Teachers’ College in Shandong Province. Along with other Chinese col- lege graduates recruited by the government to serve as teachers, techni- cal experts, doctors, and government officials, Ma was assigned to work first as an administrator and then as an editor for Xizang wenxue (Tibetan Literature), a journal publishing literary works written in Chinese. She traveled extensively on assignments, eventually covering every county (over 70) in the Tibetan Autonomous Region. Since 2003, she has been working as general editor for Tibetan Studies Press in Beijing. In the initial phase of her encounter with Tibet, Ma belonged, in her own words, to “the last generation of Chinese romantic poets.” Tibet provided a fantasy world into which she projected her own dreams. Later when she became interested in anthropology, Ma turned to prose writing. As she traversed the Tibetan plateau and met a wide spectrum of Tibetan people, she became one of the region’s best-known spokes- persons and advocates. Her cultural reportages and travel notes, which resulted from solid field research, portray Tibetan customs in vivid de- tails. Because of the unique literary sensibility displayed in these works, Ma is credited for having built a bridge between anthropology and lit- erature and has been called a “literary anthropologist.” Her most impor- tant prose works include Zangbei youli (Glimpses of Northern Tibet), Xixing Ahli (Journey Westward to Ali), Linghun xiang feng (The Soul Is like the Wind), and Zangdong hong shanmai (The Red Mountains in Eastern Tibet). Her poems are collected in Wo de taiyang (My Sun) and her essays in Zhui ni dao gaoyuan (Following You to the Tibetan Pla- teau). She is also a noted scholar on Tibetan literature, having published Xueyu wenhua yu Xizang wenxue (The Culture of the Snow Land and Tibetan Literature). Ma’s recent publication, Ruyi gaodi (The Highland of Dreams), is a fictional work inspired by the personal account of Chen Quzhen, a Qing military officer sent into Tibet in the early 20th century. Chen wrote the memoir in 1936 to record his extraordinary ordeal in Tibet. In her book, Ma mixes real historical events with fiction, and past with present, creating a postmodern work in which fictitious contempo- rary characters are cast as reincarnations of historical figures to recover a deeply buried past laden with mystery, violence, courage, ambition, geopolitics, and romantic love. See also WOMEN. MA YUAN (1953– ). Fiction writer. After graduating from Liaoning University in northeast China, where he studied Chinese literature, Ma Yuan went to Tibet to work as a journalist. The experience proved to 132 • MA YUAN be pivotal for his literary career. Lhasa in the 1980s was a lively place of artistic fermentation, and in Tibetan culture Ma found the perfect launchpad for his fictional experiment. Regarded as one of the most important pioneers of China’s avant- garde literature, Ma is credited for helping to turn the writer’s focus from what stories to tell to how to tell a story. His writings, inspired by Tibetan religion and mysticism, are among the most influential works from the 1980s. Reacting against the dictates of socialist realism, which had dominated China’s literary discourse for decades, Ma experimented with literary forms and narrative strategies, thanks in part to the avail- ability of modern Western literature in Chinese translation, among them works by Jorge Luis Borges, which exerted a strong influence on Ma. He is noted for his labyrinthine narrative style, with the narrator, often identified as “Ma Yuan, the Chinese, who writes fiction,” working to expose the fictitious nature of storytelling. His texts have complex, multileveled structures, mixing the fantastic with realistic elements. Ma’s stories are concerned less with Tibet than with his personal vision of fiction and his Borgesian metafiction style accentuates a new aware- ness of narrative technique. “Lasa he de nüshen” (The Goddess of the Lhasa River), “Die zhiyao de sanzhong fangfa” (More Ways Than One to Make a Kite), and “Gangdisi de youhuo” (The Lure of the Gantise) are among his best-known stories. Since he left Tibet in 1989, Ma has made television shows and taught creative writing. Although he has not produced more fictional work, he has published two collections of es- says, Xugou zhi dao (The Knife of Fiction) and Yuedu dashi (Reading the Masters), on his views on literature and his approach to creative writing. MANDARIN DUCKS AND BUTTERFLIES SCHOOL (YUAN- YANG HUDIE PAI). This term, coined in the May Fourth era, refers to middlebrow romantic fiction writers at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, a time that witnessed great debates about the role literature played in society. While the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school saw literature as purely a venue of entertainment, the May Fourth leaders regarded it as a serious expression of the self and a realistic portrayal of life, ideals advocated by the Creation Society, the Literary Research Society, and the Left-wing Association of Chi- nese Writers. Although rejected by the elite, the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school writers enjoyed popular success. With their journal, MANDARIN DUCKS AND BUTTERFLIES SCHOOL • 133 Saturday (Libailiu), for which they were also called the Saturday school (Libanliu pai), they were able to flood the streets with their laid-back, entertaining tales of love and betrayal. Zhang Henshui, Zhou Shou’ou, and Bao Xiaotian were some of the most popular writers of the group. MANG KE, PEN NAME OF JIANG SHIWEI (1950– ). Poet and painter. Born in Shenyang and raised in Beijing, Mang Ke was sent to rural Hebei at the age of 16, riding in the same horse carriage with Duo Duo. It was in the countryside that he began to write poetry. In 1976, Mang Ke returned to Beijing and two years later joined forces with other young poets including Bei Dao and Duo Duo to found Jintian (Today), an important venue for experimental poetry, which would become known as Misty poetry. Later on, as most of his friends and colleagues settled down one after another, Mang Ke continued his vagabond life in Beijing, making short and frequent trips abroad to participate in poetry festivals. Some 30 years after he published his first poem, Mang Ke turned to painting and achieved remarkable success in his new medium. Mang Ke is a natural poet who relies almost exclusively on instinct rather than on learning. Abundant with natural imagery and pulsating with the rhythm of the earth and waters, many of his poems reflect his years in the countryside, which inspired him and nurtured his romantic view of life. Even his political poems, such as “Yangguang zhong de xiangrikui” (The Sunflower in the Sunlight) and “Tiankong” (The Sky), which boldly challenge absolutism and ideological tyranny, exude the smell and the sound of nature. Other than poetry, Mang Ke has written a novel based on his experience in rural Hebei as well as many essays, including his most recent work, Qiao! Zhe xie ren (Memories), which reminisces about his generation and some of its vivid characters. See also CULTURAL REVOLUTION. MAO DUN, A.K.A. MAO TUN, PEN NAME OF SHEN DERONG (1896–1981). Fiction writer and literary critic. A forerunner in the New Culture Movement in early 20th-century China and a proponent of literary realism, Mao Dun made significant contributions to the devel- opment of modern Chinese literature. Through his own writings and his work as a translator, editor, and publisher, as a literary critic and theoretician, and finally as the minister of culture from 1949 to 1964, he left indelible marks in nearly every aspect of the literary and artistic endeavors of modern China. 134 • MANG KE, PEN NAME OF JIANG SHIWEI Like the rest of his generation, Mao Dun received an education in a mixture of classics and modern thought. After graduating from Beijing University in 1916, Mao took a job as a translator and editor at the Commercial Press, where he stayed until 1925. His main achievement there was the transformation of the journal Xiaoshuo yuebao (Fiction Monthly), making it a major force in promoting a “literature for life,” in direct opposition to what was advocated by the members of the Mandarin Duck and Butterflies school and the Saturday school, who held the view that the main purpose of literature was to entertain. Mao Dun’s essay “On Proletarian Art,” published serially in Wenxue zhou- kan (Literature Weekly) in 1925, established his reputation as a Marxist theoretician. It asserts that art must faithfully reflect reality and meet the needs of its time. In a class-based society, a proletarian writer must identify with the lot of the common people, to educate and inspire them in their struggle for social justice and national independence. He or she must understand the unity of form and content, which requires that new ideas be expressed in new forms, an example of which is Maxim Gorky, whose works, Mao Dun believes, perfectly combine aesthetics and the aspirations of the proletariat. In this essay, Mao Dun delineates a form of realism for modern Chinese literature and art that influenced a whole generation of Chinese writers. The trilogy Mao Dun wrote in the late 1920s, Huanmei (Disillusion- ment), Dongyao (Wavering), and Zhuiqiu (Aspirations), describes the experience of Chinese youth during the different stages of the revolu- tion that aimed to unify a China ravaged by civil wars among its war- lords. The 1930s saw the best of Mao Dun’s writings, including Ziye (Midnight), a milestone in his literary career. The story takes place in 1930 when Chinese industrialists found themselves in direct conflict not only with foreign imperialist interests but also with workers’ strikes and peasants’ riots. The broad scope of the work, with its numerous characters from a wide spectrum of social classes and several plot lines, makes the novel Mao Dun’s most ambitious undertaking. Mao Dun is noted for his skill at depicting the psychological depth of his characters with a few strokes. This baimiao style is reminiscent of the classical novels the author was extremely fond of as a child. In the same year, Mao Dun published Linjia puzi (The Lin Family Shop), “Chun can” (Spring Silkworms), “Qiushou” (Autumn Harvest), and “Can dong” (The Last of Winter), all conceived to show sympathy for the oppressed and to cry for social justice. Linjia puzi, a tightly structured story, is MAO DUN, A.K.A. MAO TUN, PEN NAME OF SHEN DERONG • 135 about the bankruptcy of a small shop in a small town. Mr. Lin, an hon- est, hardworking man, is forced out of business by corrupt government officials and greedy creditors. “Chuncan,” “Qiushou,” and “Candong” are three independent but consecutive short stories about village life. They portray a family of silkworm raisers headed by Old Tongbao and trace their fall from financial stability to bankruptcy, from self- sufficient peasants to poor farmhands. The stories present a vivid picture of economic distress and unrest in rural Chinese communities. “Chun- can,” which focuses on the tragic lot of Old Tongbao, is a flawlessly crafted story. The moving descriptions of the family tending silkworms from hatching eggs to harvesting cocoons are some of the finest mo- ments of the story. Mao Dun’s most influential work during the Sino-Japanese War is Fushi (Corruption). The political novel is severely critical of the Na- tionalist government, exposing the maliciousness and cunning of the special agents working for the government who suppress the democratic movement while indulging in a depraved lifestyle. Despite its overtly political tone, Fushi contains some interesting formalistic innovations. It is written in diary form, narrated by a minor female secret agent of the government. This unique perspective allows the author to concentrate on psychological exploration rather than the minute descriptions and plot expositions commonly found in his writings. Mao Dun also employs the narrative style of stream of consciousness with its characteristics of free association, inverted time order, and dreams or hallucinations. These techniques enrich the psychological realism of the novel. After his death, a memorial fund in Mao Dun’s honor was established to recognize notable achievements in Chinese literature. It is the most prestigious literary prize in China. MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT (WUSI YUNDONG). The treaties of the Versailles Conference, signed on 28 April 1919, awarding Japan the former German leasehold of Jiaozhou, Shandong Province, trig- gered protests by university students in Beijing on 4 May. More dem- onstrations and strikes soon spread to other parts of China, followed by a nationwide boycott of Japanese goods. What began as a patriotic and anti-imperialist mass protest evolved into a national movement to reevaluate the entirety of Chinese civilization. Intellectuals attacked tra- ditional values, identifying them as reasons for China’s backwardness, and looked to the West for ideas with which to transform their nation. 136 • MAY FOURTH MOVEMENT The movement later split into two factions: the leftists and the liberals. The former, represented by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao, favored politi- cal action and established the Chinese Communist Party while the latter advocated a gradual change, emphasizing “enlightenment” as promoted by Columbia University graduate Hu Shi. The May Fourth Movement left a profound impact not only on Chi- nese social and political life but also on Chinese intellectual, cultural, and literary thought. It is fair to say that modern Chinese literature was born in the May Fourth Movement and generations of Chinese writers came under its direct influence. The two writers who most represent the May Fourth spirit are Lu Xun and Ba Jin, Lu Xun for his strong indict- ment of the “man-eating” Confucian culture and Ba Jin for his portrayal of rebellious youths trying to break away from the confines of the traditional family and embrace social changes. See also AI QING; AI WU; BING XIN; CHEN BAICHEN; DING LING; FENG XUEFENG; FENG ZHI; HONG SHEN; HU YEPIN; JIAN XIAN’AI; JIANG GUANGCI; LAI HE; LAO SHE; LI JIEREN; MAO DUN; NEW CUL- TURE MOVEMENT; WANG JINGZHI; WANG LUYAN; WANG TONGZHAO; WEN YIDUO; XIA YAN; XU DISHAN; XU ZHIMO; YANG HANSHENG; YE SHENGTAO; YU DAFU; YU PINGBO; ZHAO SHULI; ZHENG ZHENDUO; ZHOU LIBO; ZHU ZIQING. MEI NIANG, PEN NAME FOR SUN JIARUI (1920– ). Fiction and prose writer. In the 1940s, Mei Niang was as famous as Zhang Ailing, one based in the north (Changchun and Beijing) and the other the south (Shanghai) and both living in the Japanese-occupied territories during the Sino-Japanese War. Mei Niang was born in Vladivostok, where her father, a successful businessman fluent in three foreign languages— Russian, Japanese and English—was working for a railway company. Her parents had met in Vladivostok and after Mei Niang was born they moved to Changchun, where his father’s first wife lived. Though Mei Niang’s parents doted on her, they soon passed away, leaving her in the care of the unkind first wife. Growing up as a daughter of a concubine, Mei Niang understood the nature of traditional society, particularly the position of young women within a large extended family. Her pen name “Mei Niang” (literally, Plum Blossom Girl) is a homophone for “having no mother,” bearing testimony to the pain she suffered in her childhood. Later, she would repeatedly revisit this theme in her stories. While Mei Niang was an elementary school student, the Japanese army occupied MEI NIANG, PEN NAME FOR SUN JIARUI • 137 northeastern China, making the young Mei Niang vaguely aware of a national tragedy. Most of the characters she created in her writings are women caught in the chaos of war, victims of misfortunes at both the personal and national levels. Mei Niang achieved her literary success at a very young age. Her first collection of short stories, Xiajie ji (Young Ladies), was published when she was merely 16 years old. At 24, she won the Japanese-sponsored Greater Asian Literature Prize for “Xie” (Crab), a semiautobiographical novella about the disintegration of a tra- ditional family, a common theme in the May Fourth literature written by Ba Jin, Lao She, Lu Ling, and others. Mei Niang’s writings reflect the realities of China in the 1930s and 1940s, often seen through the eyes of a sensitive, educated young woman. Her stories on the fate of women such as “Yu” (Fish), “Bang” (Clam), and “Chun dao renjian” (Spring Has Arrived) render vivid portrayals of the changing world in which “the consciousness of women” was beginning to emerge as a social and cultural phenomenon, despite the oppressive restraints imposed on them by society. By the time “Zhuru” (The Midget) appeared, Mei Niang was a well-known writer who had perfected the art of short story writing in the realist mode and whose vision had gone well beyond the confines of marriage and romance. In addition to short stories and novellas, Mei Niang also attempted full-length novels, Ye hehua kai (Night Lily) and Xiao furen (Little Women), both unfinished, deal with women’s search for security and love in their relationships with men. In many ways, Mei Niang’s life was emblematic of the upheavals of 20th-century China. As a new woman growing up in the aftermath of the May Fourth Movement, she received a good education in Changchun and later in Japan, opportunities unavailable to her mother’s generation. She became a young widow in 1948 when her husband’s ship capsized on the way to Taiwan, leaving behind Mei Niang and their three young children. Instead of staying in Taiwan or going to Japan, Mei Niang took her children back to Beijing, which was now under the control of the Communists. She was assigned to work for the Agricultural Film Studio as a scriptwriter and editor. In the 1950s, she produced some children’s picture books. During the subsequent political campaigns, Mei Niang managed to survive all kinds of appalling treatment, but two of her children died. Even as she was warmly welcomed into the circle of writers in the early 1950s, Mei Niang had already come under suspicion as “a traitor writer,” an unsubstantiated allegation thrown at those who kept working in the Japanese-occupied territories during the war. Mei 138 • MEI NIANG, PEN NAME FOR SUN JIARUI Niang’s writings, like those of the other authors accused of collaborat- ing with the Japanese, were largely ignored, for they did not fit in the national narrative of patriotism and resistance. For decades, the name Mei Niang was erased from the history of modern Chinese literature. When she resurfaced in the early 1980s, most readers had never heard of her. Since then, not only have her old works been reissued, but her new writings, mostly essays, reminiscing about the past and sharing her travels and knowledge about the world, have also been published. METSO (1966– ). Poet, prose and fiction writer. One of the rising stars of Tibetan writers writing in Chinese, Metso grew up in Qinghai Province. Although her writings began to appear in the late 1980s, it is her 1997 novel Taiyang buluo (The Sun Tribe) that made her a national name. The novel depicts two Tibetan tribes in Amdo when the northwest was under the warlord Ma Bufang’s control during the early decades of the 20th century. In the past, historical or literary discourses that dealt with this region and this period tended to focus on the Hui Muslim and the Han population, pushing the Tibetans out to the margin. With this novel, the author reclaims her people’s history by placing the Tibetans at the center of this turbulent era to examine the Tibetan national character as well as issues such as education and modernity and their effect on cultural traditions. Another novel, Yueliang yingdi (The Moon Camp), describes life in a small Tibetan town, highlighting the romantic rela- tionships of several residents. Like Taiyang buluo, Metso sets the story in the 20th century when the outside world began to crack open the isolated Tibetan society. History, however, is always kept in the back- ground in Metso’s romantic novels. Nevertheless, through the stories of love and desire, Metso unravels the tragic history of the Tibetan nation, as she has done in Taiyang buluo and Yueliang yingdi. Metso’s short stories and novellas, on the other hand, feature contem- porary middle-class Tibetan women. Into these love stories she injects a dose of religiosity, turning them into quests for the meaning of life. Borrowing from the Buddhist concept of reincarnation, Metso creates characters that live in multiple manifestations, each adding a layer to the existence of another and further complicating their psychological depth. The author’s dexterous play of different voices against one another de- parts from the realist mode adopted in her novels and gives the stories, such as “Shexiang” (Muskiness) and “Chujia ren” (Those Who Have Taken the Buddhist Vow), a measure of experimentalism. METSO • 139 MISTY POETRY (MENGLONG SHI), MISTY POETS (MEN- GLONG SHIREN). Menglong, which could also be translated as “obscure” or “enigmatic,” implies that the meaning of a poem is not transparent, and that the poet’s intention is not spelled out clearly for the benefit of the reader. The emergence of Misty poetry in the late 1970s marked a major literary breakthrough in post-Mao China with profound ramifications. Nearly all of the Misty poets were urban youths who had been sent to the countryside during the Cultural Revolution. The harsh realities of rural life led them to question their faith in authority and the isolated countryside stimulated their literary sensibilities. To express their aspirations for freedom and spirituality in their writing, they were the first to protest against authoritarianism and ideological tyranny in the thaw of the post-Mao era. Bei Dao’s 1972 poem “The Answer” represented the voice of skepticism and the defiance of his generation. The political relaxation in the late 1970s made it possible for the un- derground poets to have an open forum where they could publish their own work. Bei Dao and Mang Ke established Jintian (Today), a literary journal for experimental work. To break away from the literary practices defined by Maoist doctrine, the Misty poets emphasized the individual and the private over the po- litical and the collective. Influenced by Western literature, they wrote imagistic, elliptical, and often ambiguous poetry, without the didactic messages and political slogans that had dominated the literature of the Mao era. In the Antispiritual Pollution Campaign of 1983, Misty poetry was singled out for criticism by the authorities. Subsequently in the aftermath of the crackdown on the Tian’anmen Prodemocracy Move- ment, Jintian was banned and many of the Misty poets went into exile. Years later, Jintian resumed publication abroad. Prominent among the Misty poets are Bei Dao, Duo Duo, Gu Cheng, Jiang He, Mang Ke, Shu Ting, Yan Li, Yang Lian, and Yu Jian. MO YAN, PEN NAME OF GUAN MOYAN (1956– ). Novelist. Born in Gaomi, Shandong Province, Mo Yan received a B.A. from the Lit- erature Department of the People’s Liberation Army’s Academy of Arts and Literature in 1981 and an M.A. from Beijing Normal University. He is undoubtedly one of the most creative and most prolific Chinese writers today. Noted for his magical realist style that takes astonishing, imaginative flights, Mo Yan has acknowledged his debt to Gabriel Gar- cía Márquez and William Faulkner, whose art invoking the power of a 140 • MISTY POETRY specific locale with its own mystical norms and logic offers Mo inspir- ing models. In many ways, Mo Yan’s success lies in his extraordinary talent for transforming the crude and earthy into something sublime, through prose just as precise, to achieve a kind of lyric joy that perme- ates his works. The otherwise disconcerting dichotomy between the sublime and the grotesque is thus obliterated, producing an aesthetic experience that is both uplifting and challenging. Mo Yan’s sensibility is often characterized as grandiose and masculine, for his literary world is filled with larger-than-life heroes who flaunt their primeval person- alities. Bawdy language, violent sexual conquests, relentless revenge, and savage behavior all mingle to form epic-scale sagas. Matching his strong themes, his language, with its characteristic intensity and exuberance, cascades downward like a torrential stream mingled with fantastical flights of imagination. Beginning with his first short story, “Touming de hong luobu” (The Translucent Red Carrot), Mo Yan has consistently exhibited an uncanny ability to move at ease in and out of two modes of narrative: the realist and the surrealist. This trademark can be found even in his most realist stories. He continues to push the limits of narrative innovation in his more recent novel Tanxiang xing (Sandalwood Torture) in which he uses a large amount of colloquial expression and rhymed prose, lending the text well to oral recitation. He has a unique style completely his own, easily recognizable. The most successful of Mo Yan’s works are his historical romances, including Hong gaoliang (Red Sorghum), set during the Sino-Japanese War, Tanxiang xing (Sandalwood Torture), a love story rendered with descriptions of horrific tortures during the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, and Feng ru fei tun (Big Breasts and Wide Hips), a celebration of the female through the chronicle of the life of a sexually potent, fertile, and wise woman who lives from the end of the Qing to the post-Mao era. Mo Yan is also known for his surrealist novels, such as Jiu guo (Republic of Wine), which pokes fun at the Chinese obsession with food and the “cannibalistic” culture vehemently denounced by Lu Xun 40 years before, Tiantang suantai zhi ge (The Garlic Ballads), set in rural China of the 1980s, when a bumper harvest of garlic precipitates a series of disastrous events, and Sishi yi pao (Forty-one Bombs), a story told by a butcher’s son about growing up in a village and the moral and social problems brought about by modernization and commercialism in contemporary China. Mo Yan extols the primordial forces that, in his opinion, have been suppressed by two thousand years of Confucian MO YAN, PEN NAME OF GUAN MOYAN • 141 . thanks in part to the avail- ability of modern Western literature in Chinese translation, among them works by Jorge Luis Borges, which exerted a strong influence on Ma. He is noted for his labyrinthine. leasehold of Jiaozhou, Shandong Province, trig- gered protests by university students in Beijing on 4 May. More dem- onstrations and strikes soon spread to other parts of China, followed by a nationwide. minister of culture from 1949 to 1964, he left indelible marks in nearly every aspect of the literary and artistic endeavors of modern China. 134 • MANG KE, PEN NAME OF JIANG SHIWEI Like the rest of