Bacterial Diseases in Humans

Bacterial Diseases in Humans tài liệu, giáo án, bài giảng , luận văn, luận án, đồ án, bài tập lớn về tất cả các lĩnh vực...

Int. J. Med. Sci. 2011, 8 http://www.medsci.org 192 IInntteerrnnaattiioonnaall JJoouurrnnaall ooff MMeeddiiccaall SScciieenncceess 2011; 8(3):192-197 Research Paper Effect of Acute Administration of an Herbal Preparation on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate in Humans John G. Seifert1, Aaron Nelson2, Julia Devonish2, Edmund R. Burke3, and Sidney J. Stohs4 1. Movement Science/Human Performance Laboratory, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA 2. Human Performance Laboratory, St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN, USA 3. Dept of Biology, Colorado University – Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, CO, USA 4. School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Creighton University Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA  Corresponding author: john.seifert@montana.edu, 406-994-7154 © Ivyspring International Publisher. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Reproduction is permitted for personal, noncommercial use, provided that the article is in whole, unmodified, and properly cited. Received: 2010.10.05; Accepted: 2011.01.31; Published: 2011.03.02 Abstract Confusion and controversy exist regarding the cardiovascular effects of dietary supplements containing caffeine and Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) extract. The primary protoalkaloidal ingredient in bitter orange extract is p-synephrine which has some structural similarities to ephedrine and nor-epinehrine, but exhibits markedly different pharmacokinetic and receptor binding properties. The goal of this study was to investigate the cardiovascular effects of a product containing caffeine, bitter orange extract (p-synephrine) and green tea extract in mildly overweight individuals. Fourteen female and nine male subjects (age 24.7 +7.4 yrs, BMI: 26.6 +3.8) volunteered in this randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover, double-blind de-signed study. On day one, subjects entered the laboratory following an overnight fast. Heart rate and blood pressure were recorded at 60 min. Expired air was analyzed for the next 10 min of the session. At each of three meals, subjects ingested one capsule that was either a non-caloric placebo or a dietary supplement that contained 13 mg p-synephrine and 176 mg caffeine. On the following day, the subjects returned and repeated the protocol for data collection beginning 60 min after consuming one capsule of the placebo or the dietary sup-plement. No effects of the dietary supplement on heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure or mean arterial pressure were observed. No between or within group differences were observed when data were analyzed for gender and caffeine usage. A small but significant decrease in resting respiratory exchange ratio was observed for the low caffeine user group in response to the product containing caffeine and p-synephrine. The results of this study in-dicate that ingestion of a product containing bitter orange extract, caffeine and green tea extract does not lead to increased cardiovascular stress and that fat oxidation may increase in certain populations. Key words: Citrus aurantium, p-synephrine, blood pressure, heart rate, bitter orange, caffeine, green tea Introduction Approximately two-thirds of the adult American population are overweight while about one-third is by definition considered to be obese [1]. The increase in obesity is associated with increased incidences of di-abetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemias, Bacterial Diseases in Humans Bacterial Diseases in Humans Bởi: OpenStaxCollege Devastating pathogen-borne diseases and plagues, both viral and bacterial in nature, have affected humans since the beginning of human history The true cause of these diseases was not understood at the time, and some people thought that diseases were a spiritual punishment Over time, people came to realize that staying apart from afflicted persons, and disposing of the corpses and personal belongings of victims of illness, reduced their own chances of getting sick Epidemiologists study how diseases affect a population An epidemic is a disease that occurs in an unusually high number of individuals in a population at the same time A pandemic is a widespread, usually worldwide, epidemic An endemic disease is a disease that is constantly present, usually at low incidence, in a population Long History of Bacterial Disease There are records about infectious diseases as far back as 3000 B.C A number of significant pandemics caused by bacteria have been documented over several hundred years Some of the most memorable pandemics led to the decline of cities and nations In the 21st century, infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide, despite advances made in medical research and treatments in recent decades A disease spreads when the pathogen that causes it is passed from one person to another For a pathogen to cause disease, it must be able to reproduce in the host’s body and damage the host in some way The Plague of Athens In 430 B.C., the Plague of Athens killed one-quarter of the Athenian troops that were fighting in the great Peloponnesian War and weakened Athens’ dominance and power The plague impacted people living in overcrowded Athens as well as troops aboard ships that had to return to Athens The source of the plague may have been identified recently when researchers from the University of Athens were able to use DNA from teeth recovered from a mass grave The scientists identified nucleotide sequences from a 1/11 Bacterial Diseases in Humans pathogenic bacterium, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi ([link]), which causes typhoid fever Papagrigorakis MJ, Synodinos PN, and Yapijakis C Ancient typhoid epidemic reveals possible ancestral strain of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi Infect Genet Evol (2007): 126–7, Epub 2006 Jun This disease is commonly seen in overcrowded areas and has caused epidemics throughout recorded history Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, the causative agent of Typhoid fever, is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped gamma protobacterium Typhoid fever, which is spread through feces, causes intestinal hemorrhage, high fever, delirium and dehydration Today, between 16 and 33 million cases of this re-emerging disease occur annually, resulting in over 200,000 deaths Carriers of the disease can be asymptomatic In a famous case in the early 1900s, a cook named Mary Mallon unknowingly spread the disease to over fifty people, three of whom died Other Salmonella serotypes cause food poisoning (credit: modification of work by NCI, CDC) Bubonic Plagues From 541 to 750, an outbreak of what was likely a bubonic plague (the Plague of Justinian), eliminated one-quarter to one-half of the human population in the eastern Mediterranean region The population in Europe dropped by 50 percent during this outbreak Bubonic plague would strike Europe more than once One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death (1346 to 1361) that is believed to have been another outbreak of bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis It is thought to have been contracted initially in China and spread along the Silk Road, a network of land and sea trade routes, to the Mediterranean region and Europe, carried by rat fleas living on black rats that were always present on ships The Black Death reduced the world’s population from an estimated 450 million to about 350 to 375 million Bubonic plague struck London hard again in the mid-1600s ([link]) In modern times, approximately 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague arise globally each year Although contracting bubonic plague before antibiotics meant almost certain death, the 2/11 Bacterial Diseases in Humans bacterium responds to several types of modern antibiotics, and mortality rates from plague are now very low The (a) Great Plague of London killed an estimated 200,000 people, or about twenty percent of the city’s population The causative agent, the (b) bacterium Yersinia pestis, is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium from the class Gamma Proteobacteria The disease is transmitted through the bite of an infected flea, which is infected by a rodent Symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, fever, seizure, vomiting of blood, and (c) gangrene (credit b: Rocky Mountain Laboratories, NIAID, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit c: Textbook of Military Medicine, Washington, D.C., U.S Dept of the Army, Office of the Surgeon General, Borden Institute) Link to Learning Watch a ... 1. 81. 8 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 II.1.8 Alkyl nitrites by Yasuo Seto Introduction Alkyl nitrites are highly volatile organic solvents of aliphatic alcohol esters of nitrites [1]. Amyl nitrite a , butyl nitrite and isobutyl nitrite are the representative alkyl nitrites; their boiling points are 98, 78 and 67 °C, respectively. Amyl nitrite is being widely used as a detoxicant for cyanide poisoning, because alkyl nitrites oxidize hemoglobin in erythrocytes to yield methemogloblin, which is bound with cyanide to inactivate it [1]. Alkyl nitrites also show a coronary artery-di- lating e ect, and had been, therefore, used for the treatment of angina pectoris many years ago [2]; the pharmacological e ect of the dilation of the coronary arteries was found due to the action of nitrogen monoxide produced by decomposition of alkyl nitrites [3].  ey are being mainly used as materials for manufacturing drugs or as reagents for synthesis in industries; they are also used as aromatics. Because of their pharmacological e ect, alkyl nitrites are being abused as uncontrolled inhalant drugs and causing a social problem [4]. Although there are many reports on toxic and fatal cases due to alkyl nitrites [5], reports on their fatal doses are few; it is estimated that oral ingestion of 10–15 mL of each alkyl nitrite causes serious methe- moglobinemia [6].  e LD 50 value for an alkyl nitrite is reported to be 205 mg/kg.  ere are not many cases of analysis of alkyl nitrites in the  eld of forensic toxicology. In this chapter, the methods for analysis of the compounds by headspace (HS)-gas chromatography (GC) and liquid-liquid extraction-GC are presented. Determination of isobutyl nitrite in aqueous solution by headspace-GC Reagents and their preparation • A 115-µL volume (100 mg) of isobutyl nitrite (Tokyo Kasei Kogyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan and other manufacturers) is dissolved in acetone to prepare 10 mL stock solution (10 mg/ mL, preservable for a week in a refrigerator) b .  e stock solution is diluted 2,000-fold with acetone to prepare standard solution (5 µg/mL). • A 124-µL volume (100 mg) of isobutyl alcohol (obtainable from many manufacturers) is dissolved in acetone to prepare 10 mL stock solution (10 mg/mL, preservable in an airtight container at room temperature).  e stock solution is diluted 2,000-fold with acetone to prepare standard solution (5 µg/mL). 154 Alkyl nitrites GC conditions GC column: a polar fused silica capillary column ( HP-Wax, 30 m × 0.25 mm i. d.,  lm thick- ness 0.25 µm, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA). GC conditions c : an HP 6890 Series gas chromatograph (Agilent Technologies); injection mode: split with its ratio 30; injection temperature: 200 °C; detector: FID; detector tempera- ture: 220 °C; carrier gas: He; its  ow rate: 0.67 mL/min; column (oven) temperature: 40 °C (3 min) → 15 °C/min → 115 °C. MS conditions: transfer line temperature: 280 °C; ion source temperature: 200 °C; ioniza- tion mode: EI; electron energy: 70 eV; ionization current: 60 µΑ. Procedure i. A 0.25-mL volume of a specimen d , 0.5 mL of 1 M phosphate bu er solution (pH 7), 0.2 mL distilled water and 0.05 mL acetone are placed in a glass vial with a septum screw cap (8 mL volume, external diameter 17 mm, height 6 cm, GL Sciences, Tokyo, Japan) and airtightly stoppered with a cap with a Tuf-Bond TM disc (PTFE/silicone septum). ii.  e vial is incubated at 30 °C for 10 min on a Type-D aluminum block heater (Reacti-  erm TM , Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA) to gain an equilibrium. iii. A 0.5-mL volume 8.28.2 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 II.8.2 VX and its decomposition products by Munehiro Katagi and Hitoshi Tsuchihashi Introduction An organophosphorus nerve agent VX ( O-ethyl S-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphono- thiolate, > Figure 2.1) shows potent inhibitory action on acetylcholinesterase; its develop- ment, production, stockpiling and use are being prohibited by the CWC international treaty as a chemical weapon together with those of sarin and soman. In addition, even material com- pounds for VX synthesis are being also controlled strictly. In the world history, there had been no records on the use of VX in any international dis- pute. However, in December 1994, a murder terrorism incident using VX committed by a cult group took place in Osaka, Japan.  e very high poisoning potency of VX proven in the inci- dent surprised the whole world with a shock and anxiety. VX is easily hydrolyzed under alkaline conditions, and also in the environmental water and soil to produce ethylmethylphosphonic acid (EMPA) and further methylphosphonic acid (MPA) [1]. VX is rapidly hydrolyzed by both chemical and enzymatic reactions in mammalian bodies to produce EMPA and 2-(diisopropylaminoethyl)methyl sul de ( DAEMS) a .  ese metabolites or decomposition products are detected for veri cation of the use of VX [2]. Many methods for EMPA and MPA mainly in environmental water and soil were reported using ion chromatography with indirect photometric detection [3], capillary electrophoresis [4], GC/MS a er methylation [5], silylation [6–8] and penta uorobenzyl (PFB) derivatization [9, 10], LC/MS [11] and CE/MS [12, 13] both without any derivatization, LC/MS a er deriva- tization and LC/MS/MS [14]. In actual terrorism cases using VX, the detection of its metabo- lite products from urine and blood is essential. In this chapter, the details for GC/MS analysis of VX metabolites in human serum b are described. Structures of VX and its hydrolyzed products/metabolites. ⊡ Figure 2.1 620 VX and its decomposition products Reagent and their preparation • A 10-mg aliquot of EMPA (Aldrich, Milwaukee, WI, USA) is dissolved in 10 mL distilled water (1 mg/mL) to prepare aqueous stock solution. Just before use, the solution is appro- priately diluted with blank human serum to prepare the standard specimens. • A 10-mg aliquot of DAEMS is dissolved in 100 mL distilled water to prepare aqueous stock solution (100 µg/mL). Just before use, the solution is appropriately diluted with blank human serum to prepare the standard specimens. DAEMS can be synthesized by reacting 2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl chloride hydrochloride c (Aldrich) with sodium thiomethoxide (Aldrich) [2]. • A 10-mg aliquot of diphenylmethane (DPM, internal standard = IS, Aldrich and other manufacturers) is dissolved in 100 mL acetonitrile (100 µg/mL). • N-Methyl-N-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)tri uoroacetamide + 1 % tert-butyldimethylchlo- rosilane (Pierce, Rockford, IL, USA) is directly used for tert-butyldimethylsilyl (t-BDMS) derivatization. • A 1-mg aliquot of 2-(diisopropylaminoethyl)methoxide (DAEMO, IS) is dissolved in 100 mL dichloromethane (10 µg/mL). DAEMO can be synthesized by reacting 2-(diiso propyl- amino)ethyl chloride hydrochloride with sodium methoxide (Aldrich and other manufac- turers) [2]. • Other reagents are of the highest purity commercially available. GC/MS conditions GC column: a DB-1 fused silica capillary column (30 m × 0.32 mm i.d.,  lm thickness 0.25 µm, J&W Scienti c, Folsom, CA, USA). GC/MS conditions d ; instrument: 2.22.2 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 II.2.2 Cannabinoids and their metabolites by Kazuhito Watanabe Introduction  e plant Cannabis sativa L. has a long history for human being since about BC 2000 for its use as  ber material, food and folk medicine; cannabis ( hemp, marijuana) means the whole plant itself and its dried products except for its stem and seeds.  e word “ hashish” is mainly used for the resin of the cannabis plant. Since the main component of cannabis, ∆ 9 -tetrahydrocannabi- nol ( ∆ 9 -THC), has various psychopharmacological e ects including hallucination, the can- nabis and its components are being controlled under the Cannabis Control Law and the Narcotics Control Law in Japan. For such legal control, analysis of cannabis components and their metabolites is required for plant specimens and human specimens.  e cannabis contains more than 60 analogous components with a C 21 skeleton; they are comprehensively called “cannabinoids”.  e main cannabinoids are ∆ 9 -THC, cannabidiol ( CBD) and cannabinol ( CBN).  e major metabolic pathway of ∆ 9 -THC is shown in > Fig. 2.1; the methyl group in the 11-position is oxidized to produce ∆ 9 -THC-11-oic acid to be excreted into urine [1, 2]. To diagnose the abuse of cannabis or its component, the analysis of ∆ 9 -THC-11-oic acid in urine is essential. In this chapter, a GC method for analysis of cannabis components in plant specimens and a GC/MS method for ∆ 9 -THC-11-oic acid in urine are presented. Major metabolic pathway of ∆ 9 -THC. ⊡ Figure 2.1 188 Cannabinoids and their metabolites GC analysis of cannabinoids in plant specimens a Reagents and their preparation • Extraction and puri cation of cannabinoids [3]: Cannabis sativa L. is being grown at Hokuriku University, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences with permission from the Government.  e dried plant is minced and immersed in 20 volumes of methanol for 2 days for extraction; this procedure is repeated once.  e combined methanolic extracts are evaporated to dryness.  e residue is decarboxylated by heating at 140 °C for 20 min.  e treated residue is applied to a 20 volumes (against the weight of the plant) of  orisil and eluted with benzene for partial puri cation to remove chlorophyl. Finally, column chromatography with 50 volumes of silica gel is performed using benzene/n-hexane/diethylamine (25:10:1, v/v) as eluting solvent for getting each cannabinoid standard. • ∆ 9 -THC, CBD and CBN are separately dissolved in ethanol to prepare 0.05–0.5 mg/mL standard solution for each compound b . • 5α-Cholestane (Sigma, St. Louis, MO, USA) is dissolved in ethanol to prepare a 0.5 mg/mL solution for use as internal standard (IS). GC conditions GC column [4]: a fused silica capillary column (slightly polar), HP-5MS (30 m × 0.25 mm i. d.,  lm thickness 0.25 µm, Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA); MDN-5S (30 m× 0.25 mm i. d.,  lm thickness 0.25 µm, Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). GC conditions; an Autosystem XL (Perkin Elmer, Wellesley, MA, USA) and an FID were used. Column (oven) temperature: 50°C (2 min) →20 °C/min→200 °C(0.5 min)→5 °C/min→ 300 °C(5 min); injection temperature: 250 °C c ; carrier gas ( ow rate): He (1 mL/min); FID gas ( ow rate): air (400 mL/min) and H 2 (40 mL/min); make-up gas ( ow rate): N 2 (30 mL/min); injection volume: 1 µL (split ratio 1/50). Procedure i. A dried specimen is minced and extracted with 10 volumes of methanol with stirring for 10 min at room temperature. ii.  e above methanol extract is condensed or diluted to an appropriate amount and 2.32.3 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005 II.2.3 Morphine and its analogues by Hideyuki Yamada and Kazuta Oguri Introduction  ere are a number of compounds, such as morphine and codeine, which are classi ed into the opium alkaloids ( opiates).  ey are being used as ethical drugs of narcotic analgesics and anti- tussives; 1 % powder of codeine or dihydrocodeine is commonly included in over-the-counter drugs of antitussives. > Figure 3.1 shows metabolic pathways of morphine, heroin and codeine. Since morphine and codeine are  nally excreted into urine in the conjugated forms with glucuronic acid [1–3], it is necessary to hydrolyze the conjugated forms of these compounds before GC/MS analysis. Heroin is rapidly deacetylated and  nally excreted into urine as morphine glucuronides.  ere- fore, it is not easy to discriminate the heroin use from morphine use [4, 5].  e detection of 6-acetylmorphine is recommendable for diagnosis of heroin use, because of its relatively long half-life in the body [4]. For accurate diagnosis of a cause of death in an opiate poisoning case, the ratio of a free form to a conjugated form becomes important (see section 4 of this chapter). In such a case, an opiate before (free form) and a er (a total amount) hydrolysis should be analyzed.  e amount of a conjugated form can be calculated by subtracting the amount of a free form from the total amount. By HPLC, the simultaneous analysis of free and conjugated forms is possible without any hydrolysis; in the near future, LC/MS may become a main tool for analysis of opiates and their metabolites. However, at the present time, GC/MS is being widely used for opiate analysis. For HPLC analysis of the conjugated forms of opiates, the authentic standards of mor- phine-3-glucuronide (M-3-G) and morphine-6-glucuronide (M-6-G) are necessary. In U.S.A. and Europe, it is easy to obtain these authentic compounds from commercial sources, but the import of these compounds to Japan is strictly controlled; easing of import of such compounds should be realized. GC and GC/MS analysis Reagents and their preparation • Ethylmorphine (internal standard, IS) a solution: a 1-mg aliquot of ethylmorphine hydro- chloride (Sankyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) is dissolved in puri ed water to prepare 1 mg/mL solution. A 0.1-mL aliquot of this solution is mixed with 1.9 mL of puri ed water for 20-fold dilution (the  nal concentration in the form of the hydrochloride salt: 50 µg/mL), which is stored at –20 °C. 196 Morphine and its analogues Main metabolic pathways of morphine, heroin and codeine. The thick and thin arrows show the main and minor metabolic pathways, respectively. ⊡ Figure 3.1 197 • Standard solutions of morphine for a calibration curve (2, 6 and 20 µg/mL): a 1-mg aliquot of morphine hydrochloride (Shionogi & Co, Ltd., Osaka, Japan and other manufacturers) is dissolved in puri ed water to prepare 1 mg/mL solution; 0.1 mL of this solution is mixed with 4.9 mL puri ed water for 50-fold dilution (20 µg/mL).  e latter solution is diluted 3.33-fold and 10-fold to prepare 6 and 2 µg/mL solutions, respectively, which are also stored at –20 °C. For preparing the standard solutions to be used for a calibration curve of 6-acetylmorphine hydrochloride or codeine phosphate (Shionogi & Co.), the same dilution procedure is followed. 6-Acetylmorphine hydrochloride can be synthesized ... B.C Infectious diseases remain among the leading causes of death worldwide Emerging diseases are those rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range They can be new or re-emerging diseases. .. years ([link]) This strain is resistant to many commonly used antibiotics, including methicillin, amoxicillin, penicillin, and oxacillin MRSA can cause infections of the skin, but it can also infect... emerging infectious diseases affecting humans are zoonotic diseases, zoonoses, diseases that primarily infect animals and are transmitted to humans; some are of viral origin and some are of bacterial