Alternatives to conventional food processing RSC green chemistry

Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing RSC Green Chemistry Series Editor: James H Clark, Department of Chemistry, University of York, York, UK George A Kraus, Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Iowa, USA Titles in the Series: 1: The Future of Glycerol: New Uses of a Versatile Raw Material 2: Alternative Solvents for Green Chemistry 3: Eco-Friendly Synthesis of Fine Chemicals 4: Sustainable Solutions for Modern Economies 5: Chemical Reactions and Processes under Flow Conditions 6: Radical Reactions in Aqueous Media 7: Aqueous Microwave Chemistry 8: The Future of Glycerol: 2nd Edition 9: Transportation Biofuels: Novel Pathways for the production of Ethanol, Biogas and Biodiesel 10: Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing How to obtain future titles on publication: A standing order plan is available for this series A standing order will bring delivery of each new volume immediately on publication For further information please contact: Book Sales Department, Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge, CB4 0WF, UK Telephone: +44 (0)1223 420066, Fax: +44 (0)1223 420247, Email: books@rsc.org Visit our website at http://www.rsc.org/Shop/Books/ Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing Edited by Andrew Proctor Department of Food Science, University of Arkansas, USA RSC Green Chemistry No 10 ISBN: 978-1-84973-037-2 ISSN: 1757-7039 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library r Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 All rights reserved Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research for non-commercial purposes or for private study, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry, or the copyright owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page The RSC is not responsible for individual opinions expressed in this work Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry, Thomas Graham House, Science Park, Milton Road, Cambridge CB4 0WF, UK Registered Charity Number 207890 For further information see our web site at www.rsc.org Preface The food industry is a large sector of the international business community, with food safety and food quality playing a vital role in maintaining profitability Traditional thermal processing techniques have been effective in maintaining a safe food supply that is acceptable to consumers However, increasing energy costs and the desire to purchase ‘green’ environmentally responsible products have been a stimulus for the development of alternative technologies Furthermore, some products may undergo quality loss at high temperatures, which can be avoided by many alternative processing methods This book is intended to provide food industrialists, professional academics and graduate students with a review of the major alternative technologies that could be used to reduce energy costs while maintaining safety and quality The introductory chapters provide the reader with an important discussion of the general principles of green technology underpinning the new technologies and the legal developments that are influenced by emerging new processing methods The authors have all made significant contributions to their field and are well qualified to comment on the value and future significance of green food processing methods It is hoped that this book will serve as an introduction for those interested in gaining an understanding of various ‘green’ alternative food processing technologies and the their role in the future of the food industry Andrew Proctor University of Arkansas RSC Green Chemistry No 10 Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing Edited by Andrew Proctor r Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org v Contents Chapter Introduction to Green Chemistry James H Clark 1.1 1.2 1.3 7 Introduction Resources for Re-manufacturing Case Studies: Making the Most of Waste 1.3.1 Biofuels – Friend or Foe? 1.3.2 Extraction of Extractable Chemicals from Biomass 1.4 Conclusion References Chapter Comparison of EU and US Law on Sustainable Food Processing Michael T Roberts and Emilie H Leibovitch 2.1 2.2 Introduction EU and US Law and Policy on Green Food Processing Issues 2.2.1 European Union 2.2.2 United States 2.3 Sustainability and the Emerging ‘Green Processing’ 2.3.1 Historical Development of the Concept of Sustainability 2.3.2 History of Sustainability Approach in the US and in the EU 2.3.3 Sustainable Agriculture in the US and in the EU 2.3.4 Sustainable Food Production in the US and in the EU RSC Green Chemistry No 10 Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing Edited by Andrew Proctor r Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org vii 8 11 11 15 15 25 34 34 37 41 52 viii Contents 2.4 Chapter Private Standards 2.4.1 Outgrowth of Sustainability Movement 2.4.2 Applicability of Private Standards to the Food Sector in the EU and the US 2.4.3 Special Legal and Policy Challenges 2.4.4 International Trade Implications 2.5 Conclusion 2.5.1 Food Law Regulation in the US and the EU 2.5.2 Sustainability and Green Processing 2.5.3 Private Standards References 57 57 Advances in Critical Fluid Processing Jerry W King, Keerthi Srinivas and Dongfang Zhang 93 3.1 3.2 93 Introduction Current Status of Supercritical Fluid Processing with CO2 3.3 Subcritical Fluids for Food Processing 3.4 Multi-fluid and Unit Operation Processing Options 3.5 Multi-phase Fluids for Sustainable and ‘Green’ Food Processing 3.6 Continuous Extraction by Coupling Expellers with Critical Fluids 3.7 Extraction Versus Reaction Using Pressurized Fluids 3.8 Conclusion References Chapter 59 63 68 71 71 73 74 75 94 97 109 116 122 129 135 136 Supercritical Fluid Pasteurization and Food Safety Sara Spilimbergo, Michael A Matthews and Claudio Cinquemani 145 4.1 4.2 4.3 147 150 150 152 152 153 153 154 4.4 Introduction Supercritical Fluids and Green Technology Current Issues in Food Pasteurization 4.3.1 Food Preservation 4.3.2 Nutritional Properties 4.3.3 Innovative Techniques 4.3.4 Packaging Material 4.3.5 Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) Mechanisms and Biochemistry of Microbial Deactivation 4.4.1 Pressure: Permeability, Membrane Disruption and Extraction 4.4.2 Temperature: Permeability and Extraction 155 156 156 ix Contents 4.4.3 4.4.4 pH: Cell Metabolism and Protein Activity Fluid Flow and Contacting: Mass Transfer, Effect of Media and Kinetics of Pasteurization 4.5 Applications of Supercritical Fluids for Food Preservation 4.5.1 Biofilms 4.5.2 Modeling Approaches for High-pressure Microorganism Inactivation 4.5.3 Inactivation of Enzymes 4.5.4 Processes Based on Gases Other Than CO2 4.5.5 Subcellular Systems (Phages, Viruses, Proteins, Prions, Hazardous Macromolecular Substances) 4.5.6 Treatment of Solid Objects 4.5.7 Unsolved Problems to Date 4.5.8 Outlook and Discussion 4.5.9 Materials and Composites of Future Interest 4.6 Commercial Aspects 4.6.1 Equipment for CO2 Technology 4.6.2 Patents 4.6.3 Commercialization 4.6.4 Economic Aspects 4.7 Conclusion References Chapter 156 157 157 158 160 160 162 163 164 165 166 166 167 167 170 171 171 173 174 Membrane Separations in Food Processing Koen Dewettinck and Thien Trung Le 184 5.1 185 185 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Types of Membrane Separation Processes 5.1.1 Pressure-driven Membrane Separations 5.1.2 Other Types of Membrane Separation Processes Separation Characteristics 5.2.1 Filtration Modes 5.2.2 Membrane Separation Parameters Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling 5.3.1 Concentration Polarization 5.3.2 Membrane Fouling Membrane Characteristics and Membrane Modules 5.4.1 Membrane Characteristics 5.4.2 Membrane Modules Enhancement of Membrane Separation Performance 5.5.1 Optimization of Operational Parameters 5.5.2 Effects of Feed Properties 5.5.3 Membrane Selection and Surface Modification 186 187 187 188 189 189 190 192 192 193 198 198 203 205 x Contents 5.5.4 Modification of Membrane Module Configuration 5.5.5 Flow Manipulation 5.5.6 Applications of External-body Forces 5.5.7 Other Techniques 5.5.8 Selection of the Techniques 5.6 Membrane Cleaning and Sanitation 5.7 Comparison between Membrane Separations and Corresponding Traditional Technologies 5.7.1 General Applications and Technological Advantages of Membrane Separations 5.7.2 Economic Aspects of Membrane Processing Applications 5.8 Applications of Membrane Separations in the Food Industry 5.8.1 Membrane Processes in the Dairy Industry 5.8.2 Membrane Processes in the Brewing Industry 5.8.3 Membrane Processes in the Winemaking Industry 5.8.4 Membrane Processes in the Production of Fruit and Vegetable Juices 5.8.5 Membrane Processes in the Sugar Industry 5.8.6 Membrane Processes in the Production of Soy Ingredients and Products 5.8.7 Other Applications in the Food Industry 5.9 Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgements References Chapter 205 215 221 226 227 228 229 229 231 232 232 235 236 237 237 238 238 239 240 240 High Hydrostatic Pressure Food Processing Stephanie Jung, Carole Tonello-Samson and Marie de Lamballerie 254 6.1 254 6.2 Introduction 6.1.1 Rationale for the Interest in High-pressure Processing 6.1.2 Brief Description of Processing Steps and Concept of Adiabatic Heating 6.1.3 Is HPP a Green (Environmentally Friendly) Technology? HPP as an Efficient Tool for Food Microbial Safety and Shelf-life Extension 6.2.1 Food Safety 6.2.2 Shelf-life 254 255 257 258 258 260 468 herbs 406 see also borage; lavender; oregano; rosemary hexane extraction (HE) 341, 342t, 343, 344, 361 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP, HHP) basic principles 254–258 commercial applications 282–290 companies and laboratories 272–274t, 284–285t dairy products 271, 272t, 275–276, 290 economics 295–296 egg, egg products 270–271, 276–277 fruit and vegetable products 261, 270, 272–273t, 286t, 287–288 industrial equipment 290–296 meat, meat products 261, 266, 268–269, 273t, 277–278, 280, 286t, 288–289 microbial inactivation 258–262 pressure-induced changes in food allergenicity/antigenicity 281 color 277–280 flavor 280–281 functional properties 263, 276–277 physico-chemical properties 262–267 textural and rheological properties 267–276 seafood 262, 264–265t, 266, 269–270, 274t, 279, 286t, 289–290 high intensity pulsed light see pulsed light high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) 256 high-pressure extraction (HPE) 281–282 high-pressure induced transformation (Hi-Pit) 287–288 high-pressure thermal sterilization (HPTS) 256 HIPLEX process 124–126 Subject Index history of food processing 11–12 hollow-fiber membrane modules 197–198 homogenization 276–277, 392, 406 honey, pulsed light treatment 380 Hormel Foods Corporation 289 hot air drying, with microwave 424 hot air heating, with microwave 433–434 HPE (high-pressure extraction) 281–282 HPHT (high-pressure, hightemperature) 256 HPP see high hydrostatic pressure processing HPTS (high-pressure thermal sterilization) 256 hummus 272t, 288 hydrodiffusion 440–441 hydrophilic membranes 205 hydrophobic membranes 205 hypercin 110 hyperforin 110 ice cream 234, 400 IFS (International Food Standard) 61 immunoglobulin G (IgG) 222 implant sterilization 164 infrasonic backpulsing 219–220 inorganic membranes see ceramic membranes inspections, food 20–21, 27–28, 29, 30 International Food Standard (IFS) 61 international regulation and agreements 12, 35–36, 52, 64 international trade, and private standards 68–71 ionic strength, in membrane separations 204 irradiation (ionizing radiation) 23–24, 33, 74, 260 isoflavones 267, 282 Subject Index s Isoflux membranes 207–208 isotropic membranes 193 jams, fruit 279 Japanese white radish (Raphanus sativus) 327 Jatropha curcas 127, 128, 359, 360t jelly, fruit 267 jet impingement, with microwave 434 Johannesburg Declaration (2002) 36 juice extraction 320, 324, 393 juices see fruit juice Kasky vs Nike 67 KenicsTM static mixer 208 kiwi fruit 424 Klebsiella terrigena 377 KMS WINEFILTERTM 236 Kyoto Protocol (1997) 36 labeling Ecolabel 54–55 organic products 48–50, 61, 74 a-lactalbumin 271, 275 lactic acid 312 lactic acid bacteria 258 Lactobacillus plantarum 122 Lactobacillus rhamnosus 259 lactoferrin 222 b-lactoglobulin 271, 275, 281 lactose 234 lavender flowers 442 law, food see regulations lemon peel 402 liability, legal 67–68 life-cycle analysis, production 4–9 light see pulsed light lignin 117, 132, 133 limiting flux 199–200 linseed oil 127, 128, 211 lipase 161 lipids 266, 280, 316 see also terpenoids; triglycerides lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) 164 lipoxygenase (LOX) 161, 430 469 liquid foods containing particles see mixed phase systems liquids, liquid foods CO2 treatment 157–158 microwave pasteurization/ sterilization 434–435 optical penetration depth 374 pulsed light treatment 377 temperature profile prediction 331 ultrasound in 388–392 Liqui-Fluxs 236 Listeria innocua high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 258, 260 pulsed light treatment 372, 374, 376, 377, 378, 380 Listeria monocytogenes high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 258, 259, 260, 283, 289 pulsed light treatment 378 ultrasound treatment 405 longan fruit 282 low-power backpulsing 219–220 LOX (lipoxygenase) 161, 430 LPSs (lipopolysaccharides) 164 lupin meal 277 lychees 282 lycopenes 444 lysozyme 223, 260 Maastricht Treaty (1992) 16 MAD (microwave-assisted distillation) 438–440 MAE (microwave-assisted extraction) 442–443 maize see corn mannitol 105 manothermosonication (MTS) 405 manure, animal 133 MAP (modified atmosphere packaging) 153–154 marinating, ultrasound 403–404 Marks & Spencer plc 62–63 Marx generator 369 470 MASE (microwave-assisted solvent extraction) 437 mayonnaise 406 meat electrical conductivity 311 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 266, 268–269, 273t, 277–278 inspections (US) 27–28, 29–30 irradiation 33 ohmic heating 320–321 pasteurization 159t, 327–328 thawing 316, 401, 427 ultrasound brining 404 ultrasound drying 402 ultrasound tenderizing 402–403 meat products high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 261, 268–269, 273t, 280, 286t, 288–289 ohmic heating 320 packaging 329–330 pulsed light treatment 378 mechanisms of microbial inactivation 152–153, 154–157, 160, 258, 311–312, 371–372, 405 melon see Cucumis melo Membraloxs GP ceramic membranes 196fig, 207 membrane distillation (MD) 186–187 membrane filtration see membrane separations membrane modules see also membranes flat-sheet 194 hollow-fiber 197–198 multi-shaft disk (MSD) separators 211–213 rotating disk 209–211 spacers and turbulence promoters 208–209 spiral-wound 196–197, 208 tubular 195–196 vibrating (VSEP) 213–215 Subject Index membrane separations (filtration) acoustic filtration 223–226, 227, 393 applications brewing industry 211, 219, 220, 235–236 corn oil extraction 345 dairy products 186, 204, 222, 225, 232–235 fractionation with critical fluids 114 fruit juice 237 soy products 205, 238 sugar industry 237 vegetable juice 237 water 187 winemaking 186, 223, 236–237 compared with traditional technologies 229–232 definitions 188–189 economic aspects 231–232 electrically enhanced 221–223, 227 feed properties 203–205 flow manipulation 215–221 gas sparging 226–227 microfiltration (see microfiltration (MF)) nanofiltration (see nanofiltration (NF)) reverse osmosis (RO) 185–186, 225, 231, 234–235, 236–237 scouring particles 226 temperature and time 201 ultrafiltration (see ultrafiltration (UF)) ultrasound-assisted 223–226, 227, 393 membranes see also membrane modules ceramic 193, 196fig, 205, 207, 209–210, 212, 228, 229, 231 cleaning and sanitation 228–229 fouling 190–192, 199–201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 215, 217, 219, 220, 227 length 205–206 Subject Index organic polymeric 192–193, 205, 208, 228, 231 selection 205 structure 193 types 185–188 ultrasound damage 225 methanol, subcritical 98, 99fig MHG (microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity) 440–441 microbes 34, 150, 151t microbial inactivation blanching 428 CO2 121–122, 152–153, 154–160 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 258–262, 266 mechanisms 152–153, 154–157, 160, 258, 311–312, 371–372, 405 microwave 434–435 N2O 156, 157, 162–163 ohmic heating 311–312, 323 pulsed light 371–380 ultrasound 404–405 Micrococcus 258 microfiltration (MF) 185–186, 231 applications brewing industry 235 dairy products 233–234 fruit juice 237 pasteurization 230 soy products 238 sugar industry 237 winemaking 236 backpulsing 219 dynamic MF 238 feed properties 203, 204–205 and gas sparging 226 temperature 201 transmembrane pressure 200, 207–208 vibrating membrane modules 214 microorganisms 34, 150, 151t see also microbial inactivation microwave food processing baking 431–434 drying 422–424 extraction techniques 437–444 471 microwave hydrodiffusion and gravity (MHG) 440–441 microwave-assisted distillation (MAD) 438–440 microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) 442–443 microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MASE) 437 microwave-integrated Soxhlet extraction (MIS) 437, 439fig, 444 pasteurization/ sterilization 434–435 tempering 426–427 thawing 426 theory 416–418, 420–421 microwave ovens 418–420 milk, goat 227 milk, skim milk see also dairy products CO2 solubility 121 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 259, 262, 279, 280 membrane separations 232–235 demineralization 186 diafiltration 202 low-power backpulsing 220 microfiltration (MF) 202, 204, 205, 207, 208, 211, 212–213, 214, 218, 220, 233–234 reverse osmosis 211, 231 ultrafiltration (UF) 211, 214, 238 ohmic heating 323, 333 pasteurization/microbial inactivation 159t, 233, 259, 260, 323, 377, 434–435 ultrasound drying 402 ultrasound homogenization 406 milk fat, ultrasound crystallization 400 milk proteins 275–276 see also whey and whey proteins milk thistle 105 472 Millipore membrane cassettes 194 MIS (microwave-integrated Soxhlet extraction) 437, 439fig, 444 Mitsubishi Kakoki 171 mixed phase systems electrical conductivity 318 microwave sterilization 435 temperature profile prediction 331–333 ultrasound 390–392 modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 153–154 Motivatit Seafoods, Inc 289 moulds, release from 397 MTS (manothermosonication) 405 multi-flat-sheet membranes 208 multi-fluid processing 109–115 multi-phase fluid processing 116–122 multi-shaft disk (MSD) separators 211–213 mushrooms 279–280, 314–315, 424, 430 Mycoplasma gallinarum 155 myoglobin 278 N2 155, 217 N2O 155, 156, 157, 162–163 nanofiltration (NF) 185–186, 231 dairy products 234 feed properties 203, 204 soy products 238 sugar industry 237 vegetable juice 237 winemaking 236–237 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) 37 National Marine Fisheries Service 28 National Organic Program 48 NEPA (National Environmental Policy Act) 37 Nestle´ 60–61 New Image Natural Health Ltd 290 NGO organic standards 61 Nike, Inc see Kasky vs Nike NIR (near-infrared) 372, 433–434 Subject Index nisin 260 nitrogen (N2) 155, 217 nitrous oxide (N2O) 155, 156, 157, 162–163 NLEA (Nutrition Labeling and Education Act) 26–27 nutrient loss 312 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA) 26–27 nutritional properties 152, 267, 315 OFPA (Organic Foods Production Act) 34, 48 ohmic heating applications blanching 314–315 dehydration 319–320 egg 325–326 fish 321–322 fruit and fruit juice 324–325 meat 320–321 milk 323 parboiling 313–314 pasteurization 323, 325–326, 329–330 soymilk 323–324 sterilization 317–319 thawing 315–316 vegetables 326–327 basic principle 307–311 commercial uptake 318–319 control of electricity supply 328–329 economics 327–328 electrical conductivity of foods 311 microbial inactivation 311–312, 323 modeling 330–333 nutritional effects 312 packaging 329–330 oil palm, palm oil 112, 113fig, 128, 347t, 350 oils, essential 95, 107–108, 111, 117, 437–442, 443t Subject Index oils, vegetable see also individual oils extraction aqueous and aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AOE, AEOE) 347–359 aqueous microemulsion extraction 359 CO2-assisted 95–96, 122–129, 345 microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) 443–444 prepressing/hexane extraction (PPHE) 341, 342t pressing/expelling (PE) 341, 342t, 343–344 fractionation 109, 112 ultrasound crystallization 400 ultrasound emulsification 406 oilseeds see seeds, seed oil oleosins 346–347, 348 oligomeric compounds 132, 133 olive leaves 105 olives, olive oil 343, 347–350, 348 omega-3 114 omega-6 114 onions 114, 282 operator’s responsibility 20 optical penetration depth 374 orange crystals 401 orange juice 161, 267, 312, 325, 405, 434 orange peel 442 oregano 108, 115, 133 organic farming 24, 34, 47–51, 73–74 Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) 34, 48 organic polymeric membranes 192–193, 205, 208, 228, 231 organic products labeling 48–50, 61, 74 organoleptic compounds 95, 130, 280–281, 325, 441–442 osmotic dehydration, ultrasound 402 473 Our Common Future (Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) 35–36 ovalbumin 281 oxalic acid 117 oxidase 161 oxidation, ultrasound-assisted 407 ozone, as sterilization agent 164–165 packaging 153–154, 157, 166, 255, 329–330, 380 see also food contact materials PALLsepTM 214 palm, palm oil 112, 113fig, 128, 347t, 350 parboiling 313–314 particle-containing foods see mixed phase systems pasta, drying 423 pasteurization, cold 152–153, 287 microfiltration (MF) 207, 230, 233 supercritical fluids 121–122, 149–150, 152, 162–163, 167–173 and packaging 153–154, 157, 166 pasteurization, thermal energy equation 327–328 food quality 150–152 microwave 434–435 ohmic heating 323, 325–326, 329–330 time-temperature profiles 257fig ultrasound-assisted 404–405 patents, CO2 pasteurization/ sterilization 170–171, 172–173t PATP (pressure-assisted thermal processing) 256 PCSD see President’s Council on Sustainable Development PE see pectinesterase peanuts, peanut oil 347t, 355, 357t, 359 peas, pea pure´e 314, 326, 430, 431 pectin 223, 266–267, 444 474 pectinase 325, 350, 353 see also polygalacturonase pectinesterase (PE) (pectinmethylesterase) 122, 161, 270, 325, 405, 430 Pediociccus acidilactici 262 PEFs (pulsed electric fields) 319, 320, 331 pepper, black 379 PepsiCo 62 permeate backflow techniques 216–221 permeate flux 188, 199–203 backflushing 217 backpulsing 218–219, 220 flux recovery (cleaning efficiency) 228 peroxidase (POD) 161, 314, 326, 428, 430 pesticides 23, 28, 30, 32–33, 44–45 see also GlobalGAP pH critical fluids processing 117–122, 165 enzyme inactivation 161 membrane separations 204 microbial inactivation 156–157 in subcritical water extraction (SWE) 108 phages 163 phenolic compounds 105, 108, 112, 132, 152 see also anthocyanins; catechins; isoflavones; polyphenols; quercetin; tannins Phoenix Science and Technology 369 phosphates 268–269 phospholipase 353, 355 phospholipids 112 phystosterol 112 pickling, ultrasound 403–404 pigment extraction 444 b-pinene 117 PLA (poly(lactic acid)) 153 plant extraction 405–406 POD see peroxidase poliovirus 163, 377 Subject Index pollution prevention 52–54 polygalacturonase 270 poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 153 polymeric (organic) membranes 192–193, 205, 208, 228, 231 polyphenoloxidase (PPO) 122, 161, 261, 325, 428, 430 polyphenols 105, 107, 110, 114, 133–134, 152, 236 see also anthocyanins; catechins; isoflavones; quercetin; tannins polysaccharides 205, 211, 236, 266–267 pork, pork products electrical conductivity 320 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 268, 269, 278 thawing 316, 427 ultrasound brining 404 PoroCrit LLC 169, 171 Porocrit process 114 potassium lactate 260 potassium phosphate buffer 377 potato ohmic heating processes 315, 319, 320, 324, 326–327 pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 256 thawing 427 potato starch 432 poultry see also chicken; turkey high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 273t inspections (US) 27–28, 29, 30 ultrasound tenderizing 403 poultry feathers, hydrolysis 134 Poultry Products Inspection Act (PPIA) 30 powder dispersion, ultrasound 391–392 PPHE see prepressing/hexane extraction PPIA (Poultry Products Inspection Act) 30 PPO see polyphenoloxidase Subject Index Praxair 169–170, 171 pre-blanching methods 431 precautionary principle 19–20 prepressing/hexane extraction (PPHE) 341, 342t preservation 150 Preshafood Ltd (formerly Donny Boy) 287 President’s Council on Sustainable Development (PCSD) 37–38 pressing cold (CP) 342t, 343–344 cold pressing/centrifugation (CPC) 342t with critical fluids 122–129 enzyme-assisted (EAP) 342t, 348, 349t, 359, 360t gas-supported screw (GSSP) 124–126 pressing/expelling (PE) 341, 342t, 343–344 pressure see also entries under high hydrostatic pressure and highpressure pressure, effect on microbial inactivation 155–156, 258–262 pressure-assisted extraction 281–282 pressure-assisted thermal processing (PATP) 256 pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 256 pressure-driven membrane separations 185–186, 230 see also microfiltration; nanofiltration; reverse osmosis; ultrafiltration pressure-induced changes in food allergenicity/antigenicity 281 color 277–280 flavor 280–281 functional properties 263, 276–277 physico-chemical properties 262–267 textural and rheological properties 267–276 pressurized solvent extraction (PSE) 103–105 475 prions 164 private standards application to food sector 59–63 emergence of 57–59 international trade implications 68–71 legal and policy issues 63–68 processed meats see meat; meat products procyanidins 107 propan-2-ol 127 propolis 282 protease (proteinase) 161, 281, 313, 353, 355 see also trypsin PROTECTOR Project 56 proteins allergenicity 281 denaturation 230, 312–313, 323 extraction-reaction 133 fractionation/ precipitation 120–121 functional properties 276–277 high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 268, 270–271 membrane separations 219, 220, 222, 230 aggregation 199 membrane fouling 203, 204, 205 ultrasound-assisted filtration 225 pressure-induced changes 263–266 subcritical water extraction (SWE) 106 protocatechuic acid 133 PSE (pressurized solvent extraction) 103–105 Pseudomonas aeruginosa 158, 160 Pseudomonas fluorescens 405 public health 16–18 see also regulations pulsed electric fields (PEFs) 319, 320, 331 pulsed light applications curing 380–381 fruit and vegetables 378–379 476 pulsed light (continued) liquids 377 meat products 378 other 380–382 packaging materials 380 color of sample 373, 379 commercial systems 381–382 effect of lamp distance 375–376 effect of substrate 373–375 in-depth treatments 373 spectral and energetic characteristics 369–371 surfaces 373, 378–380 system components 367–369 pyrogallol 132 quality of food see food quality quercetin 101, 102fig, 114, 282 radiofrequency (RF) thawing 426 radish, Japanese white (Raphanus sativus) 327 rapeseed, canola aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AEOE) 355–357, 358t, 361 aqueous microemulsion extraction 359 CO2-assisted extraction 124 gas-assisted mechanical expression (GAME) 128 structure 347t subcritical water extraction (SWE) 105 RASFF (Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed) 21 raspberries 319 ready-to-eat products and meals (RTE) high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 260–261, 272–273t, 283, 287–288, 295 ohmic heating 326–327 red kidney bean protein 281 Regulation (EC) 178/2002 18–19, 19–20, 21 Subject Index regulations comparative law 13–14 EU food law 14, 15–24, 71–72, 286 international regulation and agreements 12, 35–36, 52, 64 private standards application to food sector 59–63 emergence of 57–59 international trade implications 68–71 legal and policy issues 63–68 US food law 14, 25–34, 71–72 release from moulds 397 resources, sustainable use 4–9 retailers 58–59, 62–63 reverse asymmetric membranes 220 reverse osmosis (RO) 185–186, 231 brewing industry 236 dairy products 234–235 fruit juice 237 sugar industry 237 and ultrasound-assisted filtration 225 winemaking 236–237 rheological properties 267–276, 267–277 Rhodiola sachalinensis 282 rice high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 272t, 281, 287–288 parboiling by ohmic heating 313–314 thawing 427 ultrasound drying 401 rice bran, rice bran oil aqueous and aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AOE, AEOE) 355, 357t fractionation 112 multi-fluid processing 109 structure 347t subcritical water treatment 133–134 Subject Index Rio Declaration (1992) 36 ripening, cheese 276 risk assessment 17–18, 19, 24 risk management 19 Rodilla (Spanish restaurant chain) 290 Rome Treaty (1957) 15, 16 rosemary extraction 105, 107, 115, 406, 442 as natural antioxidant 266, 280 rotating disk modules 209–211 rotavirus SA11 377 rutin 406 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 162, 372, 377, 378–379 Safe Quality Food (SQF) 2000 61 SAFEWASTES Project 56 SAI see Sustainable Agriculture Initiative salidroside extraction 282 salmon high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 264t, 269 ohmic heating 321–322 pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 256 pulsed light treatment 378 salmon, smoked 279 Salmonella 258, 260, 379 salsas 272t, 273t, 288 salt (NaCl) 268–269, 311, 321, 333, 403–404 scCO2 see CO2, dense phase SCFCAH (Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health) 19 scouring particles 226, 229 seafood see also fish; shellfish CO2 treatment 159t, 160t high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 264–265t, 274t, 286t, 289–290 inspections (US) 28 thawing 316, 427 Sector Strategies Program 53 477 seeds, seed oil aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AEOE) 355–357, 358t, 359, 360t, 361 critical fluid and expellers 122–129 scCO2 extraction 95–96 structure 345–347 ultrasound-assisted extraction 405–406 selectivity, membrane 189 separation (filtration) see membrane separations separation efficiency 189 sequential extraction process (SEP) 345 Serratia marcescens 377 sesame oil 95–96, 128 SFE see supercritical fluid extraction SFME (solvent-free microwave extraction) 438–440 shelf-life 260–262, 264–265t shellfish 262, 279 see also seafood shellfish toxin 159t, 163 Shimadzu 171 silybinin 101, 102fig, 105 silymarin 101, 105 Sinclair, Upton 25 Single European Act (1986) 16 skim milk see milk, skim milk sodium chloride 268–269, 311, 321, 333, 403–404 solid foods, CO2 treatment 158 solid objects, sterilization 164–166 solid-liquid systems see mixed phase systems solvent extraction see also CO2, dense phase ethanol extraction 344–345 hexane extraction (HE) 341, 342t, 343, 344, 361 microwave-assisted (MASE) 437 pressurized (PSE) 103–105 solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) 438–440 solvents, hot liquid see subcritical fluids 478 solvents, pressurized liquid see subcritical fluids sonication see ultrasound Sophora japonica 406 Soxhlet extraction, microwaveassisted 437, 439fig, 444 soy proteins 120–121, 186, 270–271, 276–277, 281 soy sauce 238 soybean meal 133 soybeans, soybean oil extraction aqueous and aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AOE, AEOE) 355, 356t CO2-assisted 117, 124–126 critical fluid with expeller 127 economics 359 high-pressure 282 juice extraction 324 membrane separations 205, 238 multi-fluid processing 112 protein precipitation 120–121 pulsed light treatment 378 structure 347t thawing 427 soymilk high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 262, 267, 271 ohmic heating 323–324 sparker technology (pulsed light) 369 spices 94–95, 108 see also black pepper; ginger spinach 160t, 378, 431 spiral-wound membrane modules 196–197, 208 spoilage enzymatic 161, 428–431 microbial 150, 151t SPS (Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures) 68–71 SQF (Safe Quality Food) 2000 61 St John’s wort 110 Subject Index stainless steel, pulsed light treatment 374, 375 standards see private standards; regulations Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health (SCFCAH) 19 Staphylococcus aureus 155, 157, 260, 377 starch microwave heating 432 ohmic heating 313 pressure-induced changes 266–267 ultrasonic depolymerization 396 starch paste, thawing 427 static discharge lamps 369 sterilization biomedical applications 164–166 CO2 164–166, 170–171, 172–173t microwave 434–435 ohmic heating 317–319 and packaging 153–154, 157, 166 pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 256–257 time-temperature profiles 257fig ultrasound-assisted 404–405 SteriPulse-XL Systems 381 strawberries, strawberry pure´e 267, 279, 281, 379, 427 Streptococcus thermophilus 323 subcritical fluids 97–108 water 98–108, 114–115, 117–122 multi-fluid processing 109–112 reactions 130–135 sugar beet 320, 324 sugar(s) CO2 absorption 118 effect on electrical conductivity 311 membrane separations 186, 237 microwave drying 424fig solute diffusion coefficients 101 ultrasound drying 402 sulfured water, extraction efficiency 108 Subject Index sunflower seeds, sunflower oil aqueous and aqueous enzymatic oil extraction (AOE, AEOE) 357, 358t aqueous microemulsion extraction 359 critical fluid processing 114 critical fluid with expeller 127 structure 347t supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 8–9, 94–96, 109–115, 342t, 345 with expellers 122–129 with reactions 116–121, 129–130 ultrasound-assisted 406 supercritical fluid pasteurization 121–122, 149–150, 152, 162–163, 167–173 commercial apects 167–173 and packaging 153–154, 157, 166 supercritical fluids see CO2, dense phase; N2O surfaces pulsed light treatment 373, 374, 378, 380 ultrasound cleaning 390–391 ultrasound-assisted release 397 surimi 312–313, 316, 322 susceptors 433 sustainability agriculture 41–51, 60–61 food production and processing 52–57 historical development 34–41 overview 11–15 private standards 57–71 processing 1–5 resource use and re-use 4–9 Sustainable Agriculture Initiative (SAI) Platform 60–61 sweet potato 320, 324, 435 symmetric membranes 193 Tami Industries ceramic tubular membranes 196fig 479 tangential filtration see crossflow filtration tannins 205, 236 tapioca starch 432 TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) 316 TBT (Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade) 68, 69–71 tea 105 tempering 425–427 tenderizing meat 402–403 tenderness, meat 268 terpenoids 107–108 terrorism 27, 30–31 Tesco plc 63 textile cleaning 147 textural properties 267–276, 423 thawing 315–316, 400–401, 425–427 thermosonication (TS) 405 thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) 316 third-party certification 65 TMP see transmembrane pressure tocopherol 112 tofu 262, 271 tomato pure´e 280, 282 toxins 159t, 163–164 traceability 20, 31 transgenic organisms see genetically modified organisms transglutaminase 269 transmaterialization 4–5 transmembrane pressure (TMP) 188–189, 199–200, 205–208 during cleaning 229 transparency principles 20 Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) 17, 39 Treaty of Maastricht (1992) 16 Treaty of Rome (1957) 15, 16 Trichoderma reesei 353 triglycerides 114, 117, 400, 443–444 trypsin 281 TS (thermosonication) 405 tubular membrane modules 195–196, 208–209, 210fig, 212 480 tuna 264t, 269–270, 279 turkey 268 see also poultry Tyson Foods 62 UHT milk 214, 259 ultrafiltration (UF) 185–186 applications dairy products 234 fractionation of protein hydrolyzates 238 fruit juice 237 soy products 238 sugar industry 237 crossflushing 216 electrically enhanced 222–223 feed properties 203, 204 temperature 201 turbulence promotion 208–209 ultrasound applications ageing 406–407 brining, pickling, marinating 403–404 cooking 396–397 crystallization 399, 400 cutting 397–399 defoaming 393–394 degassing 394–395 demoulding 397 depolymerization 395–396 drying 401–402 emulsification/ homogenization 406 extraction 360t, 405–406 extrusion 397 freezing 399–400 membrane separations 223–226, 227, 392–393 pasteurization/ sterilization 404–405 tenderizing meat 402–403 thawing 400–401 gaseous systems 392 liquid systems 388–392 solid-liquid systems 390–392 Subject Index uniform transmembrane pressure (UTP) 206–208, 227 Unilever 60–61 United Nations 35–36, 57 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 64 United States (US) food law 14, 25–34, 71–72 organic farming 47–50, 73–74 private standards 57–71 sustainability approach 37–39, 73 sustainable agriculture 42–45 sustainable food production and processing 52–54, 74 use of high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 283 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 26, 27–28, 30, 32–33, 34, 42–44 UTP see uniform transmembrane pressure UV light 369, 371–376 vacuum heat thawing (VHT) 425 vacuum microwave drying (VMD) 423–424 vacuum microwave hydrodistillation (VMHD) 438 vanillic acid 133 vanillin 130, 133 variable-volume diafiltration (VVD) 202–203 vegetable oils see oils, vegetable vegetables, vegetable products blanching 428–431 CO2 treatment 159t, 160t high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 261, 272–273t, 286t, 287–288 juice extraction 324 ohmic heating 312, 326–327 pressure-assisted thermal sterilization (PATS) 256–257 pulsed light treatment 378–379 thawing 427 ultrasound-assisted drying 402 481 Subject Index VHT (vacuum heat thawing) 425 vinegar, membrane separation 238 viruses 163 visible light, potential role in microbial inactivation 372 vitamins 101, 152, 267, 325, 431 see also carotenoids; tocopherol VMD (vacuum microwave drying) 423–424 VMHD (vacuum microwave hydrodistillation) 438 volume concentration ratio (VCR) 188 volume-decreasing diafiltration 202–203 VSEP (vibratory shear enhanced processing) system 213–215 VVD (variable-volume diafiltration) 202–203 Wal-Mart Stores Inc 63 waste management 54, 56 wastewater treatment 52, 238–239, 312–313 water membrane separations 187, 215 pressure-induced changes in 263 subcritical 98–108, 114–115, 117–122 multi-fluid processing 109–112 reactions 130–135 water thawing 425 WCED see World Commission on Environment and Development Weibull model 376–377 Westfalia separators 212 wheat bran 133 wheat dough 262 wheat flour 379 wheat germ, wheat germ oil 112, 347t wheat starch 432 whey and whey proteins see also bovine serum albumin high hydrostatic pressure processing (HPP) 275–277, 279, 280, 281 membrane separations 186, 204, 222, 225, 233, 234 subcritical water extractionreaction 135 ultrasound processing 225, 396 Whole Foods Market, Inc 63 Wiley, Harvey 25 winemaking carbonic maceration 130 membrane separations 186, 223, 236–237 ultrasound processing 395, 407 World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987 (Brundtland Commission) 35–36 World Health Organization (WHO) 64 World Trade Organization (WTO) 68–71 Xenon Corporation 381 xenon flashlamps 368–369, 369–370, 372 xylanases, commercial 353 yeasts see also Saccharomyces cerevisiae extraction (brewer’s yeast) 101, 106, 134 inactivation mechanisms 156 ohmic heating 312 pulsed light treatment 378–379 membrane separations backflushing 217 backpulsing 219 microfiltration (MF) 199, 203, 214–215, 219, 226 microfiltration of enzymes 205 ultrasound-assisted 225 yogurt 275, 276 zein 345 ... since then, food processing evolved into a set of scientific methods and techniques that convert raw food into edible, usable, RSC Green Chemistry No 10 Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing. .. products The principles of green chemistry were first outlined in RSC Green Chemistry No 10 Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing Edited by Andrew Proctor r Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Published... 2.3.4 Sustainable Food Production in the US and in the EU RSC Green Chemistry No 10 Alternatives to Conventional Food Processing Edited by Andrew Proctor r Royal Society of Chemistry 2011 Published