FLOCCULATION in NATURAL and ENGINEERED ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS Copyright 2005 by CRC Press CRC PRESS Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. FLOCCULATION in NATURAL and ENGINEERED ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS Edited by Ian G. Droppo • Gary G. Leppard Steven N. Liss • Timothy G. Milligan Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page iv — #4 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Flocculation in natural and engineered environmental systems/edited by Ian G. Droppo [et al.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-615-7 (alk. paper) 1. Flocculation. 2. Water—Purification. I. Droppo, Ian G. QD547.F584 2004 628.1’622—dc22 2004056933 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. 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Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2005 by CRC Press No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-615-7 Library of Congress Card Number 2004056933 Printed in the United States of America 1234567890 Printed on acid-free paper Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — pagev—#5 Preface In the history of environmental science, there has probably been no greater struggle than the attempt to control the impact of the sediment and solids generated by nature and human influence (including industrial processing) on the terrestrial and aquatic environment and on socioeconomics in general. Untold billions of dollars are spent each year on dredging to maintain navigation channels and harbors. Further costs are added by the need to treat these sediments prior to disposal because of high levels of contamination resulting from anthropogenic impacts on the environment. Significant financial burdens arise as a result of the need to remove solids during drinking water and wastewater treatment processes, a necessity for sustainable development, and the protection of human and aquatic health. It is now well established that the majority of particles within natural (freshwater and saltwater) systems are present in a floc- culated form (i.e., flocs), and that the formation of flocs is essential for the effective performance of engineering processes such as biological wastewater treatment. Flocculation is the process of aggregating smaller particles together to form lar- ger composite particles via various physical, chemical, and biological interactions. These larger composite particles behave differently in terms of their physical (e.g., transport, settling), chemical (e.g., contaminant uptake and transformation), and bio- logical (e.g., community structure activities and metabolism) behavior relative to their constituent individual particles due to differences in size, shape, porosity, dens- ity, and compositional characteristics. Given these significant behavioral differences between flocs per se and their individual component parts, flocculation influences a wide array of environmental phenomena related to sediment–water and sediment– sediment interactions. A few of these include sediment and contaminant transport in various aquatic ecosystems, remediation of contaminated bed sediments, contamin- ated bed sediment stability, and habitat destruction resulting from sedimentation (e.g., coral reef, salmon spawning grounds, mollusk habitat degradation). These concerns, coupled with the ubiquitous nature of flocs within natural and engineered systems and the potential to influence floc properties to control better the environmental and engineering processes, have generated an increased emphasis on floc research. The traditional disciplines within saltwater, freshwater, and engineering research have, however, remained somewhat mutually exclusive in their approach to the study of flocculation processes. This reality is facilitated by differences in external vari- ables (e.g., environmental conditions), focus driven research, and discipline bias. Regardless of differences in discipline or approach, there is great scope and utility for the sharing of information between scientists who work in these three floc environ- ments. Often methods used in one environment can, and should, be used in another to further our understanding of flocculation processes. While new developments in v Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page vi — #6 vi Preface genomics, nanotechnology, sampling, and modeling permit increasingly revealing investigations into floc structure, processes, and impact, there is still a fundamental lack of knowledge related to many aspects of the flocculation process. In light of the importance of flocculation within natural and engineered systems, an international workshop was held on September 4 and 5, 2003, at the Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Burlington, Ontario, Canada. The workshop brought together academics and government scientists from around the globe to address the critical issue of sediment flocculation within freshwater, saltwater, and engineered systems. During the workshop, participants representing these three environments presented their research findings. Three focus areas were used to structure the workshop: (a) modeling, (b) physicochemical, and (c) biological aspects of floc- culation. Following individual presentations, the participants were divided up into three working groups to address assigned topics in the focus areas. Each focus group contained researchers from the freshwater, saltwater, and engineered systems to ensure a cross-communication of ideas between environments and to facilitate an understanding of the unifying principles of flocculation. Participants ranged from geographers/geomorphologists who investigate flocculation as it relates to sediment source, transport, and fate within river systems, sedimentologists interested in floc- culation’s influence within depositional environments, biologists focusing on the biopolymeric matrices and microbial consortia of flocs, oceanographers investig- ating sediment transport and delivery within estuaries and open ocean environments, and wastewater engineers/biologists interested in floc behavior within engineered systems. The peer-reviewed 20 chapters that comprise this text are organized by their envir- onment of investigation. The final chapter identifies the unifying principles that were discussed within the workshop focus groups and from the preceding chapters. The text provides a unique perspective in that it integrates the natural sciences and engin- eering fields as they relate to the central phenomenon of flocculation. We hope that the array of information provided in this book will be valuable to all those interested in flocculation issues within any environment. Ian G. Droppo Gary G. Leppard Steven N. Liss Timothy G. Milligan Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page vii — #7 Acknowledgments The workshop and this resultant text would not have been made possible without the generous support of our sponsors. We would like to thank the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, the Wastewater Technology Centre of Environment Canada, the Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research of McMaster University, Ryerson University, and the Inter- national Association for Sediment Water Science for their support. The editors are particularly grateful to the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada for their funding support related to research on flocculation. Each chapter has been peer reviewed by two or three reviewers consistent with the standards set for international scientific journals. We would like to thank these reviewers for their efforts in this regard. Finally, we would like to thank the National Water Research Institute of Envir- onment Canada for hosting the workshop and John Lawrence, Michel Beland, and John Preston for their support. The efforts of Elizabeth Wendel, Meenu Pall, Dianne Crabtree, Allana Manto, Quintin Rochfort, Christina Jaskot, and Brian Trapp of Environment Canada leading up to, during, and following the workshop are gratefully acknowledged. Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page ix — #9 About the Editors Ian G. Droppo is a research scientist with the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada and is the current elected vice president of the International Association for Sediment Water Science. Dr. Droppo holds adjunct professorships at McMaster University, School of Geography and Earth Sciences and at the State University of New York, College at Buffalo, Department of Geography and Planning. He holds undergraduate and M.Sc. degrees in physical geography from McMaster Uni- versity, Canada and a Ph.D. in physical geography from the University of Exeter, United Kingdom. He was a recent recipient of Leverhulme International Visiting Fellowship held at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom. Dr. Droppo’s research interests center around sediment dynamics within natural and engineered systems with particular emphasis on flocculation processes. He has applied this knowledge in multiple environments including urban stormwater management, remediation of contaminated bed sediments, contaminated bed sediment stability, and in the source, fate, and effect of sediments and associated contaminants within numerous aquatic environments. His research is supported by awards from Environ- ment Canada, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, and a range of industrial partners. He has given many invited lectures and seminars at international conferences, workshops, and universities and has taught many sediment chemistry monitoring courses in developing countries. Dr. Droppo has carried out collaborative research in Canada, United States of America, United Kingdom, Japan, Mexico, Australia and Thailand leading to over 85 peer-reviewed journal publications, book chapters, and technical reports. Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — pagex—#10 x About the Editors Gary G. Leppard is an environmental biochemist and microbiologist who studies the roles of natural and engineered aquatic aggregates (flocs, biofilms) in the transport and fate of contaminants. In concert with these activities, he develops electron-optical means to analyze the colloidal structure of natural dispersing agents and the flocs of water treatment tanks. He joined the staff of the National Water Research Institute of Environment Canada at Burlington (ON) in 1975, as a research scientist. While also holding a professorship at McMaster University and membership in the Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research (Hamilton, ON), he is a Fellow of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry and a Consulting Fellow of the World Innov- ation Foundation. In sequence, he was an invited scientist at the University of Paris (France), the University of Milan (Italy), Laval Uni- versity (Quebec City), the National Research Coun- cil of Canada (Ottawa), the University of Geneva (Switzerland), the University of Vienna (Austria), and the Rudjer Boskovic Institute (Croatia). Dr. Leppard received degrees in several fields of biology and biological chemistry from the Uni- versity of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon, SK) and from Yale University (New Haven, CT, United States). A Ph.D. in cell biology, with a specialization in electron-optical methods, was received from Yale in 1968. Research interests then extended into biogeo- chemistry, wastewater treatment, materials science, and the activities of natural microbial consortia. His interdisciplinary research has led to awards from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the Commis- sion of the European Communities, and the RITE innovative technology organization in Japan, as well as a role on the editorial board of the Encyclopedia of Analytical Science. Current scientific interests focus on the control, by nanoscale phenomena, of macroscale effects in aquatic environments. These interests are coupled to the development of technology for commercial use, and include environmental projects for synchrotron laboratories. Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page xi — #11 About the Editors xi Steven N. Liss is a professor of applied microbio- logy in the Department of Chemistry and Biology at Ryerson University and is the Associate Dean (Research, Development and Science Programs) for the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Sci- ence. Dr. Liss holds adjunct professorships at the University of Toronto in the Departments of Chem- ical Engineering and Applied Chemistry and Civil Engineering. Dr. Liss holds an undergraduate degree in microbiology and immunology from the Uni- versity of Western Ontario (1980) and graduate degrees in applied microbiology from the Univer- sity of Saskatchewan (M.Sc, 1983; Ph.D., 1987). Dr. Liss currently leads research projects on the microbiology of wastewater treatment, water wells, and environmental biotechnology. His research is supported by awards from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the National Centres of Excellence, Ontario Centres of Excellence, Environ- ment Canada, Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI), and a wide range of industry partners. Specific research activities include microbial floc architecture in engineered and natural systems, microbial ecology, water quality, filamentous microorganisms and bulking problems, biofouling and microbial-based tools for studying, and mon- itoring biological treatment systems including DNA microarrays. His laboratory has developed expertise related to the physicochemical properties of microbial structures, their composition and structure, and the application of advanced optical microscopy in studying microbial structures and physiology. His research in wastewater micro- biology led to the Ryerson Distinguished Research Award in 1998. Dr. Liss has supervised 32 graduate students at the masters and Ph.D. levels. He is the author and co-author of over 100 peer-reviewed journal publications, book chapters, conference presentations, and technical reports. Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1615_C000” — 2004/11/20 — 20:56 — page xii — #12 xii About the Editors Timothy G. Milligan is a researcher with the Mar- ine Environmental Sciences Division, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. As head of the Particle Dynamics Laboratory at the Bedford InstituteofOceanography he leads the group’s research into the behavior of fine particulate material in aquatic environments. He received his B.Sc in geology and M.Sc in ocean- ography from Dalhousie University and has been involved with flocs for over 30 years. While his ini- tial contact was in pulp mill effluent, it was the time spent with the late Dr. Kate Kranck, a pioneer in flocculation studies in the marine environment, that gave him his love of mud. Areas of interest include the mechanisms governing the loss of sediment from river plumes, the effect of flocculation on the trans- port and fate of contaminants, and environmental impacts of offshore oil and gas and aquaculture. Mr. Milligan has led research projects in a wide range of geographical areas, from the Amazon to the Canadian Arctic. While his work concentrates mainly on the marine environment, the fate of terrestrially derived sediments and associated contaminants has led him into the study of fluvial transport as well. Mr. Milligan has been involved in many international ventures, several of which have received funding from the U.S. Office of Naval Research. His work combines in situ techniques with process-based parameterization of the size distributions of the component grains in suspended and bottom sediment to better understand the fate of mud in both marine and freshwater systems. Over 80 peer-reviewed primary publications, book chapters, and technical reports have been produced from this work. Copyright 2005 by CRC Press [...]... Environmental Particles Vol 1, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, pp 2 31 289 Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 17 — #17 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems 18 71 Chao, A.C and Keinath, T.M 19 79 In uence of process loading intensity on sludge clarification and thickening characteristics Water Res 13 : 12 13 12 21 72 Jorand, F., Zartarian, F., Thomas,... activated sludge1 and an overview of the principles, methods, and applications of particle size analysis in primarily saltwater systems. 2 Eisma et al.3 and Dyer et al.4 1- 5 667 0-6 1 5-7 /05/$0.00+ $1. 50 © 2005 by CRC Press Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 1 — #1 1 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems 2 conducted a comparative study in the Elbe estuary... Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 13 — #13 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems 14 incorporated This combination permits simultaneous in situ detection of DAPI signals, probe-conferred fluorescence, and silver grain formation (which indicates the presence of radioactive compounds within the fixed cells) at a single cell level The technique has been used to examine the... method to determine surface charge density of microbial aggregates is by a colloid titration .10 5 ,10 6 Mikkelsen107 recently compared surface charge determinations of sewage sludge by various methods in order to identify applications and limitations Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 11 — #11 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems 12 of the colloid... techniques .10 9 Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 12 — #12 Methods for Analyzing Floc Properties 13 1. 5 MICROBIAL ECOLOGY The identification and in situ detection of microorganisms within activated sludge flocs using DNA probes have been reported for the subclasses of proteobacteria ,11 5 Gram-negative filamentous bacteria ,11 6 Acinetobacter spp. ,11 7 and nitrifying bacteria,... 46 Phillips, J.M and Walling, D.E 19 98 Calibration of a Par-Tec 200 laser back-scatter probe for in situ sizing of fluvial suspended sediment Hydrological Proc 12 : 2 21 2 31 47 Gibbs, R.J and Konwar, L 19 83 Disruption of mineral flocs using Niskin bottles Environ Sci Technol 17 : 374–375 48 Gibbs, R.J and Konwar, L 19 82 Effects of pipetting on mineral flocs Environ Sci Technol 16 : 11 9 12 1 49 Droppo, I.G.,... “L1 615 _C000” — 2004 /11 /20 — 20:56 — page xvii — #17 95 12 1 Contents xviii II Saltwater Environments Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Transport of Materials and Chemicals by Nanoscale Colloids and Micro- to Macro-Scale Flocs in Marine, Freshwater, and Engineered Systems Peter H Santschi, Adrian B Burd, Jean-Francois Gaillard, and Anne A Lazarides Variability of Suspended Particle Concentrations, Sizes, and. .. Measurement with the Folin phenol reagent J Biol Chem 19 3: 265–275 94 Gaudy, A.F 19 62 Colorimetric determination of protein and carbohydrate Industrial Water and Wastes Jan–Feb: 17 –22 95 Filisetti-Cozzi, T.M and Carpita, N.C 19 91 Measurement of uronic acids without interference from neutral sugars Anal Biochem 19 7: 15 9 16 2 96 Del Gallo, M., Negi, M., and Neyra, C.A 19 89 Calcofluor- and lectin-binding exocellular... measuring cell surface hydrophobicity FEMS Microbiol Lett 9: 29–33 Copyright 2005 by CRC Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page 19 — #19 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems 20 10 9 Rosenberg, M and Doyle, R.J 19 90 Microbial cell surface hydrophobicity: history, measurement and significance in Microbial Cell Surface Hydrophobicity, R.J Doyle and M Rosenberg (ed.) Chapter 1, ... Coagulation Theory and Models of Oceanic Plankton Aggregation George A Jackson III Engineered Systems Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 18 9 19 1 211 237 249 2 71 293 Extracellular Enzymes Associated with Microbial Flocs from Activated Sludge of Wastewater Treatment Systems Gill G Geesey and Fintan Van Ommen Kloeke 295 Molecular Analyses of Microbial Community Structure and Function of . Cataloging -in- Publication Data Flocculation in natural and engineered environmental systems/ edited by Ian G. Droppo [et al.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1- 5 667 0-6 1 5-7 . Press “L1 615 _C0 01 — 2004 /11 /19 — 02:46 — page4—#4 4 Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems Laser based sizing instruments are now being widely used to determine floc size in. page1— #1 1 Methods for Analyzing Floc Properties Steven N. Liss, Timothy G. Milligan, Ian G. Droppo, and Gary G. Leppard CONTENTS 1. 1 Introduction 1 1 .1. 1 Floc Size 2 1. 1.2 Sample Handling and