Authority without Power Law and the Japanese Paradox Studies on Law and Social Control

Authority without Power STUDIES ON LAW AND SOCIAL CONTROL Donald Black, Series Editor AUTHORITY WITHOUT POWER Law And The Japanese Paradox John Owen Haley Authority without Power Law and the Japanese Paradox JOHN OWEN HALEY New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Oxford University Press Oxford New York Toronto Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madras Karachi Kuala Lumpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo Nairobi Dar es Salaam Cape Town Melbourne Auckland Madrid and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 1991 by Oxford University Press, Inc First published in 1991 by Oxford University Press, Inc., 200 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 First issued as an Oxford University Press Paperback, 1995 Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press, Inc Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Haley, John Owen Authority without power : law and the Japanese paradox / John Owen Haley p cm.—(Studies on law and social control) Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-19-505583-7 ISBN 0-19-509257-0 (pbk) Law—Japan—History and criticism Social Control I Title II Series Law 349.52-dc20 91-9666 135798642 Printed in the United Stales of America on acid-free paper TO SHOEN ONO Few Japanese lawyers have been as generous in friendship and support of foreign students in Japan This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments This book includes the contributions of far too many persons to name all individually or to express my appreciation adequately I must begin with Donald Black, who provided the intitial catalyst in suggesting that I write a study for this series on law and social control I owe my greatest debt, however, to students, colleagues, and friends who over many years have given generously of their time and insights in a continuing dialogue on the themes of this study They include William P Alford, Lawrence W Beer, Thomas L Blakemore, Taimie L Bryant, Koichiro Fujikura, Yashuhiro Fujita, B James George, Eleanor Hadley, Koji Hirokawa, Jackson N Huddleston, Masahiro Iseki, Zentaro Kitagawa, Shumpei Kumon, Eugene H Lee, Tasuku Matsuo, Toshio Miyatake, Setsuo Miyazawa, Yasusuke Murakami, Shoen Ono, Tomoyuki Ohta, Richard W Rabinowitz, Lawrence Repeta, Arthur I Rosett, Stephan Salzburg, Malcolm D.H Smith, Robert J Smith, Hideo Tanaka, Tadao Tanase, Frank K Upham, and Griffith Way I must also acknowledge with deep appreciation the help of colleagues in the University of Washington School of Law and Jackson School of International Studies Donald C Clarke, Dan H Foote, and Kozo Yamamura reviewed my manuscript Hok Lam Chan, Jack Dull, R Kent Guy, Susan Hanley, and, above all, Dan F Henderson graciously gave both time and advice I am equally grateful to Fred G Notehelfer, Hermann Ooms, and J Mark Ramseyer of the University of California, Los Angeles, for their efforts in reviewing all or portions of the manuscript Their suggestions were invariably valuable All helped to ferret out and correct many of my initial errors Those that remain are my own In addition, I am very much indepted to Sharon Murata and Richard Torranee, two extraordinarily able research assistants who contributed significantly to my research on the legal profession, as well as Art Nishimura and Haruki Sugiyama, who helped to edit the final manuscript Special thanks are also due to former comparative law librarian Suzanne T Lee, her able successor William B McCloy, and especially Rob Britt of their staff for their many efforts in facilitating my research, as well as to Barbara J Kennedy and Jeri Miles of the University of Washington Law School staff for their contribution in typing the manuscript, and to editors Valerie Aubry and Ruth Sandweiss of Oxford University Press I received research support at various times from the University of Washington Law School Summer Research Program and Asian Law Alumni Fund, the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, and the University of Washington Japan Endowment Fund, for which I remain very grateful Finally, I am indebted to Academic Press, the Faculty of Law of Kobe University, New York University Press, Sage Publications, and the Society for Japanese Studies for permission to reproduce and adapt portions from the following of my articles: vii viii Acknowledgments "The Politics of Informal Justice: The Japanese Experience, 1922-1942," in Abel, R., ed., The Politics of Informal Justice, vol (New York, 1982), pp 125-147 ©Academic Press "The Role of Law in Japan: An Historical Perspective," Kobe University Law Review, no 18 (1984), pp 1-20 ©Faculty of Law, Kobe University "Mission to Manage: The U.S Forest Service as a 'Japanese' Bureaucracy," in Hayashi, K., ed., The U.S.-Japanese Economic Relationship: Can it Be Improved? (New York, 1989), pp 196-225 ©New York University Press "Confession, Repentance and Absolution," in Wright, M and Galaway, B., eds., Mediation and Criminal Justice: Victims, Offenders and Communities (London, 1989), pp 195-211 ©Sage Publications "Sheathing the Sword of Justice: Law Without Sanctions." Journal of Japanese Studies, vol 8, no (Summer 1982), pp 265-281 ©Society for Japanese Studies Seattle, Wash May, 1991 J.O.H Contents Introduction The Japanese Paradox, The Elements, Attributes, and Functions of Law, Authority without Power, 13 Law's Domain, 14 I Continuity with Change: The Historical Foundations of Governance and Legal Control in Japan 17 Emperors and Edicts: The Paradigm of the Administrative State, 19 Public versus Private Law Orders and the Primacy of State Interests, 19 Secular versus Moral Law and the Pervasive Authority of the State, 24 Redefining the Legacy: Japan's Selective Adaptation of Chinese Legal Institutions, 29 Castellans and Contracts: The Legacy of Feudal Law, 33 Early Patterns of Feudal Governance, 35 The Feudal Contract, 37 Order by Adjudication, 38 Impulse toward Power and Autonomy, 44 Control through Dependency, 45 Power without Authority: Law and the Redefinition of Legitimate Rule, 47 Magistrates and Mum: The Ambivalent Tradition of Tokugawa Japan, 51 Quest for Legitimacy, 52 Return to the Administrative State, 55 Judicial Governance, 57 Autonomy with Dependence: The Enforced Cohesion of the Mura, 58 Constitutions and Codes: The Making of the Contemporary Legal Order, 67 The Meiji Transformation, 67 Reform and Reaction, 72 The Civil Code Controversy, 75 The Meiji Constitution Reconsidered, 77 II Cohesion with Conflict: The Containment of Legal Controls Lawsuits and Lawyers: The Making of a Myth, 83 Adaptation, Revision, and the Rediscovery of Tradition, 85 81 244 References Stein, Ted L., "Contempt, Crisis, and the Courts: The World Court and The Hostage Rescue Attempt," American Journal of International Law, vol 76, no (July 1982), pp 504-512 Stephens, Thomas B., The Disciplinary System of Order in China, A Case Study: The Mixed Court at Shanghai, 1911-1927 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, forthcoming) Stocking, George W., and Myron W Watkins, Cartels or Competition? 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in Japan: An Annual, vol (1972), pp 132-164 Igarashi Futaba, "Daiyo kangoku mondai ni tsuite" (Concerning the problem of substitute jails), Jurisuto (No 637) (May 1, 1977), pp 116-125 , "Nase 'keijiryuchijo' ga hitsuyo ka" (Why are 'criminal detention centers' necessary?), Jurisuto (No 712) (March 3, 1980), pp 85-91 Inada Masatsugu, Meiji kenpo seiritsu shi (History of the making of the Meiji constitution), vols (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 1962) Inoue Mitsusada, Seki Akira, Tsuchida Naoshige, and Aoki Kazuo (eds.), Ritsuryo (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1976) Ishibashi Magojiro, "Chotei ho to shokken shugi" (Conciliation laws and authoritarianism), Horitsu shinbun (No 3101) (April 3, 1930), p Ishida Shin, Nihon minposhi (History of Japanese civil law) (Tokyo: Dobunkan, 1928) Ishii Ryosuke, Hoseishi (Legal history) [Taikei Nihonshi sosho, vol 4] (Tokyo: Yamakawa Shuppansha, 1979) , "Kamakura bakufu seiritsuki no futatsu no mondai" (The problem of the date of the establishment of the Kamakura bakufu), 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Kawashima Takeyoshi, Nihonjin no hoishiki (Legal consciousness of Japanese) (Tokyo: Iwanami, 1967) Kenjo Yukio, "Edo bakufu no nengu shuno hoshin" (Policy on nengu tax assessment of the Edo bakufu), Hoseishi kenkyu (Legal history review), vol 17 (1967), pp 33-74 "Kinsen saimu chotei narabi ni Icakushu chotei ho teppai mondai" (Issue of abolition of the monetary claims conciliation law and other conciliation statutes), Hoso koron (No 408) (July 1, 1934), pp 51-63 Kishii Tatsuo, "Chotei kanken" (Narrow view of conciliation), Hoso koron (No 413) (Jan 1, 1935), p 11 Kobayakawa Kingo, Kyuminpoten henshu katei to kyuminpoten ni kansuru ronso ni tsuite (The process of compiling the old civil code and the dispute concerning the old civil code) (Tokyo: Yamaguchi Shoten, 1943) Kodatna Kota, Kinsei nomin seikatsushi (History of early modern rural peasant life) (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunsha, 1957) Koga Masayoshi, Kenri ishiki ni tsuite (On rights consciousness), Hanrei taimuzu (Special Issue no 3, 1977) Matsunaga Yoshiichi, "Chotei seido no kaizen" (Reforming the conciliation system), Horitsu Shinbun (No 3365) (Feb 3, 1932), p Matsuo Kikutano, "Chotei ho hatashite sonchi seshimu-beki ka" (Should we continue to develop conciliation laws?), Hoso kdron (No 408) (July 1, 1934), p Minamoto Ryoen, Gin to ninjo (Giri and ninjo) (Tokyo: Chuo Koron Sha, 1969) Miura Yagoro, "Chotei no shido seishin" (Guiding spirit of conciliation), Horitsu shinbun (No 3886) (Sept 15, 1935), p Miyoshi Shigeo, "Gendai shakaishiso joka no tame ni kakushu chotei ho no haishi o nozomu" (Hoping for the abolition of all conciliation laws for the purification of contemporary social theory), Hoso koron (No 407) (June 1, 1934), pp 7-12 Miyagawa Sumu, Kyuminpo to Meiji minpo (The old civil code and the Meiji civil code) (Tokyo: Aoki Shoten, 1965) Miyazawa Koichi (ed.), Hanzai to higaisha: Nihon no higaishagaku (Crime and victims: Studies on victims in Japan), vols (Tokyo: Seibundo, 1970) Miyazawa Setsuo, Hanzai sosa o meguru daiissen keiji no ishiki to kodo (The consciousness and practices of first-line detectives in criminal investigations) (Tokyo: Seibundo, 1985) Morohashi Tetsuji, Dai kanwa jiten (Great Chinese character-Japanese dictionary), vol (Tokyo: Daishukan Shoten, 1984 ed.) 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keijihen (1987 judicial statistics annual report: vol 2, criminal cases) (Tokyo: Saiko Saibansho, 1988) Sato Seisaburo and Matsuzaki Tetsuhisa, Jiminto seiken (The LDP's political power) (Tokyo: Chuo Koron, 1986) Sato Shin'ichi, Kamakura bakufu sosho seido no kenkyu (Research on the system of litigation under the Kamakura bakufu) (Tokyo: Unebo Shobo, 1943) References 249 Shiomi Toshitaka, Nikon no bengoshi (Japanese lawyers) (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1972) , (ed.), Gendai no bengoshi (Contemporary lawyer) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1966) Sugiyama Haruyasu, Nihon hoshi gairon (Introduction to Japanese legal history) (Tokyo: Seibundo, 1980) Takikawa Masajiro, Nihon hoseishi (Japanese legal history) (Tokyo: Yuhikaku, 2d ed., 1930) Taniguchi Sumio, Okayama han (Okayama domain) (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kobunkan, 1964) Tokyo Bengoshi Kai (Tokyo Bar Association) (ed.), Tokyo bengoshi kai hyakunenshi (Hundred year history of the Tokyo bar association) (Tokyo: Tokyo Bengoshi Kai, 1980) Tsujimoto Hiroaki, "Ryoseibai ho no kigen ni tsuite," (On the origins of the law to punish both parties to a quarrel), Hoseishi kenkyu (Studies in legal history), vol 18 (1968), pp 103-120 Ueki Naoichiro, Goseibai shikimoku kenkyu (Research on the goseibai shikimoku) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1930) Watanabe Yoshifusa, "Gyosei shido o meguru shomondai (Problems with administrative guidance), Jurisuto, no 342 (March 15, 1966), pp 46-50 Yamaguchi Yonachiro, "Shakuchi shakuya chotei ho no ran'yo to kaisei no kyumu" (Abuse of land lease and house lease conciliation and the urgency of reform), Horitsu shinbun (No 3628) (Nov 30, 1933), p Yamanouchi Kazuo, Gyosei shido (Administrative guidance) (Tokyo: Kobundo, 1977) Yoshida Jinpu, Nihon no karuteru (Japanese cartels) (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shinpo Kai, 1964) Yozo Watanabe, Tochi tatemono no horitsu seido (Legal institutions for land and buildings) (Tokyo: Tokyo Daigaku Shuppansha, 1960) This page intentionally left blank Index Abe, Haruo, 219n24, 221n73 Bannerman (hatamoto), 55 Abegglen, James, 175 Bayley, David H., 116, 129, 131, 137, 138, Abel, Richard L., 99, 213n71 217nsl33, 135, 219ns25, 26, 220ns39-42, Absolutism, 79, 84, 141 48, 221n70, 222ns79, 80 Aberbach, Joel D., 141, 223ns20, 22 Beardsley, Richard W., 176, 228nl, 229nlO Abuse of rights, 85 Beckmann, George M., 78, 209n6, 210n41 Adenauer, Konrad, 141 Beer, Lawrence, 184, 230ns37, 40-45 Adjudication, 9, 21, 38-44, 83; as feature of Befu, Harumi, 208n23 feudal governance, 39; as lawmaking Bengoshi See Lawyers process, 9; in imperial China, 21; under Berman, Harold J., 203n20 Kamakura bakufu, 38-44; under ritsuryo, Berry, Mary Elizabeth, 206n29 31; under Tokugawa rule 57-58 64 See Berscheid, Ellen, 222n81 also Judges; Litigation; Private law process B n27 ission, Thomas Arthur, 224 Administrative Court Law (1890), 70, 81, 209nl3 Bizai shobun, 126 Administrative guidance (gyosei shidt), Blakemore,Thomas L., 105-6, 126, 160-168 See also Bureaucracy; Law en215nsl04, 105, 218nl2 forcement Blankenburg, Erhard, 213ns72, 73 Administrative state, 32, 55-57, 60, 62-65, Bloch, Marc, 39, 205n6 139-168 See also Law enforcement; Bodde, Derk, 25, 202nll, 203n21 Public law process Boissonade de Fontarabie, Emile Gustave, Agricultural Land Adjustment Law (1938), 69, 70, 71, 75, 76, 209ns20, 21 92, 212n40 Breuer, Richard, 218n8 Alford, William P., 28, 203n34 Brockman, Rosser, 21, 201n8, 202nl2 Allied Occupation, 6, 105-6, 126, 141, 142, Bruff, Harold, 227n97 147-51, 160 See also Courts and Law Buddhism, 31, 42, 71, 184; influence on law Division; Economic and Scientific Section; enforcement, 31, 41 SCAP Bugyooffices, 55-56 Ames, Walter, 131, 173-74, 220ns30, 38, Buke shohatto, 54 221n69, 229nl2-16 Buraku (hamlet) See Village Ancient learning (kogaku), 53 Buraku Liberation League) 185 Antimonopoly and Fair Trade Law (1947), Bureaucracy, 20, 51, 93, 96, 118, 139-68; in 151, 156-57, 225n60 See also Antitrust European parliamentary systems, 140; exregulation pertise of, 153; in imperial China, 28, 30, Antitrust regulation, 147, 148 See also An58; 194; mission of, 153_55; samurai s, a timonopoly and Fair Trade Law 5ugawa, 51, 58; in v s ; 139_40 Aoki, Kazuo, 203n40, 41, 204ns42, 53 143; See also Administrative state; Ad Aoyama, Michio, 211n5 ministrative guidance; Public law process Aoyama, Yoshimitsu, 217nl30 Buxbaum, David, 201n8 Apology See Remorse Asakawa, KaiTichi, 204n3, Calder,Kent E 224n26, 226n69 Ashikaga, Takauji 44 Caldwell, Martha Ann, 158, 227ns81, 82 Ashikaea shoeun See Muromachi bakufu _ Cartels' Postwar' 151-53; Prewar' 91, 144-47 Austern Thomas H., 227-28n97 CaSper Gerhard 218n9 Authority, of bureaucracy 144, 153-55; of ' ' Castle towns Chinese state, 27; defined, 13; of emperor, (jokamachi), 45-46, 196 29, 30, 79-80, 84; of Kamakura bakufu, 38; Celsus, quoted, 24 chen Paul H.c of sengoku daimyo, 47-49; of shogun, 38 " 209n4, 221ns58, 59 Australia, 140 Ch'in dynasty, 20, 22 Autonomy, 179-80; of business, 177-78; of China, 3, 19, 31-32, 33, 58, 67, 68, 83, 133, lawyers, 106, 111-13; of villages, 61; of 149; legal tradition of, 14, 17, 19, 21, 22warriors, 44-45 23, 26-28, 40-41, 42, 50, 63, 133-34, 194, 197 Bank clearing house rules, 182 Ch'ing Code, 63 Bank Law (1927), 146 Ch'ing dynasty, 22, 68, 133 Bank Law (1981), 224n41 Chotei See Conciliation Banks, Meiji regulation of, 72, 209n22 Chou dynasty, 20 251 252 Index Christianity, 24, 37; banned, 56, 71; failure to influence law enforcement, 24-25, 4041, 42, 135 Civil Code, 70, 71, 209nll; 1890 code debate, 75-77, 84 Clifford, William, 131, 138, 220n38 Code of Civil Procedure, 1890 code, 70, 71, 75, 209nl4 Code of Criminal Procedure, 1890 code, 70, 134, 209n9; 1948 code, 105, 126, 219nl7 Coercion See Contempt; Law; Law enforcement; Murahachibu; Power; Sanctions; Social controls Cohen, Jerome A., 201n8, 221n56 Cohen, Jerome B., 145, 224ns29, 33 Cole, Robert E., 229n21, 230n34 Coleman, Rex L., 211n6 Collectivist values, 91, 92, 96 Command See Authority Commercial Affairs Conciliation Law (1926), 92 Commercial Code, 1890 code, 70, 71, 75 Commercial instruments, 39, 42, 71, 81 Conciliation, 57-58; statistics on, 97, 99 See also Conciliation statutes; Mediation Conciliation statutes, 86-96; debate over, 9296 Confession, 129-37; evidentiary value of, 131-32; in imperial China, 133-34 Confucianism, 28, 30, 37, 191, 194 See also Neo-Confucianism Confucianists (China), 26 Consensual governance, 144, 166-68, 18183, 193, 198 Consensus, 8-10, 85, 158, 167-68, 169, 17075, 190-91, 195; as basis for judicial decisions, 43, 85 Constitution See Meiji Constitution; Postwar constitution Contempt, power of, 12, 118, 159 Contracts, 15, 42, 116; comparison of (feudal), 37-38; freedom of, 73 Control associations (tSsei dantai), 147 See also Cartels; Trade associations Conviction rates, 128 Cornell, John R., 228nl Coulborn, Rushton, 35, 36, 204n2 Court Organization Law (1890), 70, 81, 209n5 Courts See Judges Courts and Law Division (SCAP), 105-06, 149 Creel, Herrlee Glessner, 20 Crime, 31, 39, 121, 172-73; clearance rates of, 137-38; explanations of Japan's low rates of, 137-38; statistics on, 121, 122, 123, 124 Criminal Code (1907), 70, 81, 209nl6 Criminal process, 125-31; correctional emphasis of, 133; delay in, 123-25 Crook, John, 21, 202n8 Crowley, James B., 210n56 Custom, 6-8, 38-39, 63, 205nl7 See also Consensus; Dori; Social controls Daigennin, 69, 100 See also Lawyers Daikan, 55-56, 58, 59, 60, 64, 83 Daimyo, 45 See also Sengoku daimyo Damaska, Mirjan R., 201n7 Danielski, David J., 216nl20 Dands, Shigemitsu, 219nl6, 220ns50-52, 221n77 Date Takemune, 48 Davis, Kenneth Culp, 142, 224n24, 227n97 Davis, Paul, 161, 227n92 Davison, Roderic H., 211n4 Dazai, Shundai, 62 Deirimono procedures, 57 Denunciation struggle, 185 Department of Justice (shiho sho), 69 Dependency, 45-46, 61-62, 176, 178-79, 190-91 Designated Industries Promotion Special Measures bill, 156-57 Detention (pretrial), 129 de Vos, George A., 186, 230n48 DharmaSd, 24 Dispute resolution See Consensual governance; Litigation; Mediation Dore, Ronald, 91, 191, 212ns34, 45, 213n54, 231ns62-64 Ddri, 43, 85, 207nll Dutch Civil Code, 74 Duus, Peter, 211nlO, 214n94 Dworkin, Ronald, 202nl6 Earl, David M., 54, 207n8 Economic and Scientific Section (SCAP), 150 Edo town commission, 55 Egi, Chn, 91 Ehrmann, Henry W., 223nl3 Electoral system, 159, 171 Embree, John, 171, 176, 228n6 Emperor, 30, 31, 47; in China, 25; under Meiji Constitution, 79-80; origins of, 2930; England See United Kingdom English Law School (ChOQ University), 76, 81 Epp, Robert, 74, 209n26, 27, 210ns29, 31, 39 Erhard, Ludwig, 141 Et5, Shinpei, 68, 69 Export cartels, 155-56 Export Import Transactions Law (1953), 152, 155, 226n67; 1952 law, 151, 152, 225n64 See also Export cartels Extraterritoriality, 68 See also Treaty revision Fair Trade Commission (FTC), 151, 152, 163-64 Familial state, 84 Index Family disputes 86-87, 88; conciliation of, 86, 87; lawsuits over, 87, 88 Farm Tenancy Conciliation Law (1924), 87, 91, 211nl3 Federal Trade Commission (U.S.), 163, 164 Fenwick, Charles R., 121, 137, 138, 218n2, 222n93 Feudalism, defined, 35; in Japan and Europe compared, 39, 58 See also Contracts Finance Commission, 55 Fisheries industry association, 158 Five-household units (goningumi), 56 Five-Year Plan (1955), 151, 152 Foote, Daniel H., 220n49 Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Control Law (1949), 150, 155, 156, 177, 225n44; enactment of, 148-49; use as leverage, 157 Foreign investment controls, 149-51 Foreign Investment Law (1950), 150 Forgiveness See Mercy Forsthoff, Ernst, 218nl46 France, 140; influence on Japanese law, 18, 70, 72, 74, 77, 85 Frase, Richard S., 219n29 Friedman, David, 201nl Friedman, Milton, 201nl Friedrich, Carl J., 202nll Fudai daimyo, 52 Fujikura, Koichiro, 211n8 Fujita, Keizo, 224n35 Fujiwara, Hirotatsu, 185 Fujiwara clan, 30 Fukuhara, Tadao, 214n83 Fukui, Haruhiro, 159, 223n21, 227n85 Fukutake, Tadashi, 174, 229nl7 Galanter, Marc, 216nll6 Gangs See Yakuza Gellhorn, Ernest, 227n97 George, B James, 218nll, 219nsl4, 16, 18, 221n78 Germany, 140, 141, 146; advisors from, 69, 70; antitrust in, 152, 225n65; criminal justice in, 126; influence of on codification, 70, 77, 88-89, 134; litigation in, 108; reception of legal theory from, 81 See also Legalitdtsprinzip Giessler, Peter, 224n30 Ginmimono procedures, 57 Go-Daigo, Emperor, 44 Goldstein, Abraham S., 222ns83, 84 Goodman, Marsha E., 130, 220ns34-36 Gordon, Andrew, 103, 104, 175, 214n95, 215n98, 229n20 Gottwald, Peter, 216nll3 Grand jury, SCAP attempt to impose, 126 Great Court of Cassation (Daishin'iri), 69, 86 Great Depression, 103 Gresser, Julian, 211n8 Grossberg, Kenneth A., 206ns24, 31 Grossman, Joel B., 216nll8 253 Guilds, 23, 28, 48 Guilty plea, lack of, 125, 128, 132 Guy, R Kent, 217nl39 Gyosei shido See Administrative guidance Hadley, Eleanor M., 225n59 Hahm, Pyong-Choon, 203n27 Haley, John O., 217nl39 Hall, John Cary, 206n25 Hall, John Whitney, 44, 57, 58, 176, 204ns2, 4, 206n28, 207ns9, 14, 21, 228nl, 229nlO Hamaguchi cabinet, 103 Hamilton, V Lee, 137, 221n72, 222n85 Hamlet See Village Hammurabi, code of, 24 Han dynasty, 20 Hanai, Takuz5, 86 Hanley, Susan, 60, 207n7, 208ns28, 30 Kara, Kei, 86 Hara, Yoshimichi, 86 Hart, H.L.A., 5, 201n5 Hayashi, Raizaburo, 135 Hei-no-bunri, 46 Hendel, Charles W., 202nll (Introduction) Henderson, Dan F., 93; 139; 203n38; 207nsll, 12, 15, 16; 208ns24-26, 29, 31, 32, 34; 217nsl28, 134; 222n2, 224n23 Higashimoto, Norikata, 213ns51, 56 Higuchi, Yoichi, 184 Hiramatsu, YoshirS, 203n38 Hiranuma, Kiichiro, 86 Hitobarai edict, 56 H6J8, Shigetoki, 41 Hollerman, Leon, 201nl Hoshino, Eiichi, 217nl30 Hosokawa, Kameichi, 208nl Hosoya, Masahiro, 225n62 Hostage taking, 45, 56 See also Sankin kBtai House (ie), 84 House codes (kaho), 47 House Lease Law (1921), 90 Household precepts (kakuri), 48 Hozumi, Nobushige, 86, 211n3 Hozumi, Shiget5, 86, 92, 93, 211nll, 212n25, 216nll4 Hozumi, Tadao, 211n7 Hozumi, Yatsuka, 76, 85 Hsiao, Kung-chuan, 23, 202nl7 Hsu Dau-lin, 204n48 Hulsewe, A.F.P., 20, 21, 202ns2, 4, 13, 221n57 Hurst, G Cameron, III, 204nl HyakushBdai, 59 Ie See House Igarashi, Futuba, 131, 133, 220n37 Ikeda, Daisaku, 184 Imperial institution See Emperor Imperial universities, established, 81 Import cartels, 155-56 Inada, Masatsugu, 209n6 254 Index Inomata, Kisei, 213n64 Inoue, Kaoni, 76 Inoue, Mitsusada, 203ns40, 41, 204ns42, S3 Inquest of Prosecution See Prosecution Review Commission International Monetary Fund, 148 Inukai cabinet, 86 Ishibashi, Magojiro, 213n50 Ishii, Ryosuke, 31, 58, 72, 134, 203ns35-37, 204ns3, 47, 205nsl6-18, 206n23, 207nsl2, 13, 18, 22, 209ns8, 25, 210ns29, 30, 32, 36, 221ns60, 61 Ishimura, Zensuke, 217nl36 Ishio, Yoshihisa, 204ns44-46 Its, Hirobumi, 211n3 Itoh, Kazuo, 219n28 lyori, Hiroshi, 187, 228n99, 230n49 Jansen, Marius B., 206n31 Jinkaisha, 48 Jits, 36, 43, 44 JBei Formulary, 43, 47 Johnson, Chalmers, 132, 141, 154, 157, 201nl, 220ns46, 47, 221ns54, 55, 223ns5, 9, 17, 226ns69, 72, 75, 79, 80, 227n96 Johnson, Wallace, 202ns5, 14, 203ns40, 41, 204n42 Jokamachi See Castle towns Judaism, 24 Judges, 85, 92, 94, 98, 104, 106, 130; Chinese magistrates as, 21; independence of, 57, 78; Kamakura magistrates as, 43; prewar, 82, 85, 98, 101; statistics on, 98, 102-3, 108; Tokugawa daikan as, 58, 83 See also Adjudication; Litigation; Private law process Judgment in lieu of conciliation, 92, 95 Jury system, 86, 115 Jus cogens/Jus depositum, 73 Justice, in Western and Chinese traditions, 24-26 Kamakura bakufu, 33-44, 52; adjudication under, 38-44; origins of, 33-37 Kaminaga, Yuriko, 217nl36 Kanda, James, 206n33 Kanda, K6ichi, quoted, 90, 212n29 Kaplan, Eugene J., 222n3 Katsumata, Shizuo, 48, 49, 206n30, 32-35 Kawada, Katsuo, 221n76 Kawashima, Takeyoshi, 175, 229nl9 Kelman, Steven, 226n73 Kenmu Formulary, 43, 47 Kida, Minoru, 172, 229nll Kinship, 29, 30, 33, 38, 45; in lord-vassal relations, 37, 45; fictive, 45 Kishi, Nobusuke, 141, 223nl6 Kishi cabinet, 148 Kishii, Tatsuo, 213n61 KishSmon, 40 Kitagawa, Zentaro, 211n2 Kiyoura cabinet, 86 Kobayashi, ShuzS, 104, 215ns 100, 103 Kodama, Kota, 59, 207n22, 208n27 Koga, Masayoshi, 212ns43, 44 KSmeito, 185 Korea, 3, 23, 33, 58, 83 Kotoku, Shflsui, 86 Kuge shohatto, 54 Kumigashira, 59 Kunsho, 187 Kurimoto, Joun, 74 Kurokawa case, 189 KyShS reforms, 60 Labor disputes, 90-91; conciliation of, 91 Labor Disputes Conciliation Law (1926), 91, 212n31 Labor movement, 90 Labor Party (U.K.), 140 Labor relations, 175 Ladejinsky, Wolf, 94, 213n55 Land Lease and House Lease Conciliation Law (1922), 87, 89, 90, 211nl2 Land Lease Law (1921), 90 Land reform, 148 Landlord-tenant disputes, 87-90; conciliation of, 89-90, 93-94 Law: as belief system, 4; as deistic cornmand, 24; elements and attributes of, 513; in imperial China, 19-32; under ritsuryd, 47; as tatemae, 186-90 See also Legal systems Law Concerning Special Measures for the Stabilization of Small and Medium Enterprises (1952), 151, 225n63 Law enforcement, 5, 8-13, 64-65, 116-19, 159, 178; informal 162, 164-66; by negotiation, 166-68 See also Administrative guidance; Adjudication; Criminal process; Litigation; Murahachibu; Private law process; Public law process; Sanctions; Social controls Law faculties, 69, 76, 81 Law firms, size of, 112 Law for the Protection of Buildings (1909), 89 Lawmaking, 5-8 See also Adjudication; Law; Legal rules; Legal systems Lawyers, 58, 86, 96-104, 111-14; compared to U.K and Germany, 98-99; as critics of conciliation, 93-96; in Diet, 99, 101; foreign in Japan, 100; reputation, 104, 215nl02; statistics on, 98-100, 101, 112, 102-3 Lawyers Law, daigennin regulations, 214n76; 1893 Law, 100, 214n81; 1933 Law, 100-101, 214n90; 1949 Law, 106, 112, 215nl06 Lebra, Takie, 179, 230n35 Legal ethics, 112 Index Legal profession See Lawyers Legal reforms: Meiji, 67-80; Occupation, 105-6; sengoku, 45, 48; Taika, 29 Legal Research and Training Institute, 106, 110-11; statistics on, 107 Legal rights, 21-22, 82, 93 Legal rules, 5-13, 25, 36, 74, 178, 186-90 See also Adjudication; Lawmaking; Legal system Legal system, elements of, 5-13; characteristics of Japanese, Legalism, 15 See also Sklar Legalists (China), 26 Legalitatsprlnzip, 11, lack of in Japan, 12526, 134 See also Suspension of prosecution Legitimacy, 4, 6, 28, 31, 32, 35, 47, 49, 5355, 63-65, 186-90, 194-95, 197-200; as attribute of law, Le Master, Dennis C., 223n8 Lepon, Jeffrey, 162, 227n95 Liberal Democratic Party, 140, 141, 157, 159 Liberal legal order, 12, 73-74, 91 Litigation, 1, 38-44, 57-58, 87, 89, 116-19; attitudes toward, 108-11, 116-18; costs, 117; delay, 92, 108-9; international comparisons of, 108, 110; statistics on, 87, 88, 97, 98, 99, 108, 109, 119 See also Adjudication; Judges; Private law process Liu, Chang Bin, 201n8, 202nl2 Lockwood, William W., 214n94, 215ns97, 99, 223n4, 224n40 Loewenberg, Gerhard, 223nl2 Longrais, Jouon des, 204n4 Lynch, John, 229n27 MacArthur, Douglas, 151 Macauley, Stewart, 116, 217nl37, 222n81 McKnight, Brian E., 205nl5 Major Export Goods Trade Association Law (1897), 146, 224n36 Major Industries Control Law (1931), 147, 224n39 Major Products Trade Association Law (1900), 146, 224n37 Maki, John, 153, 226n70 Makiguchi, TsunesaburO, 184 Makino, Eiichi, 86 Mandate of Heaven, 28, 30, 49, 54 See also Legitimacy Mano, Tsuyoshi, 96 Marquat, William F., 150 Marshall, Byron K., 212n29 Maruyama, Masao, 74-75, 80, 207n5, 208n33, 209n28, 210n57 Mason, Mark Evan, 225ns48, 55-58 Mass, Jeffrey, 38, 40, 204n5, 205ns9-12 Matsukawa cases, 132 Matsunaga, Yoshiichi, 213ns57, 58 Matsuo, KikutanO, 212ns48, 49, 213ns62, 65 Matsuo, Tasuku, 217nl28 255 Matsushita, Mitsuo, 226n76 Matsuzaki, Tetsuhisa, 223nsl8, 19 Matza, D., 222n82 Mediation, 57, 60, 115-16, 137; by bureaucracy, 166-168 See also Conciliation MeihS-ryO Law School, 69 Meiji Constitution, 68, 70, 77-80, 81, 176, 209nlO; guarantee of judicial independence under, 78, 80; rights of subjects under, 78-79, 95; role of emperor under, 78-80 Meiji government, economic policies of, 142, 144-45 Meiji leaders, 68-69 Meiji Restoration, 17, 68-69 Mercy, 24, 31, 41, 42; in China and Korea, 41, 205nl5; in contemporary criminal justice, 135 Merriman, David, 218n2 Merryman, John Henry, 118, 217nsl42, 143 Minamoto, Yoritomo, 36, 54; Tokugawa claims to lineage, 52 Ming Code, 63 Ming dynasty, 133 Ministry establishment laws, 154 Ministry of Commerce and Industry, 145 Ministry of Finance (MOF), 152, 157 Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), 149, 152, 154, 155-58, 160 Minobe, Tatsulcichi, 86, 95 Mitchell, Richard H., 221ns64, 67 Mitsuki, Masatsugu, 215nl01 Miura, YagorS, 213n59 Miyagawa, Sumu, 76, 210ns35, 40 Miyazawa, K5ichi, 221n74 Miyazawa, Setsuo, 131, 132, 201n4, 220ns43-45 Miyoshi, Shigeo, 213ns51, 56 Mladek, Jan V., 148 Monchajo, 40 Monetary Claims Temporary Conciliation Law (1932), 92, 212n47 Money suits, 57-58, 60, 63, 83 Morishima, Akio, 211n8 Morohashi, Tetsuji, 203n39 Morris, Clarence, 25, 202nll (Chapter 1), 203n21 Mukai, Ken, 209n7 Miiller, Heinz, 224n30 Munitions Ministry, 145 Mura See Village Murahachibu, 171-72, 178, 180; etymology of, 228n7 Murakami, Yasusuke, 158, 227n83 Muramatsu, Michio, 227n84 Muromachi bakufu, 43, 44-45, 52; origins, 44 MySreiritsu (general provisions), of ritsuryS, 30, 54, 203ns40, 41; of T'ang Code, 30 See also Ten Abominations 256 Index Nabeyama, Sadachika, 134 Peace Preservation Law (1925), 134, 221n64 Naganuma case, 188-89 Penal Fine Temporary Measures Law (1947), Nagashima, Atsushi, 123, 218ns6, 219nl7 Nagashima, Hatasu, 90, 212n28 Permanent employment, 175, 176 Naien marriage, 85 Peterson, Mark A., 115, 217nl32 Naito, Kunio, 185 Police, 126, 128, 129, 130, 131, 142, 173-74 Nakada, Kaoru, 207-8nsl3, 22 Pollution cases, 85, 188 Nakai, Kate Wildman, 207n4 Postwar constitution, 141, 147, 159; article Nakamura, Takafusa, 145, 201nl, 224n28 9, 188-89 Nakane, Chie, 113, 179, 217nl27, 230ns32, 33 Power, defined, 13 Nakasone, Yasuhiro, 141 Prestowitz, Clyde W., Jr., 201n3 Nakazato, Minoru, 117, 217nl38 Prime ministers, postwar former bureaucrat, Napier, Ron, 212n306 141,223nl6 Narita, Atsuo, 212n48, 213n63 Private law process, 10, 21-22, 63, 84, 117 Narita, Yoriaki, 227n88 See also Adjudication; Judges; Public law National Industrial Recovery Act (U.S., process 1933), 91, 212n33 Procuracy See Prosecutors National Socialism (Nazi), 11, 146 Property rights, 15, 33, 39, 46, 60, 64, 71, Natural law, 24; contrasted with imperial 75 79 gg-90 Chinese moral order, 14 Prosecution Review Commission, 126 Needham, Joseph, 25, 26, 203ns22, 23, 25 Prosecutorial discretion, U.S., 219n29 See Neo-Confuciansim, 35, 36, 49, 53-54, 56, also Suspension of prosecution 62, 63, 83, 93, 161 See also Confucianism Prosecutors, 104, 107, 111, 121-38; statistics Neptune, Robert H., 149 on, 98, 102-3, 108, 121, 123 Netherlands, 141 Public and private, dichotomy of, 27, 36, 47, 73 New Deal (U.S.), 91 Public law process, 10, 19-24, 28.see also New Zealand, 140 Administrative state; Private law process Niida, Noboru, 23, 202nl6, 203n31 Punishment, contrast in Japanese and U.S atNinbetsuchO registries, 56 titudes towards, 135 Nishida, Yoshiaki, 213n52 Putnam, Robert D., 141 Noda, Yoshiyukl 208nl Pyle, Kenneth B., 209n15 Norms See Legal rules Norway 110 Rabinowitz, Richard W., 101, 209ns29, 34, Notarial deeds (kosei shosho), 94 37, 214ns77, 80, 87, 93, 225n54 Occupational restrictions, 48, 71 Ocko, Jonathan K., 202nl2 (chap 1) _ , _ , ,„ _, Oda, Nobunaga, 45-46, 49, 51 Ogawa, Heikichi, 86 Ogawa, Ichiro, 227n89 Oil cartel cases, 163 Okano, Keijiro, 86 Okawara, Yoshio, 156, 226n76 Okimoto, Daniel I., 223nl5, 226n69 Okudaira, YasuhirS, 221ns64-66 Okuno, Hikoroku, 204n53, 207nl7, 208n35 Onin war (1467), 45 Ooms, Herman, 52, 206n2, 207ns3, Oppler, Alfred C., 105, 149, 216nl20 Osadamegaki (1742), 57, 60 Ostracism, See also Murahachibu Otsubo, Kenzo, 214n77 Ottoman empire, 68 Ouchi, Tsutomu, 212n34 Outcast communities, 56 See also _ Murahachibu; Sanctions Oyama, Katsuyoshi, 219n24 Pape, Wolfgang, 161, 227n93, 94 Patrick, Hugh T., 201nl, 215n96 Paulus, quoted, 24 Ramseyer, J Mark, 110, 117, 216nll7, 217ns138, 141 Reapportionment, 189 „ IT , ' Recidmsm, 136 Reed, Stephen, 223n18 Reformation (Protestant), 25 Registries, 56, 71, 115 Regulatory reforms, postwar, 147-51 Remedial rights, 83 Remorse, 129, 130, 136, 217nl39 See also Mercy Repeta, Lawrence, 226n76 Resale Price maintenance, 151 Restitution, 130-31, 135-36 Retributive punishment, 22 Revenge, as a motive for litigation, 117, 217nl39 Rice Riots (1918), 86 Riko, Mitsuo, 204n47, 49, 51, 52 Rinji Hosei Shingikai, 86, 91 Ritsuryo, 19, 29, 33, 34-35, 42, 47, 62, 77, 170 See also Taiho Code, Yoro Code Robinson, Glen O., 227n97 Rockman, Bert A., 141 Roesler, Hermann, 69, 79, 80, 210n55 Rohl, Klaus F., 216nll3 Index Rohlen, Thomas, 176, 178, 179, 229ns22, 29, 30 Rokkaku-shi shikimoku, 48 Roman law, 10, 20-22, 24, 37, 40-42 Roman legal tradition See Western legal tradition Rosenbluth, Frances McCall, 224n41 Rosett, Arthur, 217nl39 Rosovsky, Henry, 201nl 257 Shogun, 36; appointment of Yoritomo Minamoto, 36; appointment of leyasu Tokugawa, 52; office of, 36 Shomusata procedures, 39 Shugo, 36, 43, 44 Sklar, Judith, 15, 202nsl4, 15 Smethurst, Richard, 213n52 Smith Bria n 223nslO, 11 Smith, Robert J., 171, 172, 174, 176, 228nsl- 3, 5, 7, 229ns8, 9, 18 Smith, Thomas C., 68, 208n3, 209n24 Russia, 68 See also Soviet Union Smlth Russian Revolution, 86 , WilliamFrench,156, ,226n76 Social change, 12-14 see also Custom Ryusaki, Kisuke, 217nl31 ' Social controls, 14, 23, 46, 64, 138, 180-81, , 195, 198 See also Law; Law enforcement; Sajo, Andras, 228nl02 Murahachibu; Power; Sanctions; Self-help Sakamoto, Ifcdeo, 134 Sogon, Shunya, 230n31 Samuels, Richard, 166-67, 228nsl03-6 Soka Gakkai, 184-85 Samurai, 45-46, 47; as administrators, 55, Sokaiya, 184, 230n37 See also Yakuza 62; defined as caste, 56; kinship, 37; lord- Sono, \Razuaki, 215nl09 vassal relations of, 37-38; values of, 37 Sori clerk, 58 Sanbyaku daigen, 100 Soviet Union, 149 Sanctions, 5, 8-13, 117, 128-29, 160, 169, Special Wartime Civil Affairs Law (1942), 170-75, 181-86 See also Law; Law enfor91, 92, 95, 96, 212n47 cement; Murahachibu, Police, Social conSpiro, Herbert, 202nll (Introduction) trols Stack, Steven, 222n87 Sanders, Joseph, 137, 221n72, 222n85 State-War-Navy Coordinating Committee Sankin kotai, 56 (SWNCC), 105, 149 Sano, Manabu, 134 Steenstrup, Carl, 41, 43, 205ns7, 13, 14, 19, Sansom, George B., 204n43 20, 21, 206ns22, 27 Sarat, Austin, 216nll8 Stein, Ted L., 218nl44 Sato, Seisaburo, 223nsl8, 19 Steinhoff, Patricia G., 221n64 Sato, Shin'ichi, 205ns7, Stephens, Thomas B., 63, 208n36 SCAP (Supreme Commander for the Allied Stocking, George W., 224ns31, 32 Powers), 105-6, 126, 141, 148, 149, 150 Stoicism, 24, 40 See also Allied Occupation; Courts and Strayer, Joseph W., 35, 36 Law Division; Economic and Scientific Sugiyama, Haruki, 218nlO Section Sugiyama, Haruyasu, 205n21, 207-8n22 Scheiner, Irwin, 207n6 Sulieman, Ezra, 140, 223nl4 Schiller, A Arthur, 202nl8, 203nl9 Summary criminal proceedings, 128, 132 Schott, Kerry, 202nl2 (Introduction) Suspension of prosecution, 126-28 Schultz, Ulrike, 213ns72, 73 Suspension of sentences, 128 Schwartz, Benjamin, 26, 27, 203ns28, 29, Suzuki, Kisabure, 86 Suzuki, Yoshio, 138, 222n94, 95 30 32 33 Scog'ins/Hugh T., 201n9 Sweden, 110, 137 Sykes, G.M., 222n82 Seigi See Justice Seki Akira 203ns40, 41, 204ns42, 53 Taiho Code, 29 Self-help, 23 See also Social controls Taika Reforms, 29 Sengoku period, 35; daimyo 45, 47-49, 54 Takahashi, Korekiyo, 103 Shattuck Warren L 215nl09 Takikawa, Masajiro, 204ns50, 51, 205nl7, Shaw, William S., 205nl5 207-8nsl9, 22, 30 Shepherd, William G., 162 Tanaka, Hideo, 216nsl 11, 112 Shiga, Shuzo, 26, 202ns 1, 6, 7, 15, 203n26, Tanaka, Kakuei 141 221n57 Tanase, Takao, 216nsll9, 121 Shiki (ritsuryB offices), 33, 42, 43 T'ang Code, 20, 22, 29, 30, 31 Shikita, Minoru, 129, 219nl5, 220ns30-33, 53 T'ang dynasty, 17, 29, 133 Shinpan daimyo, 52 Tatemae, law as, 186-90, 199 Shinto, 29, 53, 205nll Tax auditors, 159 Shsda, Akira, 225n42, 226n78 Techow, Hermann, 70 Sheen, 33, 34, 44, 47, 58 Temple and Shrine Commission, 55 Rule of law, 48, 49, 139, 200 258 Index Ten Abominations, 22, 30 See MyOreiritsu Tenants and tenancy See Landlord-tenant disputes Tenks, 134-35 TennO See Emperor Toda, JOsei, 184 Tokugawa, Hidetada, 53, 54 Tokugawa, leyasu, 51 Tokugawa edicts, 14 Tokugawa governance, 55-65 Tokugawa period (1600-1867), 51-65 Tokugawa rule, legitimacy of, 52-55 Tomii, Masaaki, 86 Torture, 22, 131 See also Confession; Criminal process Toshitani, Nobuyoshi, 209n7 Toyotomi, Hideyoshi, 46, 51, 58 Trade Association Law (1948), 151, 225n61 See also Trade associations Trade associations, 146, 148, 152 See also Cartels; Control associations; Trade Association Law Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858), 68 Treaty revision, as catalyst for Meiji legal reforms, 68, 208nl Tso Chuan, 26 Tsuchida, Naoshige, 203ns40, 41, 204ns42, 53 Tsuda, Masamichi, 74 Tsujimoto, Hiroaki, 206n31 Ueki, Naoichiro, 206n25 Uji, 29 Ulpianus, quoted, 24 Unemployment, 103-4 Unger, Roberto, 7, 201n6 United Kingdom, 99, 100, 132, 140, 169-70 United States, 14, 132, 154, 161, 171, 179, 197; attitudes toward punishment, 135, 137; as model, 110, 114-16, 139-40; litigation in, 110; regulatory controls, 142, 143 Upham, Frank, 168, 185-86, 188, 228nl07, 230ns46, 47, 231n53 Vandermeersch, Leon, 25, 203n24 Victim compensation, 129, 130 Victim-offender mediation, 130-31, 137 Village: controls, 18, 23, 58, 60, 64, 169, 170-75, 195; headmen, 58, 59; offices, 59; as political unit 46 59 Virtuous ways and beautiful customs (junptt bizoku), 86, 90 Vogel, Ezra, 153-54, 176, 201nl, 226n71, 229ns23-25 Wagatsuma, Hiroshi, 217nl39 Walster, Elaine, 222n81 Walster, G William, 222n81 Walthall, Anne, 207n6 Ward, Robert, 139, 176, 222nl, 228nl, 229nlO Warriors See Samurai Wartime controls, 145, 147 Waswo, Ann, 87, 93, 211ns14, 15, 212ns22, 24, 27, 213n53 Watanabe, Yoshifusa, 227n90 Watanabe, YOzo, 211n6, 212n21, 23 Watanuki, Joji, 223n6 Warkins, Myron w., 224ns31, 32 Weber, Max, 11, 201n10 Western Legal tradition, 10-11, 17, 40- 41, 65, 84; contrasted with Chinese legal tradition, 11, 20, 21, 24, 25, 28 Wigmore, John Henry, 70-71, 207n20, 209n19 Williams, Justin, 149 Williams, Robin M., Jr., 171, 228ns4, Williams, Timothy P., 230n31 Wolferen, Karel van, 15, 190, 202nl3 (Introduction), 223n7, 231ns59-61 Yakuza, 183-84 Yamaga, Soka, 53 Yamaguchi, Yonachiro, 213n60 Yamamura, Kozo, 60, 152, 201nl, 207n7, 208ns28, 30, 209n23, 225n43, 226ns68, 79 Yamanouchi, Kazuo, 226n74, 227n90 Yamen runner, 58 Yata incident, 186 Yokoyama, K5ichir5, 208n2 Yoro Code, 29, 30, 33 Yoshida, Jinpu, 224ns34, 38 Yoshida, Shigeru, 141, 223nl6 Yoshida cabinet, 150 Yoshino, Michael Y., 229n28 Young, Michael K., 227n89 Yuan dynasty, 133 Zaibatsu, 104, 145, 147, 151 Zatsumusata procedures, 39, 57 Zeisel Hans 218n9