Published in 2012 by Britannica Educational Publishing (a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.) in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC 29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010 Copyright © 2012 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc All rights reserved Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2012 Rosen Educational Services, LLC All rights reserved Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932 First Edition Britannica Educational Publishing Michael I Levy: Executive Editor J.E Luebering: Senior Manager Marilyn L Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies Lisa S Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition Robert Curley: Manager, Science and Technology Rosen Educational Services Jeanne Nagle: Senior Editor Nelson Sá: Art Director Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design Introduction by Laura Loria Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fossil fuels/edited by Robert Curley p cm — (Energy: past, present, and future) “In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.” Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-61530-540-7 (eBook) Fossil fuels I Curley, Robert II Title III Series TP318.F67 2012 333.8'2—dc22 2010045687 Cover (front top, back) Derricks drilling for oil; (front bottom) A consumer pumping gas Shutterstock.com Cover (front bottom) A consumer pumping gas Shutterstock.com On page x: Burning lumps of coal Shutterstock.com Pp 1, 22, 46, 63, 81, 96, 110, 131, 133, 137 © www.istockphoto.com / Teun van den Dries Contents 12 Introduction x Chapter 1: Petroleum Origins of crude Oil From planktonic remains to kerogen From kerogen to petroleum Origin in source Beds Migration through carrier Beds Accumulation in reservoir Beds Oil traps History of Use Exploitation of surface seeps Extraction from underground reservoirs Petroleum Fuel products Gases Edwin L Drake Gasoline Tetraethyl Lead Gasoline blending Diesel Fuel Fuel Oil Significance of Oil in modern times 1 12 13 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 Chapter 2: Obtaining petroleum World distribution of petroleum Oil fields Sedimentary basins Geologic study and exploration Tar sands Status of the world Oil supply Major Oil-producing countries Drilling for Oil 22 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 33 2 10 10 19 32 Cable tooling The rotary drill The drill Pipe The derrick Casing Directional drilling Drilling offshore Well logging and drill-Stem testing Well completion Recovery of Oil and Gas 33 34 34 35 36 36 37 39 40 44 Chapter 3: Petroleum refining 46 The history of refining 46 Distillation of kerosene and naphtha 47 Conversion to light fuels 48 The Rise of environmental concerns 49 50 Properties of crude Oil Saturated hydrocarbons 50 Unsaturated hydrocarbons 52 Nonhydrocarbon content 52 Types of crude Oil 53 Conventional measurement systems 55 Basic refinery processes 56 Separation: Fractional distillation 56 Conversion: Catalytic cracking 59 62 Purification Chapter 4: Natural Gas Origins of natural Gas Organic formation Inorganic formation The geologic environment Gas reservoirs Unconventional Gas reservoirs 41 63 63 64 64 65 66 67 46 54 History of the Use of natural Gas Improvements in Gas pipelines Natural Gas as a premium Fuel LPG Properties of natural Gas Hydrocarbon content Nonhydrocarbon content Physical properties Measurement systems World distribution of natural Gas Russia Europe North America North Africa Middle East Asia Uses of natural Gas 68 70 71 72 72 73 73 74 74 75 75 76 77 78 78 78 79 Chapter 5: Coal The origins of Coal Plant matter The fossil record Peat Coalification Bituminous Coal History of the Use of Coal Coke Coal Rank Moisture content Volatile matter content Mineral (Ash) content Fixed-carbon content Calorific value Coal Type 81 82 82 84 86 87 88 89 91 91 92 92 92 94 94 95 Chapter 6: Obtaining Coal World distribution of Coal 96 96 69 74 93 General occurrence Resources and reserves Coal mining Surface mining Underground mining Mine Gas Chapter 7: Utilization of Coal Combustion Combustion reactions Fixed-Bed combustion Fluidized-Bed combustion Pulverized-Coal combustion Cyclone combustion Coal-water slurry Fuel Advanced combustion technologies Gasification Gasification reactions Gasification systems Advanced gasification systems Coal Gas Gas-cleanup systems Liquefaction Liquefaction reactions Liquefaction processes Advanced processes Conclusion Glossary Bibliography Index 96 97 100 101 103 104 110 110 110 112 113 115 115 116 118 119 119 121 124 125 126 126 126 128 129 130 131 133 137 106 117 121 Utilization of Coal a high-pressure Lurgi gasifier, and the resulting synthesis gas is reacted over an iron-based catalyst either in a fixed-bed or fluidized-bed reactor Depending on reaction conditions, the products obtained consist of a wide range of hydrocarbons Although this process was developed and used widely in Germany during World War II, it was discontinued afterward owing to poor economics It has been in operation since the early 1950s in South Africa (the SASOL process) and now supplies as much as onethird of that country’s liquid fuels Advanced processes Lower operating temperatures are desirable in direct liquefaction processes, since higher temperatures tend to promote cracking of molecules and produce more gaseous and solid products at the expense of liquids Similarly, lower pressures are desirable for ease and cost of operation Research efforts in the areas of direct liquefaction have concentrated on reducing the operating pressure, improving the separation process by using a hydrogen donor solvent, operating without catalysts, and using a solvent without catalysts but using external catalytic rehydrogenation of the solvent Research has also focused on multistage liquefaction in an effort to minimize hydrogen consumption and maximize overall process yields In the area of indirect liquefaction, later versions of the SASOL process have employed only fluidized-bed reactors in order to increase the yield of gasoline and have reacted excess methane with steam in order to produce more carbon monoxide and hydrogen Other developments include producing liquid fuels from synthesis gas through an intermediate step of converting the gas into methanol at relatively low operating pressures (5 to 10 atmospheres) and temperatures (205–300 °C, or 129 Fossil Fuels 400–575 °F) The methanol is then converted into a range of liquid hydrocarbons The use of zeolite catalysts has enabled the direct production of gasoline from methanol with high efficiency Conclusion Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are fossil fuels—materials of biological origin occurring within Earth’s crust that can be used as a source of energy All contain carbon and were formed as a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of organic matter produced by photosynthesis, a process that began in the Archean Eon more than billion years ago Most carbonaceous material occurring before the Devonian Period (approximately 415 million years ago) was derived from algae and bacteria All fossil fuels can be burned in air or with oxygen derived from air to provide heat This heat may be employed directly, as in the case of home furnaces, or utilized to produce steam to drive generators that can supply electricity In still other cases—for example, gas turbines used in jet aircraft—the heat yielded by burning a fossil fuel serves to increase both the pressure and the temperature of the combustion products to furnish motive power Since the late 18th century, fossil fuels have been consumed at an ever-increasing rate Today they supply nearly 90 percent of all the energy consumed by the industrially developed countries of the world The amounts of fossil fuels that can be recovered economically are difficult to estimate, largely because of changing rates of consumption and future value as well as technological developments However, one fact is undeniable Although new deposits of petroleum and coal continue to be discovered, the reserves of the principal fossil fuels remaining in the Earth are fixed in quantity and cannot be renewed 130 GLOSSARY anthracite The most highly metamorphosed form of coal bitumen Any of various solid or semisolid mixtures of hydrocarbons that occur in nature or that are obtained as residues from the distillation of petroleum or coal catalytic Pertaining to a modification, especially an increase in the rate of a chemical reaction, induced by material unchanged chemically at the end of the reaction colloidal Refers to a substance that consists of particles dispersed throughout another substance; the particles are very small but still incapable of passing through a semipermeable membrane conodont fossils Minute, toothlike fossils composed of the mineral apatite (calcium phosphate), most frequently occurring in marine sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age diagenesis The sum of all processes, chiefly chemical, by which changes in a sediment are brought about after its deposition but before its final conversion to rock distillates Liquid products condensed from vapour during the distillation process hydrocarbons Any of a class of organic chemical compounds composed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen igneous Used to describe a variety of rocks made up of hardened lava, or created as the result of other volcanic activity 131 Fossil Fuels kerogen The dark-coloured, insoluble product of bacterially altered plant and animal detritus; the first stage of petroleum lignites A type of coal, generally yellow to dark brown in color, which forms from peat at shallow depths and temperatures lower than 100 °C (212 °F) macerals The many microscopically recognizable, individual organic constituents of coal that retain certain characteristic physical and chemical properties naphtha Volatile, highly flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixtures used chiefly as solvents and diluents, as well as raw materials for conversion to gasoline sapropelic coal A hydrogen-rich form of coal that is derived from loose deposits of sedimentary rock rich in hydrocarbons sedimentary Used to describe a type of rock that formed at or near Earth’s surface due to the accumulation and lithification of sediment, or by the precipitation from solution at normal surface temperatures (chemical rock) siliceous Being composed primarily of silica or a silicate slurry A watery mixture or suspension of insoluble matter; pulverized coal mixed with water is a slurry that can be used as fuel smelting The process by which a metal is obtained from its ore by heating beyond the melting point in the presence of oxidizing agents, such as air, or reducing agents, such as coke viscosity The property of resistance to flow in a fluid or semifluid 132 BIBLIOGRAPHY PETROLEUM B.P Tissot and D.H Welte, Petroleum Formation and Occurrence, 2nd rev ed (1984); and John M Hunt, Petroleum Geochemistry and Geology, 2nd ed (1996), are sources of information on theories of the origin and accumulation of petroleum, as well as on the practical applications of scientific knowledge to petroleum problems Marlan W Downey, William A Morgan, and Jack C Threet (eds.), Petroleum Provinces of the Twenty-First Century (2001), is a collection of essays on such topics as the importance of oil-field discoveries of the 1990s and the availability of fossil fuels in the 21st century Michel T Halbouty (ed.), Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1990–1999 (2003), contains lists and descriptions of the world’s giant oil and gas fields Each year maps, production figures, and geologic data are published by World Oil and the Oil and Gas Journal Journal PETROLEUM PRODUCTION Two books that explain the entire petroleum process in laypersons’ terms, from formation to prospecting to drilling and recovery, are Norman J Hyne, Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling and Production, 2nd ed (2001), by a professor of petroleum geology; and Martin Raymond and William L Leffler, Oil and Gas Production in Nontechnical Language (2006), by an industry veteran and a technical writer William C Lyons and Gary 133 Fossil Fuels J Plisga, Standard Handbook of Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering, 2nd ed (2005), is a technical reference work Petroleum refining Bill D Berger and Kenneth E Anderson, Modern Petroleum: A Basic Primer of the Industry, 3rd ed (1992), is a nontechnical introduction to the entire petroleum industry that provides a good understanding of the interaction between exploration, drilling, transportation, refining, petrochemicals, and marketing A simple introduction to petroleum refinery processes is William L Leffler, Petroleum Refining in Nontechnical Language, 4th ed (2008), with chapters on each major process More detailed descriptions of processes and typical operating considerations are provided in Robert A Meyers (ed.), Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, 3rd ed (2004); and James G Speight, The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, 4th ed (2007) Natural gas Arlon R Tussing and Connie C Barlow, The Natural Gas Industry (1984), provides a history of the industry in the United States beginning with coal gasification in the 19th century through the development of government regulatory programs in the 1980s; in addition, the structural evolution of the domestic gas industry is described, with special emphasis on the impact of industry regulations R.V Smith, Practical Natural Gas Engineering, 2nd ed (1990), discusses technical aspects of gas production Coal G.H Taylor et al., Organic Petrology (1998); BP/Amoco, BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2006); and the World 134 Bibliography Energy Council, Survey of Energy Resources (2004), provide data on proven reserves Simon Walker, Major Coalfields of the World (2000), provides information about coal resources worldwide Information on the organic composition of coals, with numerous references to earlier literature, may be found in D.W van Krevelen, Coal: Typology, Physics, Chemistry, Constitution, 3rd, completely rev ed (1993) Douglas C Peters (ed.), Geology in Coal Resource Utilization (1991), provides information concerning coal resources, reserve estimation, coal utilization, and the environment Coal mining Kristina Lindbergh and Barry Provorse, Coal—A Contemporary Energy Story, rev ed (1980), provides nontechnical information on coal geology, mining, transportation, and utilization Roy D Merritt, Coal Exploration, Mine Planning, and Development (1986), offers details on geology and exploration All aspects of mining engineering, including coal mining, are discussed in Howard L Hartman, Introductory Mining Engineering, 2nd ed (2002); Howard L Hartman (ed.), SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., vol (1992); and Bruce A Kennedy (ed.), Surface Mining, 2nd ed (1990) Robert Stefanko, Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice (1983), is a standard reference for underground coal-mine operating practices in the United States Coal utilization Harold H Schobert, Coal, the Energy Source of the Past and the Future (1987), provides a good nontechnical introduction to coal for a reader with little or no chemical background; it also provides an understanding of the role that coal 135 Fossil Fuels has played in society from ancient times to the present N Berkowitz, An Introduction to Coal Technology, 2nd ed (1993), is useful for a reader learning about coal for the first time James G Speight, The Chemistry and Technology of Coal, 2nd ed., revised and expanded (1994), an introductory textbook, deals with geology, petrography, chemistry, and utilization technology D Merrick, Coal Combustion and Conversion Technology (1984), offers a comprehensive guide to coal-utilization technology for engineers, planners, and policy makers Other books are H.-D Schilling, B Bonn, and U Krauss, Coal Gasification: Existing Processes and New Developments, 2nd rev ed (1981; originally published in German, 2nd rev ed., 1979), a comprehensive collection; and Perry Nowacki, Coal Liquefaction Processes (1979), a systematic discussion 136 INDEX A acid rain, 20, 88 additives, 16, 18, 48, 59, 62 advanced gasification systems, 124–126 advanced liquefaction process, 129–130 Alaska, 31, 85, 97 algae, 2, 83, 84 alternative energy, 17, 27, 101 ancient cultures, 10, 11, 12, 68, 90 anthracite, 81, 84, 87, 88, 89, 96, 101, 115, 128 Arabian-Iranian sedimentary basin, 24, 25, 30, 33, 78 area mining, 102 ash, 21, 88, 91, 92, 94, 95, 112, 113, 115, 116, 121, 123, 124, 126, 128 Asia, 13, 61, 62, 78–79, 84 auger mining, 102, 103 automobiles, 20, 47, 48 B bacteria, 2, 6, 26, 130 basic refinery process, 56–62 Bergius process, 128–129 biochemical coalification (peat formation), 86, 87 biogenic methane (marsh gas), 2, 64 bituminous coal, 84, 88–89, 91, 94, 95, 96, 125, 128 butane, 16, 17, 18, 51, 72, 73, 80 C cable-tool drilling, 33–34 Canada, 22, 26, 31, 32, 77, 88, 94, 97, 109 Carboniferous Period, 84, 96, 97 carbonium, 60 carbon monoxide, 19, 72, 104, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 127, 129 carrier beds, 6–7, catalysts, 48, 49, 60, 61, 62, 127, 128, 129, 130 catalytic cracking, 17, 48, 49, 59–62, 80 charcoal, 87, 89, 90, 95 China, 24, 68, 90, 99 Clean Air Act, 89 climate, 86, 97 coal ash, 92, 113 coal gas, 125 coalification, 87–89, 91 coal miners, 104, 105, 107 coal mining, 90, 100–109 coal rank calorific value, 88, 91, 92, 94–95, 122, 123 fixed-carbon content, 91, 94 137 Fossil Fuels mineral (ash) content, 91, 92–94 moisture content, 92 volatile matter content, 92 coal reserves, 97, 98, 101 coal seam, 67, 83, 86, 87, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109 coal type, 81, 95 coal use, history of, 89–90 coal-water slurry fuel (CWSF), 116–118 coke, 59, 61, 81, 82, 90, 91, 110, 112, 125 combustion advanced combustion technologies, 118 and coal-water slurry fuel, 116–118 combustion reactions, 94, 110–112, 119, 122 cyclone combustion, 115–116 fixed-bed combustion, 112–113 fluidized-bed combustion, 113–114 pulverized-coal combustion, 115 compressed natural gas, 79 condensation, 21, 47, 58, 73 contour mining, 102 corrosion, 21, 62, 113 Cretaceous Period, 84, 96 crude oil origins, 1–10 crude oil properties nonhydrocarbon content, 52–53 saturated hydrocarbons, 50–51 types of crude oil, 53–55 unsaturated hydrocarbons, 3, 52 cyclone combustion, 115–116 diagenesis, diesel fuel, 19–20, 62, 128 directional drilling, 36–37 distillation, 11, 17, 46, 47–48, 54, 56–58, 59, 61, 125 Drake, Edwin L., 13, 14 drilling rigs, 35, 37, 38, 39 drill sites, 37 drill-stem test, 39–40 dry gas, 63, 78, 80 D fault trap, Fischer-Tropsch process, 128–129 foraminifera, fossil records, 84–85 deep gas production, 64 Devonian shale gas, 67 E electric power, 81, 88, 89, 110, 118 emissions, 18, 19, 20, 49, 52, 62, 72, 89, 114 energy conversion, 46, 47, 48–49, 55, 62, 110, 118, 125, 126 energy demand, 13, 17, 27, 28, 47, 48, 49, 54, 59, 90, 98, 101 engine knock, 15, 16, 62 engines, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 47, 48, 49 England, 70, 90 environmental concerns, 18, 19, 49–50, 79, 101, 108 ethane, 13, 14, 50, 63, 72, 73 Europe, 12, 13, 61, 62, 70, 71, 76–77, 84, 85, 90, 107 exploitation of surface seeps, 10–12 exploration, 23, 24, 25–27 extraction of fossil fuels, 12–13, 46, 96, 105, 106, 108, 109 F 138 Index fossils, 4, 9, 26, 83, 84, 95 fouling, 113, 115 fractional distillation, 56–58 fuel gas, 13, 14, 58, 61, 127 fuel oil, 20–21, 47, 116, 128 fuel shortages, 71, 90 fuel transportation, 50, 70, 72, 81, 88, 92, 100–101, 102, 109, 125–126 hydrocarbons, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 17, 18, 26, 49, 50–55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 72, 73, 74, 127, 129, 130 hydrogen, 1, 13, 49, 50, 52, 53, 62, 72, 73, 74, 91, 119, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128 G impurities, 62, 81, 119, 128 India, 99, 108 Industrial Revolution, 13 gas-cleanup systems, 126 gases, 13–14, 73, 92, 104, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122, 126, 127 gas fields, 66, 67, 71, 75, 76, 77, 78 gasification, 81, 118, 119–126 gasification reactions, 119–121, 122, 123 gasification systems, 121–122, 124–126 gasoline, 15–19, 47, 48, 49, 51, 54, 59, 61, 79, 128, 129, 130 gasoline blending, 17 gas pipelines, 70–71 gas turbine, 118 geologic environment, 65–66, 67 graphite, 81, 119 H heat, 3, 14, 19, 45, 47, 48, 56, 57, 59, 67, 88, 91, 92, 94, 99, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 122, 123, 125 heat transfer, 113, 115 heavy crude, 45, 48, 52, 53, 54, 58, 72, 128 high-octane fuels, 18 Highwall mining, 103 I K kerogen, 2–4, 5, kerosene, 12, 26, 47–48, 49, 58 Koppers-Totzek system, 124–126 L lead additives, 16, 18, 49 legislation, 18, 101 light fuels, 48–49 lighting, 70, 125 lignite, 83, 84, 87, 101, 115, 123 limestone, 7, 10, 69, 70, 77, 78, 113, 114 liquefaction, 81, 126–130 liquefaction process, 127, 128–130 liquefaction reactions, 126–128 liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 13, 14, 72, 73 liquid petroleum, 13, 26, 63 longwall mining, 98, 106–108 lubricants, 13, 47 Lurgi system, 122–123, 125, 129 139 Fossil Fuels M natural gas seeps, 68 nitrogen, 3, 50, 52, 53, 62, 73, 91, 104, 122 nitrogen oxide, 19, 72, 88, 114 nonhydrocarbons, 52–53, 73 North Africa, 22, 78, North America, 11, 12, 31, 70, 77–78, 84, 85 macerals, 95 magnetic field, 118 magnetohydrodynamics (MHD), 118 measurement systems, 55–56, 74–75 methane, 2, 4, 50, 63, 64, 65, 73, 74, 79, 80, 89, 104, 119, 122, 123, 125, 129 Mexico, 11, 24, 31, 77, 78 Middle East, 22, 30, 32, 53, 68, 78 mine gas, 104 minerals, 3, 6, 92 O N naphtha, 16, 17, 18, 26, 47–48, 49, 58, 59, 60, 61 natural gas history of use, 68–75 and improvements in gas pipelines, 70–71 as premium fuels, 71–72 natural gas origins gas reservoirs, 66, 68 and the geologic environment, 65–66 inorganic formation, 64–65 organic formation, 64 unconventional gas reservoirs, 67–68 natural gas properties hydrocarbon content, 73 measurement systems, 74–75 nonhydrocarbon content, 73 physical properties, 74 natural gas recovery, 44–45, 65, 66, 68, 77 octane, 15, 17, 18, 59 octane number, 15, 16, 61 octane rating, 15–18 offshore drilling, 30, 37–39 oil drilling methods cable tooling, 33–34 casing, 33, 36, 39, 40, 42, 43 the derrick, 35–36, 38 directional drilling, 36–37 drilling offshore, 37–39 the drill pipe, 34–35, 37, 39, 40 recovery of oil and gas, 44–45 the rotary drill, 34, 35 well completion, 40–44 well logging and drill-stem, 39–40 oil fields, 23–33, 44, 54, 75, 77, 78, 125 oil-producing countries, major, 29–33 oil recovery, 44–45, 65 oil seep, 6, 10–12, 14, 47 oil-shale deposits, 29 oil traps, 8–10 oil window, 3, 63, 64, 65 oxygen, 2, 3, 26, 50, 52, 53, 64, 79, 87, 91, 95, 111, 112, 116, 122, 123, 124 140 Index P R Paleozoic Era, 2, 84, 85 paraffins, 3, 4, 18, 26, 50, 51, 54, 60 peak-oil theory, 28 peat, 13, 81, 82, 83, 86–87 Pennsylvania, 12, 13, 14, 47, 53, 54, 77 Persian Gulf, 24, 30 petroleum fuel products diesel fuel, 19–20 fuel oil, 20–21 gases, 13–14 gasoline, 15–19 petroleum refining, 46–62 petroleum use, history of, 10–13 pipelines, 70–71, 72, 81 plant matter, 82–83 platforms, 36, 37, 38, 39 pollution, 21, 49, 88, 89, 103 premium fuel, 71–72 primary recovery of oil and gas, 44–45 production coal, 81, 98, 101, 107, 108, 127, 130 natural gas, 17, 44, 45, 64, 67, 73, 76, 77, 78 petroleum, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 71, 78 propane, 13, 72, 73 propanol, 79 purification, 47, 62 refineries, 13, 14, 17, 21, 47, 49, 56–62, 80 refiners, 17, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 56, 58 refining, history of, 46–50 regulation, 20, 21, 79, 89 reservoir beds, rivers, 26, 78, 86, 90 room-and-pillar mining, 105–106 rotary power, 39 Russia, 22, 24, 30, 31, 47, 71, 75–76, 99 Q Qatar, 78 S salt, 9, 14, 70, 78 saturated hydrocarbons, 50–51 Saudi Arabia, 30, 32 secondary recovery of oil and gas, 44 sedimentary basins, 9, 24–25, 27, 31, 64, 65, 87, 96 sedimentary rock, 4, 64, 68, 83 separation, 47, 56–58, 128, 129 shale, 4, 7, 8, 29, 67 shortwall mining, 108 Siberia, 71, 75, 76, 84, 97, 109 slag, 92, 115, 116, 121, 122, 124, 126 slurry, 116–118, 125 smelting, 88, 90, 91 soot, 72, 79, 125 source beds, 4–6 South Africa, 99, 129 steam, 26, 45, 81, 88, 90, 110, 113, 118, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129 stratigraphic traps, 9–10 strip mining, 102, 103 storage, 17, 38, 52, 56, 88, 92 141 Fossil Fuels structural traps, 8–9 sulfur, 3, 17, 20, 21, 49, 50, 52, 53, 62, 72, 88, 89, 91, 113, 126 supergiant fields, 24, 25, 30, 31, 33, 75, 78 surface mining, 98, 100, 101–103 surface seeps, 10–12 synthetic crude, 26 synthetic natural gas, 71, 125 United States, 12, 14, 18, 19, 22, 24, 29, 31, 49, 55, 61, 70, 71, 72, 73, 77, 79, 83, 88, 89, 90, 94, 99, 107, 109, 110 unsaturated hydrocarbons, 3, 52 Urengoy, 71, 75, 76 U.S Geological Survey (USGS), 27 T Venezuela, 24, 54 tar-sand reserves, 29 tar sands, 26 tetraethyl lead, 16 Texas, 13, 31, 77 thermal efficiency, 116, 118, 126 thick-seam mining, 108–109 transportation fuels, 48, 49, 54, 59, 71, 79 turbines, 37, 110, 118 W U unconventional gas reservoirs, 67–68 underground mining, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103–109 underground reservoirs, 12–13, 33, 46 V Watt, James, 90,125 well completion, 40–44 wells, 12, 13, 14, 16, 25, 27, 30, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 49, 68, 67, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 95, 110, 128 Winkler system, 123–124 wood, 13, 53, 89, 95, 104 world oil supply, 27–29 world distribution of coal, 96–99 of natural gas, 75–79 of petroleum, 22–33 World War I, 128 World War II, 18, 48, 71, 129 142 [...]... deserve careful consideration and in-depth analysis, which is the aim of this book Within these pages lies a thorough analysis of the history, origins, production, and uses of fossil fuels As their collective name indicates, fossil fuels are formed from the preserved remains of plants and animals, and are buried deep underground Petroleum is composed of carbon and hydrogen that has been passed through... or spores), vitrinite (wood), and inertinite (fossils) Coal can be combusted from its solid state or converted to a liquid or gas through varied processes Fossil fuels as an energy source are a relatively recent occurrence, but other uses of fossil fuels date back centuries Early petroleum use can be traced back more than 5,000 years Ancient Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians exploited oil seeps,... performance and was usually quoted alone After the advent of unleaded fuels in the mid-1970s, however, motor octane measurements were frequently found to limit actual engine performance As a result the road 15 7 Fossil Fuels 7 Tetraethyl lead Tetraethyl lead is an organometallic compound that at one time was the chief antiknock agent for automotive fuels Manufactured by the action of ethyl chloride on a powdered... without structural influence The geologic history of most sedimentary basins contains the prerequisites for the formation of stratigraphic traps Typical examples are fossil carbonate reefs, marine sandstone bars, and deltaic 9 7 Fossil Fuels 7 distributary channel sandstones When buried, each of these geomorphic features provides a potential reservoir, which is often surrounded by finer-grained sediments... abundant The most desirable coal has low xiii 7 Fossil Fuels 7 moisture and volatility and high fixed carbon content and calorific value Ash content determines the ways in which coal should be used Coal is also typed by the organic substances it contains, called macerals The three types are liptinite (algae or spores), vitrinite (wood), and inertinite (fossils) Coal can be combusted from its solid state... travel, which relied upon coal to stoke locomotive engines, and the burgeoning industrial sector of the American economy throughout the 19th century spurred coal production in the United States Obtaining fossil fuels involves sophisticated machinery and geologic knowledge When drilling for oil, a rotary drill connected to a drill pipe bores through the rock As the hole is drilled, casing is added to prevent... can be used; these involve the injection of natural gas or the application of heat Coal can be recovered through surface or underground mining For surface mining, the process is straightforward xv 7 Fossil Fuels 7 The land is cleared of vegetation, and topsoil is retained for later replacement The rock layer over the coal seam is drilled and blasted with explosives, and debris is removed The coal deposit... undercut, blasted, and removed in varying lengths and thicknesses Longwall mining often requires backfilling the mined areas with sand or waste materials, as collapse is too dangerous The supply of fossil fuels is determined by calculating both known and recoverable resources, combined with estimated undiscovered deposits The world oil supply is estimated to be 2.39 trillion barrels, three-quarters... rate of consumption The United States, Russia, and China contain more than half of the world supply of proven reserves, with the U.S leading with 27 percent of the total It remains to be seen whether fossil fuels will continue to meet the majority of the world’s energy needs or if the use of renewable resources such as wind, water, or solar energy will eventually surpass petroleum, natural gas, and coal... crude oil, though as a technical term it also includes natural gas and the viscous or solid form known as bitumen The liquid and gaseous phases of petroleum constitute the most important of the primary fossil fuels Indeed, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons are so intimately associated in nature that it has become customary to shorten the expression “petroleum and natural gas” to “petroleum” when referring