EARTH SCIENCE geology, the environment, and the universe 2008 (11)

BIG Idea Precipitation and infiltration contribute to groundwater, which is stored in underground reservoirs until it surfaces as a spring or is drawn from a well 10.1 Movement and Storage of Groundwater MAIN Idea Groundwater reservoirs provide water to streams and wetlands wherever the water table intersects the surface of the ground 10.2 Groundwater Weathering and Deposition MAIN Idea Chemical weathering of limestone by water causes the characteristic topography of karst areas 10.3 Groundwater Supply MAIN Idea Water is not always available in the quantities and in the locations where it is needed and might be compromised by pollution GeoFacts • The Strokkur geyser in Iceland erupts every to 10 minutes • The eruptions of Strokkur geyser reach heights of more than 30 m • There are around 1000 geysers in the world 250 Yvain Genevay/Geologos/CORBIS Groundwater Start-Up Activities Threats to the Water Supply Make this Foldable to summarize the major problems that threaten groundwater supplies LAUNCH Lab How is water stored underground? Beneath your feet, there are vast amounts of water This water fills in the pore spaces and fractures in rock and unconsolidated sediment In this activity, you will model groundwater storage STEP Fold a sheet of paper in half lengthwise STEP Fold the sheet in half and then into thirds STEP Unfold and cut along the fold lines of the top flap to make six tabs Procedure Read and complete the lab safety form Fill a 250-mL graduated cylinder with fine, dry sand Fill another 250-mL graduated cylinder with water Pour water from the second cylinder into the sand-filled cylinder until the water level is flush with the surface of the sand Measure and record the volume of saturated sand in the cylinder Measure and record how much water is left in the second cylinder Repeat the experiment twice using coarse sand and clay Analysis Describe how much water is present in the saturated fine sand, coarse sand, and clay Calculate the ratio of water volume to the volume of fine sand, coarse sand, and clay, and express the value as a percentage Infer how many liters of water could be stored in a cubic meter of each sediment Label the tabs as you read Overuse STEP FOLDABLES Use this Foldable with Section 10.3 As you read this section, summarize the problems that can threaten groundwater Visit glencoe.com to study entire chapters online; explore • Interactive Time Lines • Interactive Figures • Interactive Tables animations: access Web Links for more information, projects, and activities; review content with the Interactive Tutor and take Self-Check Quizzes Section 1Chapter • XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 10 • Groundwater 251 Doug Martin Section 10 10.1 Objectives ◗ Describe how groundwater storage and underground movement relate to the water cycle ◗ Illustrate an aquifer and an aquiclude ◗ Relate the components of aquifers with the presence of springs Review Vocabulary hydrologic cycle: a never-ending natural circulation of water through Earth’s systems New Vocabulary infiltration zone of saturation water table zone of aeration permeability aquifer aquiclude spring hot spring geyser Movement and Storage of Groundwater MAIN Idea Groundwater reservoirs provide water to streams and wetlands wherever the water table intersects the surface of the ground Real-World Reading Link Have you ever noticed that a stream flows even when it has not rained in a long time? Rainfall contributes to the flow in a stream, but much of the water comes from beneath the ground The Hydrosphere The water on and in Earth’s crust makes up the hydrosphere, named after hydros, the Greek word for water You learned about the hydrosphere in Chapter in the context of Earth’s systems, including the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere About 97 percent of the hydrosphere is contained in the oceans The water contained by landmasses—nearly all of it freshwater—makes up only about percent of the hydrosphere Freshwater is one of Earth’s most abundant and important renewable resources However, of all the freshwater, between 70 and 80 percent is held in polar ice caps and glaciers All the rivers, streams, and lakes on Earth represent only a small fraction of Earth’s liquid freshwater, as shown in Table 10.1 Recall from Chapter that water in the hydrosphere moves through the water cycle Table 10.1 Location Oceans 252 Chapter 10 • Groundwater World’s Water Supply Percentage of Total Water 97.2 Interactive Table To explore more about Earth’s water supply, visit glencoe.com Water Volume (km3) 1,230,000,000 Ice caps and glaciers 2.15 28,600,000 Groundwater 0.31 4,000,000 Lakes 0.009 123,000 Atmosphere 0.001 12,700 Rivers and streams 0.0001 1200 Estimated Average Residence Time of Water thousands of years tens of thousands of years and longer hundreds to many thousands of years tens of years nine days two weeks Groundwater and Precipitation The ultimate source of all water on land is the oceans Evaporation of seawater cycles water into the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapor and visible clouds Winds and weather systems move this atmospheric moisture all over Earth, with much of it concentrated over the continents Precipitation brings atmospheric moisture back to Earth’s surface Some of this precipitation falls directly into the oceans and some falls on land Infiltration is the process by which precipitation that has fallen on land trickles into the ground and becomes groundwater Only a small portion of precipitation becomes runoff and is returned directly to the oceans through streams and rivers Groundwater slowly moves through the ground, eventually returns to the surface through springs and seepage into wetlands and streams, and then flows back to the oceans Reading Check Identify the ultimate source of all water on land Groundwater Storage Puddles of water that are left after it rains quickly disappear, partly by infiltrating the ground On sandy soils, rain soaks into the ground almost immediately Where does that water go? The water seeps into small openings within the ground Although Earth’s crust appears solid, it is composed of soil, sediment, and rock that contain countless small openings, called pores spaces Pore spaces make up large portions of some of these materials The amount of pore space in a material is its porosity The greater the porosity, the easier water can flow through the material Subsurface materials have porosities ranging from percent to more than 50 percent For example, the porosity of well-sorted sand is 30 percent; however, in poorly sorted sediment, smaller particles occupy some of the pore spaces and reduce the overall porosity of the sediment, as shown in Figure 10.1 Similarly, the cement that binds the grains of sedimentary rocks together reduces the rocks’ porosity Because of the enormous volume of sediment and rock beneath Earth’s surface, enormous quantities of groundwater are stored in the pore spaces ■ Figure 10.1 Porosity depends on the size and variety of particles in a material Compare the porosities shown in each sample Well-sorted, large sand grains Unsorted sand grains Well-sorted, small sand grains Section • Movement and Storage of Groundwater 253 Soil moisture Zone of aeration Water table Zone of saturation Stream Normal water table Water table during drought ■ Figure 10.2 The zone of saturation is where groundwater completely fills all the pores of a material below Earth’s surface Describe what is above the zone of saturation The Zone of Saturation The region below Earth’s surface in which groundwater completely fills all the pores of a material is called the zone of saturation The upper boundary of the zone of saturation is the water table, shown in Figure 10.2 Strictly speaking, only the water in the zone of saturation is called groundwater In the zone of aeration, which is above the water table, materials are moist, but because they are not saturated with water, air occupies much of the pores Water movement Water in the zone of saturation and zone of aeration can be classified as either gravitational water or capillary water Gravitational water is water that trickles downward as a result of gravity Capillary water is water that is drawn upward through capillary action above the water table and is held in the pore spaces of rocks and sediment because of surface tension Capillary action can be seen when the tip of a paper towel is dipped into water and the water seems to climb up through the fibers of the paper towel The water table The depth of the water table often varies depending on local conditions For example, in stream valleys, groundwater is relatively close to Earth’s surface, and thus the water table can be only a few meters deep In swampy areas, the water table is at Earth’s surface, whereas on hilltops or in arid regions, the water table can be tens to hundreds of meters or more beneath the surface As shown in Figure 10.2, the topography of the water table generally follows the topography of the land above it For example, the slope of the water table corresponds to the shape of valleys and hills on the surface above Because of its dependence on precipitation, the water table fluctuates with seasonal and other weather conditions It rises during wet seasons, usually in spring, and drops during dry seasons, often in late summer 254 Chapter 10 • Groundwater Groundwater Movement Groundwater flows downhill in the direction of the slope of the water table Usually, this downhill movement is slow because the water has to flow through numerous tiny pores in the subsurface material The tendency of a material to let water pass through it is its permeability Materials with large, connected pores, such as sand and gravel, have high permeability and permit relatively high flow velocities up to hundreds of meters per hour Other permeable subsurface materials include highly fractured bedrock, sandstone, and limestone Permeability Groundwater flows through permeable sediment and rock, called aquifers, such as the one shown in Figure 10.3 In aquifers, the pore spaces are large and connected Fine-grained materials have low permeabilities because their pores are small These materials are said to be impermeable Groundwater flows so slowly through impermeable materials that the flow is often measured in millimeters per day Some examples of impermeable materials include silt, clay, and shale Clay is so impermeable that a clay-lined depression will hold water For this reason, clay is often used to line artificial ponds and landfills Impermeable layers, called aquicludes, are barriers to groundwater flow Flow velocity The flow velocity of groundwater depends on the slope of the water table and the permeability of the material through which the groundwater is moving The force of gravity pulling the water downward is greater when the slope of the water table surface is steeper Water also flows faster through a large opening than through a small opening The flow velocity of groundwater is proportional to both the slope of the water table and the permeability of the material through which the water flows ■ Figure 10.3 An aquifer is a layer of permeable subsurface material that is saturated with water This aquifer is located between two impermeable layers called aquicludes Precipitation and infiltration Aquicludes Aquifer Section • Movement and Storage of Groundwater 255 Jon Turk/Visuals Unlimited Figure 10.4 Springs occur when the groundwater emerges at points where the water table intersects Earth’s surface ■ Springs Groundwater moves slowly but continuously through aquifers and eventually returns to Earth’s surface In most cases, groundwater emerges wherever the water table intersects Earth’s surface Such intersections commonly occur in areas that have sloping surface topography The exact places where groundwater emerges depend on the arrangement of aquifers and aquicludes in an area Reading Check Explain how the slope of the land can affect where groundwater emerges As you learned on the previous page, aquifers are permeable underground layers through which groundwater flows easily, and aquicludes are impermeable layers Aquifers are commonly composed of layers of sand and gravel, sandstone, and limestone In contrast, aquicludes, such as layers of clay or shale, block groundwater movement As a result, groundwater tends to discharge at Earth’s surface where an aquifer and an aquiclude are in contact, as shown in Figure 10.4 These natural discharges of groundwater are called springs Emergence of springs The volume of water that is discharged by a spring might be a mere trickle or it might form a stream In some regions called karst regions, an entire river might emerge from the ground Such a superspring is called a karst spring Karst springs occur in limestone regions where springs discharge water from underground pathways In regions of nearly horizontal sedimentary rocks, springs often emerge on the sides of valleys at about the same elevation, at the bases of aquifers, as shown in Figure 10.5 Springs might also emerge at the edges of perched water tables In a perched water table, a zone of saturation that overlies an aquiclude separates it from the main water table below Other areas where springs tend to emerge are along faults, which are huge fractures along which large masses of rock have moved, and sometimes block aquifers In limestone regions, springs discharge water from underground pathways as karst springs 256 Chapter 10 • Groundwater Visualizing Springs Figure 10.5 A spring is the result of groundwater that emerges at Earth’s surface Springs can be caused by a variety of situations Compare and contrast the origin of the four types of springs Sandstone Perched water table Layer of impermeable clay Water table Spring Spring A spring forms where a permeable layer and impermeable layer come together Sandstone Main water table A layer of impermeable rock or clay can create a perched water table Springs can result where groundwater emerges from a perched water table Water table Water table Cavern Spring Spring lt u Fa Shale Some springs form where a fault has brought together two different types of bedrock, such as a porous rock and a nonporous rock Karst springs form where groundwater weathers through limestone bedrock, and water in the underground caverns emerges at Earth’s surface To explore more about springs, visit glencoe.com Section • Movement and Storage of Groundwater 257 Eruption of geyser Heat Heat Hot water Figure 10.6 A geyser is a type of hot spring from which very hot water and vapor erupt at the surface Identify the origin of a geyser ■ Section 10.1 Temperature of springs People usually think of spring water as being cool and refreshing But the temperature of groundwater that is discharged through a spring is generally the average annual temperature of the region in which it is located Thus, springs in New England have year-round temperatures of about 10°C, while further south, springs in the Gulf states have temperatures of about 20°C Compared to air temperatures, groundwater is generally colder in the summer and warmer in the winter However, in some regions around the world, springs discharge water that is much warmer than the average annual temperature These springs are called warm springs or hot springs, depending on their temperatures Hot springs are springs that have a temperature higher than that of the human body, which is 37°C There are thousands of hot springs in the United States Most of them are located in the western United States in areas where the subsurface is still hot from nearby igneous activity A number of hot springs also occur in some eastern states These hot springs emerge from aquifers that descend to tremendous depths in Earth’s crust and through which deep, hot water rises The water is hot because temperatures in Earth’s upper crust increase by an average of 25°C for every km of depth Among the most spectacular features produced by Earth’s underground thermal energy in volcanic regions are geysers, shown in Figure 10.6 Geysers are explosive hot springs In a geyser, water is heated past its boiling point, causing it to vaporize The resulting water vapor builds up tremendous pressure This pressure is what fuels the eruptions One of the world’s most famous geysers, Old Faithful, is located in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming Assessment Section Summary Understand Main Ideas ◗ Some precipitation infiltrates the ground to become groundwater ◗ Groundwater is stored below the water table in pore spaces of rocks and sediment Illustrate how the relative positions of an aquifer and aquiclude can result in the presence of a spring ◗ Groundwater moves through permeable layers called aquifers and is trapped by impermeable layers called aquicludes Analyze the factors that determine flow velocity ◗ Groundwater emerges from the ground where the water table intersects Earth’s surface Infer why it is beneficial for a community to have an aquiclude located beneath the aquifer from which it draw its water supply MAIN Idea Explain how the movement of groundwater is related to the water cycle Describe how the water in hot springs gets hot Think Critically Differentiate between porosity and permeability in subsurface materials Earth Science Develop a set of guidelines in which you describe where you would be most likely to find groundwater 258 Chapter 10 • Groundwater Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section Objectives ◗ Explain how groundwater dissolves and deposits rocks and minerals ◗ Illustrate how caves form ◗ Describe how the features of karst topography shape the landscape Groundwater Weathering and Deposition MAIN Idea Chemical weathering of limestone by water causes the characteristic topography of karst areas Review Vocabulary Real-World Reading Link You might have seen an old gravestone, statue, or hydrolysis: chemical reaction of water with other substances sculpture that has been weathered by acidic water Similar processes form limestone caves underground New Vocabulary cave sinkhole karst topography stalactite stalagmite ■ Figure 10.7 Carbonic acid has dissolved large portions of this limestone This resulting formation is the Stone Forest in China Carbonic Acid Acids are aqueous solutions that contain hydrogen ions Most groundwater is slightly acidic due to carbonic acid Carbonic acid forms when carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water and combines with water molecules This happens when precipitation falls through the atmosphere and interacts with carbon dioxide gas or when groundwater infiltrates the products of decaying organic matter in soil As a result of these processes, groundwater is usually slightly acidic and attacks carbonate rocks, especially limestone Limestone mostly consists of calcite, also called calcium carbonate, which reacts with any kind of acid The results of this reaction over time are shown in Figure 10.7 This process occurs above ground and below ground Dissolution by Groundwater The process by which carbonic acid forms and dissolves calcite, can be described by three simple chemical reactions In the first reaction, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) combine to form carbonic acid (H2CO3), as represented by the following equation CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 In the second reaction, carbonic acid splits into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) This process is represented by the following equation H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3– In the third reaction, the hydrogen ions (H+) react with calcite (CaCO3) and form calcium ions (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) CaCO3 + H+ → Ca2+ + HCO3– Section • Groundwater Weathering and Deposition 259 Michele Burgess/Index Stock Section Groundwater Supply Objectives ◗ Explain how groundwater is withdrawn from aquifers by wells ◗ Describe the major problems that threaten groundwater supplies MAIN Idea Water is not always available in the quantities and in the locations where it is needed and might be compromised by pollution Review Vocabulary Real-World Reading Link If you have a bank account, can you withdraw runoff: water flowing downslope along Earth’s surface as much money as you want? Of course not Like a bank account, groundwater can be withdrawn, but only in the amount that has been deposited there New Vocabulary well drawdown recharge artesian well Wells Wells are holes dug or drilled into the ground to reach an aquifer There are two main types of wells: ordinary wells and artesian wells ■ Figure 10.12 Overpumping from one well or multiple wells can result in a cone of depression and a general lowering of the water table Well Ordinary wells The simplest wells are those that are dug or drilled below the water table, into what is called a water-table aquifer, as shown in Figure 10.12 In a water-table aquifer, the level of the water in the well is the same as the level of the surrounding water-table As water is drawn out of a well, it is replaced by surrounding water in the aquifer Overpumping occurs when water is drawn out of the well at a rate that is faster than that at which it is replaced Overpumping of the well lowers the local water level and results in a cone of depression around the well, as shown in Figure 10.12 The difference between the original water-table level and the water level in the pumped well is called the drawdown If many wells withdraw water from a water-table aquifer, the cones of depression can overlap and cause an overall lowering of the water table, causing shallow wells to become dry Water from precipitation replenishes the water content of an aquifer in the process of recharge Groundwater recharge from precipitation and runoff sometimes replaces the water withdrawn from wells However, if withdrawal of groundwater exceeds the aquifer’s recharge rate, the drawdown increases until all wells in the area become dry Well Water table Before heavy pumping Well Dry well Dry well Cone ssion of depre Lowered water table After heavy pumping Section • Groundwater Supply 263 ■ Figure 10.13 An artesian aquifer contains water under pressure Identify the features that cause the primary difference between an ordinary well and an artesian well Recharge area Artesian wells Pressure surface Water table Impe Impermeab rmea Sandstone le layer ble la yer Artesian wells An aquifer’s area of recharge is often at a higher elevation than the rest of the aquifer An aquifer located between aquicludes, called a confined aquifer, can contain water that is under pressure This is because the water at the top of the slope exerts gravitational force on the water downslope, as you will learn in the Problem-Solving Lab on this page An aquifer that contains water under pressure is called an artesian aquifer When the rate of recharge is high enough, the pressurized water in a well drilled into an artesian aquifer can spurt above the land surface in the form of a fountain known as an artesian well The level to which water in an open well can rise is called its pressure surface, as shown in Figure 10.13 Similarly, a spring that discharges pressurized water is called an artesian spring The name artesian is derived from the French province of Artois, where such wells were first drilled almost 900 years ago PROBLEM-SOLVING Lab Make a Topographic Profile Aquifer Data How does water level vary in an artesian well? Artesian aquifers contain water under pressure The table provides data about an artesian aquifer for three sites that are spaced 100 m apart along a survey line It shows the following: elevations of the land surface, the water table, the upper surface of the aquiclude on top of the artesian aquifer, and artesian pressure surface Analysis Plot the elevation data on a graph with the sites on the x-axis and the elevations on the y-axis Make a topographic profile of the survey line from Site to Site Use a heavy line to indicate land surface 264 Chapter 10 • Groundwater Site Surface Elevation (m) Water Table Elevation (m) Aquiclude Elevation (m) Pressure Surface (m) 396 392 388 394 394 390 386 393 390 388 381 392 Think Critically Analyze What are the depths of the water levels in the three wells before they are pumped? Evaluate what would happen if a well were drilled into the confined aquifer at Site Consider At what sites could there be an artesian well? An important artesian aquifer in the United States is the Ogallala Aquifer, which underlies the Great Plains This aquifer delivers water to a huge area stretching from South Dakota to Texas The recharge areas of the Ogallala Aquifer are located in the Black Hills and the Rocky Mountains Threats to Our Water Supply Freshwater is Earth’s most precious natural resource Human demands for freshwater are enormous, because it is essential for life Water is also used extensively in agriculture and industry Figure 10.14 shows freshwater usage in the United States Groundwater supplies much of this water Reading Check Summarize why freshwater is Earth’s most precious natural resource Estimates of water supplies are the result of a dynamic equilibrium between various factors These factors include the amounts of precipitation and infiltration, the surface drainage, the porosity and permeability of subsurface rock or sediment, and the volume of groundwater naturally discharged back to the surface Several of these factors vary naturally over time, and several can be affected by human activities Changes to groundwater supplies can lead to environmental issues such as a lowered water table, subsidence, and pollution U.S Water Use Power generation 48% Irrigation 35% Municipal 11% Private wells less than 1% Industrial 5% ■ Figure 10.14 Municipal water and private wells supply your daily water needs Identify how you are involved with water use in each of the other areas Model an Artesian Well How does an artesian well form? What causes the water to rise above the ground surface? Procedure Read and complete the lab safety form Half fill a plastic shoe box or other container with sand Add enough water to saturate the sand Cover the sand completely with a 1- or 2-cm layer of clay or a similar impermeable material Tilt the box at an angle of about 10° Use a book for a prop Using a straw, punch three holes through the clay, one near the low end, one near the middle, and one near the high end of the box Insert a clear straw through each hole into the sand below Seal the holes around the straws Analysis Observe the water levels in the straws Where is the water level the highest? The lowest? Identify the water table in the box Analyze Where is the water under greatest pressure? Explain Predict what will happen to the water table and the surface if the water flows from one of the straws Section • Groundwater Supply 265 Careers In Earth Science Hydrogeologist Earth scientists who map groundwater are called hydrogeologists They use field methods, maps, and aerial photographs to determine where groundwater is located To learn more about Earth science careers, visit glencoe.com Overuse Groundwater supplies can be depleted If groundwater is pumped out at a rate greater than the recharge rate, the groundwater supply will decrease and the water table will drop This is happening to the Ogallala Aquifer Its water, used mostly for irrigation, is being withdrawn at a rate much higher than the recharge rate Subsidence Another problem caused by the excessive withdrawal of groundwater is ground subsidence—the sinking of land The volume of water underground helps support the weight of the soil, sediment, and rock above When the height of the water table drops, the weight of the overlying material is increasingly transferred to the aquifer’s mineral grains, which then squeeze together more tightly As a result, the land surface above the aquifer sinks A dramatic example of subsidence can be seen along parts of the Gulf coast of Texas, where heavy usage of groundwater over many decades resulted in a wide-scale drop in the ground level In a region of 12,000 km2, the average subsidence was 15 cm, while some areas dropped by as much as m This has presented flooding hazards for much of the coastal region Pollution in groundwater In general, the most easily polluted groundwater reservoirs are water-table aquifers, which lack a confining layer above them Confined aquifers are affected less frequently by local pollution because they are protected by impermeable barriers When the recharge areas of confined aquifers are polluted, however, those aquifers can also become contaminated Reading Check Identify which kind of aquifer is more vulnerable to pollution Sources of groundwater pollution include sewage from faulty septic tanks and farms, landfills, and other waste disposal sites Pollutants usually enter the ground above the water table, but they eventually infiltrate to the water table In highly permeable aquifers, pollutants can spread quickly in a specific direction, such as toward the wells shown in Figure 10.15 ■ Figure 10.15 Pollutants can spread rapidly through a highly permeable aquifer Note how the polluted well has drawn the pollution toward it as it has withdrawn water from the water table Unpolluted well Faulty septic tank Water table Coarse sandy gravel Polluted water Polluted well 266 Chapter 10 • Groundwater Sand Chemicals Because chemicals dissolved and transported with VOCABULARY groundwater are submicroscopic in size, they can travel through the smallest pores of fine-grained sediment For this reason, chemicals such as arsenic can contaminate any type of aquifer The chemicals generally move downslope from a source in the form of a pollution plume, which is a mass of contaminants that spreads through the aquifer Once chemical contaminants have entered groundwater, they cannot be easily removed In the GeoLab at the end of the chapter, you will learn more about how geologists predict the risks of chemical contamination of groundwater based on a region’s topography ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Transport to move from one place to another Airplanes transport packages across the country Reading Check Explain why chemicals such as arsenic can contami- nate any kind of aquifer Sewage, landfills, and other waste disposal sites can include a variety of contaminants Chemical contaminants can be leached, meaning dissolved by infiltrating groundwater When chemical and biological contaminants enter the groundwater, they flow through the aquifer at the same rate as the rest of the groundwater Over time, an entire aquifer can become contaminated and toxic to humans Aquifers are particularly vulnerable to pollution in humid areas where the water table is shallow and can more easily come in contact with waste Salt Not all pollutants are toxic or unhealthful in and of themselves For example, ordinary table salt is used to season food, but water is undrinkable when its salt content is too high In like manner, groundwater is unusable after the intrusion of salt water Salt pollution is one of the major threats to groundwater supplies, especially in coastal areas, where the intrusion of salt water into groundwater is a major problem In coastal areas, salty seawater, which is denser than freshwater, underlies the groundwater near Earth’s surface, as shown in Figure 10.16 The overpumping of wells can cause the underlying salt water to rise into the wells and contaminate the freshwater aquifer ■ Figure 10.16 Freshwater aquifers can become contaminated with salt water Identify how overpumping can cause the underlying salt water to rise in wells Interactive Figure To see an animation of salt water contamination, visit glencoe.com Before pumping After pumping Ocean Ocean Overpumping well Water table Fresh groundwater Salt water Water table Fresh groundwater Salt water Section • Groundwater Supply 267 Table 10.2 Groundwater Pollution Sources Infiltration from fertilizers Leaks from storage tanks Drainage of acid from mines Seepage from faulty septic tanks Saltwater intrusion into aquifers near shorelines Leaks from waste disposal sites Radon Radon Another source of natural groundwater pollution is radon gas, which is one of the leading causes of cancer in the United States Radon found in groundwater is one of the products of the radioactive decay of uranium in rocks and sediment, and it usually occurs in very low concentrations in all groundwater However, some rocks, especially granite and shale, contain more uranium than others Therefore the groundwater in areas where these rocks are present contains higher levels of radon Some radon can seep into houses, and, because it is heavier than air, it can accumulate in poorly ventilated basements The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) advises homeowners in radon-prone regions to have their homes tested regularly for radon gas Protecting Our Water Supply There are a number of ways by which groundwater resources can be protected and restored First, major pollution sources, many of which are listed in Table 10.2, need to be identified and eliminated Pollution plumes that already exist can be monitored with observation wells and other techniques Most pollution plumes spread slowly providing adequate time for alternate water supplies to be found In some cases, pollution plumes can be stopped by building impermeable underground barriers around the polluted area Sometimes, polluted groundwater can be pumped out for chemical treatment on the surface While these measures can have limited success, they alone cannot save Earth’s water supply Humans must be aware of how their activities impact the groundwater system so that they can protect the water supply Section 10.3 Assessment Section Summary Understand Main Ideas ◗ Wells are drilled into the zone of saturation to provide water ◗ Overpumping of shallow wells produces cones of depression Illustrate the difference between an artesian well and an ordinary well ◗ Artesian wells tap confined aquifers in which water is under pressure ◗ When groundwater withdrawal exceeds recharge, it lowers the water table ◗ The most common sources of groundwater pollution include sewage, landfills, and other waste disposal sites 268 Chapter 10 • Groundwater MAIN Idea Evaluate the problems associated with overpumping wells Explain why artesian wells contain water under pressure Differentiate between the effects of radon and the effects of salt dissolved in groundwater Think Critically Formulate an experiment which would test if there were impermeable barriers around a polluted area Analyze how best to prevent groundwater pollution in a residential area Earth Science Predict how the permeability of an aquifer can affect the spread of pollutants Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Watcher of the Water Safe drinking water is something that many people take for granted Most of the water that is used for human consumption comes from groundwater Who ensures that groundwater sources remain safe? Hydrogeologists A groundwater scientist, called a hydrogeologist, is responsible for finding and monitoring groundwater sources to ensure the water supply is free of contaminants and is not used faster than it is replaced What does a typical day in the life of a hydrogeologist look like? One day might be spent in the field conducting tests on the water levels The next day might be spent evaluating the data in the office The day after that might involve looking for trouble in the water-supply line of a house Aquifer case study Suppose a farmer wants to install an irrigation system, which involves digging a new well First, the water level in the area’s aquifer must be checked to ensure that a new well will not cause shortages for other users The hydrogeologist finds an active well nearby and hooks it up to a pump that continuously draws water for 24 hours Periodic checks of other wells in the area determine the changes in the water level and quality From the data gathered, he or she computes how much water the aquifer contains and determines the amount of water available for a new well Suppose that, after the farm starts using the irrigation system, a house down the road loses its water supply The hydrogeologist goes to the house and checks for technical problems, such as a hole in the well casing If the cause is not technical, he or she will reassess the irrigation system by rechecking the water supply in the aquifer These hydrogeologists collect water from a well to determine whether or not it has been contaminated Quality assurance Hydrogeologists are also responsible for checking water quality If the water from a particular aquifer develops a strange taste and odor, the residents would want to ensure the water is safe to drink The hydrogeologist gathers samples and sends them to a lab to test for various contaminants, such as sewage, pesticides, dissolved metals, or organic material If a contaminant is found, the hydrogeologist will advise the residents not to drink the water until the source is discovered and the problem is resolved The hydrogeologist will then begin investigating the problem and searching for clues to find and stop the contamination Earth Science Journal Research more about what a hydrogeologist does at glencoe.com Then, imagine you are accompanying a groundwater scientist on a day on the job Describe what you saw, what you did, and what you learned about aquifers Earth Science and the Environment 269 Kevin Fleming/CORBIS MAPPING: TRACK GROUNDWATER POLLUTION Background: You can use a topographic map to U S Geological Survey topographic map of Forest City, Florida transparent paper ruler graph paper calculator Draw a small line at each place where a contour line intersects the line from Lake Lotus to Lake Lucien Also note the elevation at each hash mark and any rivers crossed Draw a table to use for your topographic profile, using the width representing the distance between Lake Lotus to Lake Lucien For the y-axis, use the elevations 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 ft Now take your paper where you marked your lines and place it along the base of the table Mark a corresponding dot on the table for each elevation, and mark the position of Jim’s gas station 10 Connect the dots to create a topographic profile 11 Note the elevations of the nearby bodies of water to approximate the distance from the ground surface to the water table Use dots to indicate those distances on the topographic profile Connect the dots to draw the water table on the topographic profile Procedure Analyze and Conclude estimate the direction of groundwater flow Groundwater pollution spreads out from its source and follows the flow of groundwater The spread and movement of the pollution resembles a plume that stems from its source Question: How can you determine the movement of a pollution plume? Materials Imagine that Jim’s Gas Station has discovered a major gasoline leak from one of its underground tanks As the local hydrogeologist, you are asked to determine the path that the gasoline will take through the groundwater, and to notify the residents of the areas that might be affected by the contamination Read and complete the lab safety form Identify the lakes and swamps in the southwest corner of the map and list their names and elevations in a data table (Note: The elevations are given or can be estimated from the contour lines The elevation of the water table in each area can be estimated from the elevations of nearby bodies of water) Note the location of Jim’s gas station on Forest City Rd., about 1400 feet north of the Seminole County line (at the 96-foot elevation mark) Take out a piece of paper to construct a cross section of the surface topography and the water table Lay the paper on the map from Lake Lotus to Lake Lucien (through Jim’s Gas Station) On this piece of paper, mark the location of Jim’s gas station 270 GeoLab Calculate the slope of the ground surface on either side of Jim’s Gas Station Estimate the slope of the water table at Jim’s Gas Station Infer the direction toward which the pollution plume will move Identify the houses and bodies of water that are threatened by this pollution plume Conclude Prepare a written statement to present to the local community Explain the path the plume is predicted to take, and how this was determined APPLY YOUR SKILL Design Using what you have learned in this lab and in the chapter, develop a plan for stopping the pollution plume Make a map showing where your plan will be implemented Indicate the sites where water quality will be monitored regularly GeoLab 271 USGS Download quizzes, key terms, and flash cards from glencoe.com BIG Idea Precipitation and infiltration contribute to groundwater, which is stored in underground reservoirs until it surfaces as a spring or is drawn from a well Vocabulary Key Concepts Section 10.1 Movement and Storage of Groundwater • aquiclude (p 255) • aquifer (p 255) • geyser (p 258) • hot spring (p 258) • infiltration (p 253) • permeability (p 255) • spring (p 256) • water table (p 254) • zone of aeration (p 254) • zone of saturation (p 254) MAIN Idea • • • • Groundwater reservoirs provide water to streams and wetlands wherever the water table intersects the surface of the ground Some precipitation infiltrates the ground to become groundwater Groundwater is stored below the water table in pore spaces of rocks and sediment Groundwater moves through permeable layers called aquifers and is trapped by impermeable layers called aquicludes Groundwater emerges from the ground where the water table intersects Earth’s surface Section 10.2 Groundwater Weathering and Deposition • cave (p 260) • karst topography (p 261) • sinkhole (p 261) • stalactite (p 261) • stalagmite (p 261) MAIN Idea • • • • Chemical weathering of limestone by water causes the characteristic topography of karst areas Groundwater dissolves limestone and forms underground caves Sinkholes form at Earth’s surface when bedrock is dissolved or when caves collapse Irregular topography caused by groundwater dissolution is called karst topography The precipitation of dissolved calcite forms stalactites and stalagmites in caves Section 10.3 Groundwater Supply • artesian well (p 264) • drawdown (p 263) • recharge (p 263) • well (p 263) MAIN Idea • • • • • 272 Chapter 10 X ••Study StudyGuide Guide Water is not always available in the quantities and in the locations where it is needed and might be compromised by pollution Wells are drilled into the zone of saturation to provide water Overpumping of shallow wells produces cones of depression Artesian wells tap confined aquifers in which water is under pressure When groundwater withdrawal exceeds recharge, it lowers the water table The most common sources of groundwater pollution include sewage, landfills, and other waste disposal sites Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Vocabulary PuzzleMaker biologygmh.com Vocabulary Review Match each phrase with a vocabulary term from the Study Guide the depth below Earth’s surface at which all pores in layers of soil are filled with water the vertical movement of water through ground layers all of the permeable layers at a location the percentage of pore space in a material Each of the following sentences is false Make each sentence true by replacing the italicized words with a vocabulary term from the Study Guide 12 What are distinct adjacent spaces within a cave system called? A chambers and passages B holes and mounds C sinkholes and pools D dripstone and depositions 13 What is the name of a layer of sediment or rock that does not allow water to pass through it? A a permeable layer B an aquiclude C an aquifer D a nonaqueous layer Use the diagram below to answer Questions 14 and 15 Drawdown is produced in limestone regions that have sinkholes and sinking streams Stalagmites are icicle-shaped deposits hanging from the ceiling of caves Collapsing caves or dissolution of bedrock at the surface produce systems of caves Use what you know about the vocabulary terms found on the Study Guide to answer the following questions What two features are most often associated with the formation of springs? What is the main difference between regular springs and artesian springs? Understand Key Concepts 14 Which sequence of terms correctly labels the features shown in the diagram? A 2: water table, 3: impermeable layer B 3: surface zone, 4: impermeable layers C 1: zone of aeration, 3: zone of saturation D 1: zone of saturation, 3: zone of aeration 11 Which single source of freshwater represents the largest volume of freshwater worldwide readily available for use by humans? A ice caps and glaciers B freshwater lakes C rivers and streams D groundwater deposits 15 In which layer the pores contain mostly air, although the materials are moist? A layer B layer C layer D layer 10 What are explosive hot springs that develop in volcanic areas? Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 10 • Assessment 273 16 Which characteristics most areas with karst topography share? A they are dry areas; limestone bedrock B they are humid areas; granite bedrock C they are humid areas; limestone bedrock D they are dry areas; granite bedrock Use the diagram below to answer Question 21 Use the graph below from a single well in North Carolina to answer Questions 17 and 18 Groundwater Availability Groundwater level below surface (m) 43 49 55 60 67 1994 1996 Source: USGS 1998 2000 2002 2004 Year 17 Which statement is a logical conclusion that can be drawn from information in the graph? A From 1993 through 2003, groundwater availability at this well has increased B From 2002 through 2003, the water table has fallen faster than from 1993 through 1994 C From 1993 through 1994, the water table has fallen less than from 2002 through 2003 D From 1993 through 2003, groundwater availability at this well has declined 18 What year was the groundwater level the highest? A 2004 C 1996 B 2003 D 1993 19 What forms when calcium ions precipitate? A calcite C carbonic acid B acid rain D hydrogen ions 20 What characteristic must porous rocks have for them to be permeable? A They must be above the water table B Their pores must be large C Their pores must be interconnected D They must be below the water table 274 Chapter 10 • Assessment 21 What conditions are required for the formation of the spring? A defined areas of aeration, saturation, and an impermeable layer B an aquiclude holding water above defined areas of aeration and saturation C an aquiclude holding water above the main water table, and recharged from above D an aquiclude defining a main water table, and recharged from above Constructed Response 22 Classify where the water table is located in a lake or wetland as opposed to a region with no standing water 23 Identify the two features an aquifer must have to be a source of artesian water 24 Compare and contrast how the water table differs between humid and arid regions 25 Examine how the cement that binds the grains of sedimentary rocks affects the porosity and permeability of the rock 26 Predict how a small aquifer will be affected by a multiyear drought 27 Generalize whether caves are more likely to develop in a region containing limestone bedrock or sandstone bedrock Justify your answer 28 Explain why disposal of toxic waste into a sinkhole can pose serious hazards for local drinking water Chapter Test glencoe.com 29 Formulate an explanation for why stalactites have a tapering shape whereas stalagmites usually have less regular shapes and broader bases 30 Hypothesize the effect that a severely lowered water table would have on the emergence of springs on a hillside 31 Infer why caves often include dry chambers although most caves develop in the zone of saturation just below the water table Use the photo below to answer Question 32 Additional Assessment 36 Earth Science Write a short story to demonstrate how shared groundwater resources could cause conflict between neighboring states or countries Document–Based Questions Data obtained from: Lerch, R.N., C.M Wicks, and P.L Moss 2006 Hydrological characterization of two karst recharge areas in Boone County, Missouri Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 67 (3): 158–173 In the graphs, monthly precipitation (bar graph) and monthly discharge (line graph) are shown for Devil’s Icebox cave streams in Missouri 230 14000 65 10000 90 6000 25 2000 Year Year Discharge (m³/km²) Precipitation and Discharge for Devil’s Icebox Cave Stream Precipitation (mm) Jon Turk/Visuals Unlimited Think Critically Year 37 Which year had the most precipitation? 32 Consider the water pouring from the cliffside Diagram a scenario that would explain the role of groundwater in the photo 33 Assess what would be an important consequence of sea level rise on groundwater supplies in coastal areas Concept Mapping 34 Make a concept map using the following terms: ordinary well, artesian well, aquiclude, confined, unconfined, and water-table aquifer Challenge Question 35 Infer the effect that increased atmospheric CO2 concentration might have on structures made of calcite and the development of karst topography Chapter Test glencoe.com 38 What is the general relationship between precipitation and discharge according to the graph? 39 Identify an exception to the general relationship described in Question 38 Suggest a possible explanation for this exception Cumulative Review 40 Compare and contrast the ionic bond and the covalent bond (Chapter 3) 41 What is the significance of the rock cycle? (Chapter 6) 42 List factors that affect the rate of weathering Underline the factor you think is the most important in chemical weathering and explain why (Chapter 8) Chapter 10 • Assessment 275 Standardized Test Practice Multiple Choice Which materials would be best suited for lining a pond? A gravel C clay B limestone D sand Which water sources are the most easily polluted? A water-table aquifers B confined aquifers C artesian wells D hot springs Use the concept map to answer Questions and Use the table below to answer Questions and Soil has layers called which include A horizon What word would complete the circle below the words has layers called? A horizons C levels B profiles D humus The bottom two circles should be filled in with and A O horizon; R horizon B B horizon; C horizon C A level; A profile D humus; litter Which is NOT a value of wetlands? A feeding lakes and deltas with nutrients and oxygen-rich water B filtering water by trapping pollutants, sediments, and pathogenic bacteria C providing habitats for migratory birds and other wildlife D preserving fossils due to the anaerobic and acidic conditions What is the reaction of water with other substances is known as? A aquification C hydrolysis B oxidation D carbonation 276 Chapter 10 • Assessment Year Erosion (meters) 2001 2002 18 2003 2004 Which could have caused the unusual level of sand loss in 2002 as shown in the table? A lower than usual tides B higher than usual tides C lower than usual storm activity D higher than usual storm activity What human intervention could have caused the drop in erosion from 2002 to 2003? A dune building B removing dune vegetation C constructing buildings along the coast D building fences along the coast What are natural structures hanging from a cave’s ceiling? A geyserites B travertines C stalagmites D stalactites 10 In which part of a meander does the water travel the fastest? A along the inside curve of the meander B along the bottom of the meander C along the outside curve of a meander D all parts of the meander are equal Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com Short Answer Use the illustration below to answer Questions 11–13 C are among the world’s top show caves The caverns are living, a term used to describe active caves “The cave formations still have water on them; they’re still continuing to grow,” said Rick Toomey, a staff scientist at the Kartchner Caverns in Benson Rainwater from the surface seeps through the ground, absorbing calcium carbonate along the way Inside the cave, the mixture drips from the ceiling As it hardens, it forms the icicle-like stalactites on the ceiling and sproutlike stalagmites on the floor With the exception of small cracks, the caverns are closed off to the outside world The isolation allows the caverns to maintain an average temperature of 20°Celsius and near 99 percent humidity B A D 11 Explain the process being illustrated Be sure to include the name of the process Article obtained from: Roach, J Arizona tried tourism to save ‘living cave.’ National Geographic News April 19, 2005 12 Why are there two arrows rising during the stage labeled with the letter A? 17 According to the passage, what makes a cavern living? A There are animals in the cave B People can go into the cave C There are plants in the cave D Water on the cave formations continues to grow 13 What process is occurring from Step C to Step D? 14 How does the silica tetrahedron benefit silicate minerals? 15 What is the risk with overpumping a well? 18 What is the first ingredient in the process that allows the stalactites and stalagmites to grow as listed in the text? A soil C calcium carbonate B rainwater D rocks 16 How can human activities trigger mass movements? Reading for Comprehension Living Caves 19 What can be inferred from this passage? A Arizona is the only state that has living caves B The temperature in the caves is quite cold C Being isolated from the world has protected the cave D Tufts and Tenen were the first people to discover a cave Cool air billowed from a crack in Arizona’s desert and lured cave hunters underground There, formations of rock sprouted from the ground and from the ceiling The explorers discovered a socalled living cave Tufts and Tenen were the first known to set foot in the Kartchner Caverns, which NEED EXTRA HELP? If You Missed Question Review Section 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 10.1 7.3 7.3 9.3 7.1 10.3 7.2 8.2 10.2 9.2 9.1 9.1 9.1 4.2 10.2 8.1 Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com Chapter 10 • Assessment 277 ... part of a meander does the water travel the fastest? A along the inside curve of the meander B along the bottom of the meander C along the outside curve of a meander D all parts of the meander are... much water is present in the saturated fine sand, coarse sand, and clay Calculate the ratio of water volume to the volume of fine sand, coarse sand, and clay, and express the value as a percentage... holes through the clay, one near the low end, one near the middle, and one near the high end of the box Insert a clear straw through each hole into the sand below Seal the holes around the straws