele-collaboration: "virtually mobile eWork" 63 3.5 Conclusions and outlook 63 Statistical annex 65 References 67 New Forms of Work in Labour Law 71 Minna Helle 71 4.1 New forms of work as legal challenges 71 4.2 Mobile and virtual work in labour legislation 73 4.3 The European framework agreement on telework 75 4.3.1 Purpose and background 75 4.3.2 The definition of a teleworker 76 4.4 Employment relationship and entrepreneurship 78 4.5 Employment conditions in mobile and virtual work 80 4.5.1 The outline of employment conditions 80 4.5.2 The principle of equal treatment 81 4.5.3 Working time 82 4.5.4 Equipment – costs and liability issues 83 4.5.5 Health and safety 84 4.5.6 Data protection 85 4.5.7 Privacy issues 85 4.6 Contractual issues 86 4.6.1 Individual contracts in mobile and virtual work 86 4.6.2 Particularities of mobile and virtual work 86 4.6.3 The need for specific contracts in different situations 87 4.6.4 The content of a specific contract 90 4.7 Conclusions 91 References 93 Contents IX Part Mobility in Work 95 Virtually Connected, Practically Mobile 97 Mark Perry and Jackie Brodie 97 5.1 Chapter outline 97 5.2 Designing mobile technology to ‘fit’ the work 98 5.3 On being mobile 99 5.3.1 Addressing Mobile Virtual Work 99 5.3.2 ‘Mobility’ in the research literature 101 5.3.3 Articulating mobile work: ‘mobilisation work’ 102 5.4 Examining mobility 104 5.4.1 Data collection methods 104 5.4.2 Primary data collection 105 5.4.3 Technology probes and user evaluation 106 5.5 Analysis 106 5.5.1 Cognitive activity and planning behaviour 107 5.5.2 Social interaction and home/work relationships 110 5.5.3 Mechanisms of interaction in mobilising work 112 5.6 Technology probes: design and functionality 112 5.6.1 Design of the probes 112 5.6.2 VMail 113 5.6.3 Dynamic-List 114 5.6.4 Connect-Talk 116 5.7 Probe evaluation and implications for design 118 5.7.1 Supporting awareness 118 5.7.2 Supporting effective communication 119 5.7.3 Transforming work relationships 120 5.7.4 Building and maintaining social and domestic bonds 121 5.7.5 Privacy and ‘user control’ 121 5.7.6 Technological implications 122 5.8 Discussion and conclusion 124 References 126 Collaboration in Mobile Virtual Work: a Human Factors View 129 John R Wilson 129 6.1 Starting position 129 6.2 Future work, mobility and virtuality 130 6.3 Collaboration 133 6.4 Examining mobility 135 6.4.1 Social and organisational support 135 6.4.2 Technical systems support 138 X Contents 6.5 Methodological considerations in studying collaborative work141 6.6 Cases of collaborative working 142 6.6.1 Collaborative virtual environments 142 6.6.2 Studies of planners and schedulers 144 6.6.3 Railway maintenance 145 6.6.4 Multiple decoupled interaction in virtual environments 146 6.7 Concluding discussion 147 Acknowledgements 149 References 149 Model-based Design of Mobile Work Systems 153 Ludger Schmidt and Holger Luczak 153 7.1 Introduction 153 7.2 Trends of mobile work in Europe 154 7.3 Mobile work in the context of industrial engineering 156 7.4 Design space model for mobile work systems 159 7.5 Case study on augmented reality work 163 7.6 Application of the model based design process 165 7.6.1 Requirements analysis of the objective 166 7.6.2 Identification of interconnections and conception 168 7.6.3 Integration and prototyping of design solutions 170 7.6.4 Evaluation and verification 171 7.7 Conclusion 173 References 174 Usability in IT Systems for Mobile Work 177 Niklas Johansson, Torbjörn Lind and Bengt Sandblad 177 8.1 Usability in mobile IT systems 177 8.2 Usability aspects and criteria 179 8.2.1 General usability in IT-support systems 179 8.2.2 Mobility specific usability criteria 181 8.2.3 Design for mobile systems 185 8.3 Assessment of usability in mobile systems 186 8.3.1 Method 186 8.3.2 Results 188 8.3.3 Case study – the ambulance system CAK-net 191 8.4 Design for usability in mobile systems for home care 193 8.4.1 Background 193 8.4.2 Seminars for requirement gathering 194 8.4.3 Specification of future work 195 8.4.4 Design of mobile work support systems 197 8.4.3 Case conclusions 199 378 Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen A large part of the connectivity that is required and used by mobile workers is directed towards remote people, and not remote things, e.g documents and remote devices What is seen is a great deal of social interaction and community building, activities that cannot be reduced to simple goal driven action The organisation then, as a closed commercial entity or open community of practice, is clearly a valuable informational resource for enabling the mobilisation of work This aspect of connectivity is not, however, supported by most mobile technologies, apart from the mobile telephone, which appears to be the most common MVW device in use Enhancing collaboration within mobile virtual work Wilson expresses the feeling that the push of technology development rather than the real pull of real users’ need might be at work when speaking about new ambient collaborative technologies He warns about ‘developer euphoria’ and about the ideas of self-appointed visionaries that the whole of Europe will be wired into a collaborative ‘Grid’, which is part of a knowledge economy with open knowledge availability and exchange, employing ambient intelligence Collaboration in its true sense has several critical components, and these must be supported by new systems of mobile virtual work, both organisational and technical systems Good team working requires for instance that people can orient themselves, participate in team activities and apply distributed leadership Collaborating teams must be supported in the handling of rich, high quality, open, flexible and yet disciplined communication, the latter requiring that messages are acknowledged and repeated where necessary, and that coordination underpins this communication such that appropriate information is passed on when required Collaborators should be able to monitor and be aware of each other’s activities, to give and receive feedback from colleagues, to fill in and back up team members who are unable to complete a particular task, to be sensitive to each other’s workload and performance and to be able to adapt and reform as a team according to changes in the environment These requirements have implications for tools and their functionality Wilson claims that collaboration within mobile virtual work will not always be carried out and supported remotely via ever more sophisticated ICT Many mobile workers will continue to perform successfully using fairly traditional methods of communication, and others will carry out their activities through face-to-face contacts supported by technical tools when appropriate It is the depth and quality of collaboration that is critical and it is this that we need to understand better 16 Mobile Virtual Work: What Have We Learned? 379 Human-centred design and usability of mobile work systems To create mobile work systems that enable efficient and effective work in a new way or to improve current work processes, it is necessary not only to focus on technology but also to look at the users, their qualifications and tasks, as well as to include aspects of work organisation in an integrative design approach Schmidt and Luczak provide a structured and model-based framework that includes a human-centred and task-oriented design approach A twodimensional design space is introduced In the first dimension, five aspects of mobile work are differentiated, which are: (1) mobility of the individual, (2) mobility of work contents, (3) mobility of working tools, (4) mobility of work relations, and (5) virtual mobility The second axis comprises aspects of technology, organisation and personnel (TOP) This framework can be used as a guideline to order and integrate the aspects of mobile work The authors illustrate their approach with an example of the design of augmented equipment for mobile maintenance personnel According to Johansson and colleagues, in some occupations work is and has always been physically mobile, such as in home care and in technical maintenance fieldwork For these jobs, technical support systems must of necessity be mobile, otherwise they cannot be used at all In many such jobs there is, however, existing tools lack usability The authors discuss various aspects of usability for mobile systems and argue that improvements in usability can result in new application areas and also promote the development of adequate work organisations and their efficiency They note, however, that conflicts arise between requirements for interface that support usability and what is technically possible in a mobile context For example, the handling of large amounts of information requires a large screen, something, which generally is impossible in a mobile system In many such situations a compromise must be found between what is useful, from an information retrieval point of view, and what is efficient to use in a mobile context The design process of usable support systems should be based on a detailed description and analysis of the work context, because usability criteria especially in a mobile environment are context dependent to a great extent Moreover, it is also necessary to involve the potential end-users in the process since they have detailed knowledge about local needs and requirements It is necessary to work according to an iterative development model, since the exact requirements are not known in advance Design decisions can often be based on heuristic rules, but these must be formulated for a mobile situation and for the actual work context Wiethoff et al use home health care as an example of a branch with important opportunities for developing mobile work arrangements that imT 380 Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen prove the quality of life and the quality of work The reasons for the slow uptake of ICT in this branch are related to the limitations of the patients, and to the organisational limitations faced by health care workers Wiethoff et al applied a participative design method, combined with an ethnographic approach to design a socio-technical system for stakeholders with very diverse needs, and very limited acquaintance with new technologies This approach was successful for translating requirements and needed functionalities into very clear ideas about the contents of the design Well-being and stress outcomes in mobile and virtual work The increased degree of mobility and other factors of contextual and task complexity are supposed to be mental load factors from the viewpoints of well-being and stress It is however not exactly known whether the consequences are principally positive, i.e flow and motivation, or negative, i.e fatigue and stress Richter, Meyer and Sommer refer to their own studies showing that work in virtual teams has more enriched job characteristics, such as variety of organisational tasks, learning requirements and level of participation, than traditional jobs This could imply the potential of health and personality promotion However, their results show that enriched job characteristics in the context of virtual teams are also associated with increased symptoms of job stress! There appears to be a curvilinear relation between enriched job demands and mental health This ‘over-enrichment’ may cause excessive demands by requiring too many qualifications and skills and through informational and social overload They underline, however, that job design should not try to decrease job demands and complexity in mobile virtual work Rather employees’ competence to cope with its precarious aspects should be improved Moreover, the quality of teamwork has an important impact not only on performance, but also on job satisfaction in virtual mobile teams Mobile virtual work in practice A case of a globally distributed corporation and four cases on team level in large enterprises show that mobile virtual work is already a reality in different business areas Niitamo describes how scenarios were built in Nokia corporation to mobilise its employees and to optimise the use of available competencies in different sites and time zones, in order to shorten the product creation process Nokia’s core competencies exist very much in its innovative capability to design and develop new products for the global market One of the competitive advantages in this market is to provide solutions and products in a short time frame Most product creation processes involve several partners, subcontractors and client sites, which should be orchestrated adequately 16 Mobile Virtual Work: What Have We Learned? 381 The assumption behind the basic scenario was that managing a global product creation process will rapidly become the major competitive advantage to its holder Success will depend on the ability to create and apply management tools as well as collaborative technologies The scenario has the following elements: global talent and innovation capability distributed over many global locations, strong work mobility but limited labour mobility, utilization of the whole 24 hour cycle, new innovative ways of global partner collaboration, and new collaborative working environments Through applying this scenario, Nokia has been able to develop successful mobile virtual work settings Verburg et al present four case studies, dealing with customs agents, automation and support technicians, service engineers, and home care nurses Overall the cases show a positive picture concerning the application of mobile solutions in practice Employees stress the benefits of their mobile work One of the possible barriers is the lack of user involvement as in the Swedish case, but as long as users are involved, mobile virtual work is perceived as a positive change Potential barriers or possible downsides, such as limitations of decision capabilities, a lack of employee autonomy, and stronger propensity for control of employee behaviour, did not feature much in the cases Since such factors have very negative impacts on employee motivation, they remain a point of concern for the deployment of future mobile virtual work settings Part 3, ‘Organisational strategies’, deals with the relations between MVW developments and organisational or sectoral characteristics Knowledge management in mobile work Using data from three case studies, Corso argues that knowledge sharing by mobile employees requires new knowledge management strategies These strategies, however, have to vary according to task complexity In routine jobs, e.g maintenance, knowledge management can effectively be done through operations guides, manuals, codification and reporting In non-routine jobs like consulting and sales, knowledge management should focus on person-toperson communication When the knowledge management strategy is consistent with task characteristics, mobile virtual workers’ satisfaction appears to be highest T T Diffusion of mobile work and services Lindmark and colleagues have observed that in spite of the availability of fruitful applications for mobile work, there appeared to be many examples of slow adoption This was the more remarkable because the innovations provided tangible and often measurable benefits to the customer organisations, such as improved efficiency of operations, in particular cost-cutting and improved service to the 382 Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen end customers They investigated, therefore, disablers and enablers of the development and diffusion of services for mobile work Their empirical observations revealed several issues related to strategic resources, technology, economics and marketing The first set of disablers was related to the capabilities of the customer organisations The benefits were difficult to absorb - at least initially - for the main user group, such as truck drivers In fact, several users experienced disutilities, such as loss of personal freedom - the “Big Brother” effect In addition, applications were often perceived as difficult to start using, because competences to use these systems were generally low For the management of the companies, system integration appeared to be a timeconsuming and costly process, because of the complexity of the applications Complexity also made the applications difficult for customers to understand and to relate to In addition, technological complexity implied value-chain complexity A large number of actors had to interact and make their products compatible In many cases their roles were unclear and the various business models were incompatible or unviable Clearly, there seemed to be a coordination problem A final set of factors related to costs and pricing Because of this, customers were initially reluctant to adopt the new systems, despite the fact that suppliers could show viable business cases for an investment All in all, the study points at the diffusion of MVW systems as the weakest function in the innovation process Mobile work and new business practice In the final and very thought provoking chapter Schaffers and colleagues explore mobile workplace innovations and their success factors, focusing on different levels of innovation: human and organisational issues, industry drivers and technological trends Also different levels of analysis were taken into account, i.e the individual, organisational and industry level, trying to identify criteria for the successful integration of MVW into company business models in various sectors The driving factors for mobile collaborative workplaces in selected business areas - automotive, aerospace and construction - were explored in order to identify prospects for innovation They conclude that business drivers for mobile and collaborative work are very different across sectors In all sectors, mobile work in its narrow sense of mobility enhancement of individual workers will be an important innovation in individual-oriented support services like sales, customer relations management (CRM), repair and maintenance Mobile work in terms of virtual team collaboration will be important for sectors where work objects - like aeroplanes and cars - are mobile, and / or where the problem at hand requires individuals to intensively communicate with specialists at different 16 Mobile Virtual Work: What Have We Learned? 383 locations and different time zones, like in R&D work and also in complex maintenance tasks The authors then explore a framework of future mobile workplace scenarios, in order to understand the underlying forces of innovation and to build a realistic vision as a basis for innovation strategy, resulting in a concrete roadmap of challenges and milestones in key areas of mobile work (see next section) 16.4 Scenarios for the future What can we expect concerning the further development of mobile and virtual work, of networked organisations and organisational networks? It is evident that we are on a threshold of something new, which is not yet fully recognised, understood and managed Schaffers and colleagues present in chapter 15, the results of scenario development in the framework of the EU-Mosaic project On the short term, it is expected that the number of mobile workers will increase, while the types of mobile workers remain unchanged, i.e managers, sales, consultants, support technicians, scientists and academics Tele-maintenance, telemedicine, and all remote working activities will call for wireless access by employees to report continuously on remote locations The individual with his requirements for usability and usefulness will be the main driving force in the design of mobile work Mobile access will take place primarily through mobile phones and PDAs, since bandwidth allows only for audio communication and image or document sharing It is expected that on the medium term, ca 2008, agile business networks start to emerge, based on smart collaborative workspaces This implies that in the design of mobile work, requirements of collaboration and coordination, as well as organisational requirements become dominant Mobile work will then be fully integrated into business processes and mobile devices seamlessly integrated with desktop-based systems Connectivity and bandwidth will allow for rich multimedia sharing, but the implication of these developments are that the costs associated with mobility will gradually increase On the long term, e.g 2010-13, major changes in the organisation of work are expected The number of mobile workers will increase even more, also in the form of independent experts that can be recruited “on demand” by any networked business organisation But this will also imply that the distances mobile workers travel will be or even become more limited, resulting in micro-mobility Using mobile information technology 384 Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen will become an established cultural practice and mobile workers will have easy access to the on-demand, service-based mobile cooperation support A ubiquitous computing infrastructure will be accessible anywhere, anytime and the present day computers are expected to be replaced by nonintrusive, attentive interfaces 16.4.1 A European vision For the European Union, the vision of mobile and virtual work should be to help in solving certain problems the EU is facing like low productivity, unbalanced development between European countries and dissatisfaction of Europeans with their working and living conditions In the Lisbon declaration, the following objective was set for 2010: “To become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion.” Whether this objective will be achieved or not within this period, Europe has to meet serious challenges in the time ahead By itself Europe is a wide market area providing high demands of products and services and consequently bases to create jobs On the other hand, there is the ongoing global relocation of mostly low quality standardized jobs to countries outside the EU resulting in job losses, while at the same time people from many regions and from rural areas need to be included in the workforce The development of more efficient technologies, the shift from industrial to knowledge work and from traditional companies to flexible network organisations are in this context both a problem because of its job and skill losses, and an opportunity The opportunity is provided by the fact that knowledge work can be done at a distance with the help of ICT and that networked companies of small and medium-sized firms and individual freelancers can find ample job opportunities The EU is therefore, in its present and coming research programs, supporting many research projects concerning new infrastructures, new applications and services, and new organisational arrangements The EU-research program is driven by the vision that the economy should move from an organisation-centric to a human-centric perspective This implies that new living and working environments for all have to be created, in which productivity and quality of life have to be combined In this society, the emphasis is expected to fall more on (work) ‘communities’ and less on organisations Technically speaking, human-centeredness implies independence from location, time and device, and therefore ambient intelligence that supports communication and collaboration anywhere, 16 Mobile Virtual Work: What Have We Learned? 385 shared workspaces, enhanced social interaction, smart work environments and easy knowledge exchange and accumulation 16.5 Conclusion What have we learned about mobile virtual work? We have found answers for some of our research questions presented in chapter one We now know what the building blocks of new work settings are But we not know much as yet concerning the social and human outcomes of mobile and virtual work, except for some suggestions and indications One of the strong points of this book is the provision of many concrete case examples of mobile work practices, technologies and services Through these examples the variety of MVW has been charted and a typology of MVW settings has been developed in this final chapter The implication is, however, that effects differ and that development strategies should be differentiated Ergonomic requirements have been discovered, together with design methods that promise to lead to usable and useful systems if attention is paid to the contexts and the user needs The relations between mobility and virtual cooperation has been analysed and some implications for managing MVW workers have been found Finally, scenarios concerning expected future mobile virtual work settings have been formulated Concerning many questions the available data are, however, still very limited, partly because the developments are still in their infancy, partly because we have not covered all the available evidence Not much can, therefore, be said about e.g negative consequences for workers in terms of stress, labour conditions, employment or security The cases discussed in this book not point to severe problems is this respect, but these studies may be biased and not cover all relevant areas Moreover, many western companies, in the IT industry as well in other sectors, are outsourcing activities such as call centres or software development to countries like India or China There are indications that labour conditions in these places are quite different from what we have encountered in this volume Many questions we posed in the first chapter have not received full answers We not know much yet about required skills and competences, about how to coordinate and lead mobile virtual professionals, about knowledge exchange and organisational learning in an MVW environment? Which new business models should be developed to profit from the MVW developments, in terms of efficiency, innovation, effectiveness and sustainability? And how can remote areas benefit optimally from mobile systems and virtual work arrangements? In addition, we need insights into 386 Matti Vartiainen and Erik Andriessen the technology and tools to support these aspects, and in the (social, organisational, economic) obstacles and conditions for introduction of MVW systems The effects of MVW, but also the conditions have to be studied on the level of the individual and his/her task performance, at the group and cooperation level, at the level of the organisation and its strategies, and finally at sectoral and national level All these issues and questions are challenging, both for practitioners who should develop and experiment with new strategies in this area, and for researchers who want to analyse the phenomena systematically and test good practices The real challenge, however, is for practioners and researchers to exchange their experiences and to cooperate in the development of viable and sustainable mobile virtual work systems Index Absorptive capacity, 321, 335 Accessibility, 123 Action-regulation theory, 234 Activity Theory, 208 Adoption, 320 Augmented reality, 163 Awareness, 110, 117 Ba, 15 Benefits, 19, 38, 104, 118, 119, 256, 261, 328, 331 Boundary spanning, 137 Collaboration, 133, 148, 344 Commitment, 243 Communities of practice, 110, 294 Context sensitivity, 155 Contracts, 86 Coordination, 117 Demand-control model, 234 Design, 112, 134, 159, 205 Diffusion, 319 Diversity, 33 Driving forces, 3, 47, 261, 346, 352, 361, 369 Economic drivers, 47 Elderly, 193 Employment, 39, 55, 76 Ergonomic, 170, 233 European Framework Agreement on Telework, 72 Evaluation, 171, 186, 207 eWork, 22, 45 Freelance telework in SOHOs, 60 Gender, 56 Health, 84 Health care, 203 Home care, 193, 203 Home-based telework, 6, 22, 54, 60, 63, 89 Human-centred design, 156 ICTs as drivers, 49 Innovation, 299, 320, 343, 361 Job satisfaction, 242, 307 Knowledge Management, 291 Labour legislation, 73 Labour relations, 39 Leadership, 243 Legislation, 72 Liability, 83 Marketing, 324 Mental workload, 232 Mobile, 14 Mobile divide, 39 Mobile spaces, 15 Mobile technology, 98 Mobile tools, 17 Mobile work, 54, 71, 132 Mobile workers, 23 Mobilisation work, 102 Mock-ups, 170 Mode of interaction, 34 Motivation, 241 Nomads, 25 Participatory design, 166, 206 Performance control, 300 Personnel policy, 74 Physical mobility, 17, 31, 49 Privacy, 85, 121 Private life, 247 388 Index Resources, 321 Roadmap, 363 Safety, 84 Scenario, 197, 210, 258, 262, 351, 361 Self-employed, 23, 61 Shared mental model, 137 Social presence, 139 Social relationships, 41 Social support, 246 Socio-cultural drivers, 48 Sociotechnical systems, 132 Stress, 41, 233 Task analyzability, 303 Team, 263 Teamwork, 136, 240 Technological complexity, 323 Technological drivers, 48 Telecenters, 77 Tele-collaboration, 63 Telemediation, 52 Teleservice centres, 58 Telework, 21, 45, 60, 72, 75 Trust, 136, 245 Usability, 139, 143, 177 User involvement, 195, 205 User requirements, 166 Virtual, 20 Virtual mobility, 17, 49 Virtual organisation, 21 Virtual place, 16 Virtual work, 73, 131 Well-being, 41, 231 Work system, 15, 26 Work-family balance, 40 Working time, 82 List of Contributors Andriessen, J.H Erik, Professor Department of Work and Organisational Psychology, Delft University of Technology Jaffalaan 5, 2628 BX Delft The Netherlands Corso, Mariano, Dr Department of Management Engineering (DIG), Polytechnic University of Milan Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano Italy Brodie, Jackie, Dr Centre for Entrepreneurship, School of Management, Napier University, Craiglockhart Campus, Edinburgh, EH14 1DJ UK Fernando, Terrence, Professor Future Workspaces Research Centre, University of Salford University Road, Salford M5 4WT United Kingdom Brodt, Torsten, MSc Institute of Media and Communication Management, University of St Gallen Blumenbergplatz 9, 9000 St Gallen Switzerland Boxtel, Rogier van, MSc TIBCO Software Inc Robijnstraat 76, 1812 RB Alkmaar The Netherlands Carver, Liz, Dr BAE Systems P.O Box Filton, Bristol BS34 7QW United Kingdom Gareis, Karsten, Dr Empirica Gesellschaft für Kommunikationsund Technologieforschung GmbH Oxfordstrasse 2, 53111 Bonn Germany Helle, Minna, Master of Laws AKAVA - The Confederation of Unions for Academic Professionals in Finland Rautatieläisenkatu 6, 00520 Helsinki Finland Hyrkkänen, Ursula, MSc Turku Polytechnic Kaskenkatu 5, 20700 Turku Finland 390 List of Contributors Johansson, Niklas, MSc Department of Information Technology, Human-Computer Interaction Uppsala University Box 337, 75105 Uppsala Sweden T Lilischkis, Stefan, Dr Empirica Gesellschaft für Kommunikations- und Technologieforschung GmbH Oxfordstrasse 2, 53111 Bonn Germany Luczak, Holger, Professor Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, RWTH Aachen University Bergdriesch 27, 52062 Aachen Germany Lind, Torbjörn, MSc UsersAward, Swedish Labour Organization 105 53 Stockholm Sweden Lindmark, Sven, Dr Chalmers University of Technology Vasa Building 412 96 Göteborg Sweden Magnusson, Mats, Professor Department of Technology Management and Economics, Chalmers Univ.of Technology Vera Sandbergs Allé 8, Vasa Hus 2, 412 96 Göteborg Sweden Martini, Antonella, Dr Faculty of Engineering, University of Pisa Via Diotisalvi, 2, 56126 Pisa Italy Meyer, Jelka, MSc Department of Psychology, Dresden University of Technology Zellescher Weg 17, D-01062 Dresden Germany Meulenbroek, Thierry, MSc OPTA, Postbus 90420, 2509 LK the Hague The Netherlands Mentrup, Alexander, MSc Empirica Gesellschaft für Kommunikations- und Technologieforschung GmbH Oxfordstrasse 2, 53111 Bonn Germany Niitamo, Veli-Pekka, MSc., MA Center for Knowledge and Innovation Research (CKIR)/ Nokia, Helsinki School of Economics PO Box 1210, 00101 Helsinki Finland Pellegrini, Luisa, Dr Faculty of Engineering, University of Pisa Via Diotisalvi, 2, 56126 Pisa Italy List of Contributors Perry, Mark, Dr School of IS, Computing and Mathematics, Brunel University Uxbridge Middlesex, UB8 3PH United Kingdom Renga, Filippo, Dr Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering Politec University of Milan Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano Italy Richter, Peter, Professor Department of Psychology, Dresden University of Technology Zellescher Weg 17, D-01062 Dresden Germany Sandblad, Bengt, Professor Department of Information Technology, Human-Computer Interaction Uppsala University, P.O.Box 337, 751 05 Uppsala Sweden Schaffers, Hans, Dr Telematica Instituut P.O.Box 589, 7500 AN Enschede The Netherlands 391 Slagter, Robert, Dr Telematica Instituut P.O Box 589, 7500 AN Enschede The Netherlands Stafleu, Hans, Dr TNO Information and Communication Technology Brassersplein 2, P.O Box 5050, 2600 GB Delft The Netherlands Schmidt, Ludger, Dr Institute of Industrial Engineering and Ergonomics, RWTH Aachen University Bergdriesch 27, 52062 Aachen Germany Sommer, Fanny, MSc Department of Psychology, Dresden University of Technology Zellescher Weg 17, D-01062 Dresden Germany Testa, Stefania, Professor Communication, Computer and System Sciences Department (DIST), University of Genoa Viale Causa 13, 16100 Genoa Italy 392 List of Contributors Vartiainen, Matti, Professor Laboratory of Work Psychology and Leadership, Helsinki University of Technology P.O.Box 5500, 02015 TKK Espoo Finland Verburg, Robert M, Dr Department of Work and Organisational Psychology, Delft University of Technology Jaffalaan 5, 2628 BX Delft The Netherlands Wiethoff, Marion, Dr Department of Work and Organisational Psychology, Delft University of Technology Jaffalaan 5, 2628 Delft The Netherlands Wilson, John R, Professor Institute for Occupational Ergonomics, University of Nottingham Nottingham NG7 2RD United Kingdom ... Professional Associations (SACO) The aim of SALTSA is to generate applicable research results of high academic standard and practical relevance Research is carried out in areas like labour market and... MENTAL AND SOCIAL SPACES which are shared common experiences, ideas and ideals based on human interaction and collaboration Fig 2.2 Work activities are carried out in physical, virtual, and mental/social... physical space, such as an office space, the virtual space, such as e-mail, and the mental or social space, such as common experiences, ideas, and ideals shared by people with common goals as a working