The effects of task based learning on improvement of writing skills for grade 10 students at nguyen binh khiem high school master graduation project in english language

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING LAC HONG UNIVERSITY NGUYEN LE NGOC DIEP THE EFFECTS OF TASK-BASED LEARNING ON IMPROVEMENT OF WRITING SKILLS FOR GRADE 10 STUDENTS AT NGUYEN BINH KHI

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

LAC HONG UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN LE NGOC DIEP

THE EFFECTS OF TASK-BASED LEARNING ON

IMPROVEMENT OF WRITING SKILLS FOR GRADE 10 STUDENTS AT NGUYEN BINH KHIEM HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER GRADUATION PROJECT

IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

MAJOR: ENGLISH LANGUAGE MAJOR CODE: 8220201

INSTRUCTORS

1 HUYNH THI BICH PHUONG, Ph.D

2 NGUYEN THU HUONG, Ph.D

DONG NAI, 2024

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

THE RECOGNIZANCE FOR NON-PLAGIARISM vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

INTRODUCTION 1

Background to the study 1

Statement of the problem 1

Aims and objectives of the study 2

Research questions 2

Scope of the study 3

Significance of the study 3

Organization of the study 3

Summary 3

CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

Introduction 5

1.1 Definition of key terms 5

1.2 Writing skills 6

1.2.1 The function of writing skills……… 6

1.2.2 The measure of EFL writing skills 7

1.2.3 Learning EFL writing skills 8

1.2.4 EFL learners’ difficulties in writing skills 9

1.3 Task-based learning 9

1.3.1 Framework of task-based learning 9

1.3.1.1 Pre-task activities 10

1.3.1.2 Task cycle 11

1.3.1.3 Language focus 11

1.3.1.4 Task-based learning activities for EFL writing 11

1.3.2 Implementing task-based learning 12

1.3.3 Characteristics of task-based learning 13

1.3.4 Benefits of task-based learning 14

1.3.4.1 For EFL learning 14

1.3.4.2 For EFL writing 16

1.3.5 The role of teachers and students in task-based learning 17

1.3.5.1 The role of teachers in task-based learning 17

1.3.5.2 The role of students in task-based learning 17

1.3.5.3 The relationship between motivation, attitudes, and task-based learning 18

1.6 Previous studies 18

1.6.1 Previous studies in international context 18

1.6.2 Previous studies in Vietnamese context 19

1.7 Conceptual framework 20

Summary 22

CHAPTER 2 METHODOLOGY 23

Introduction 23

2.1 Research design 23

2.2 Research context 24

2.3 Sampling and participants 24

2.3.1 Samples and Sampling 24

2.3.2 The research participants 24

2.4 Instruments 25

2.4.1 Questionnaires 25

2.4.2 Writing tests 26

2.4.3 The semi-structured interview 27

2.5 Teaching and learning materials 28

2.6 Teaching and learning procedure 29

2.7 Data collection and analysis 33

2.8 Reliability and validity 33

Summary 34

CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 35

Introduction 35

3.1 Findings 35

3.1.1 Difficulties in EFL writing 35

3.1.1.1 The student questionnaire 35

3.1.1.2 The teacher interview 38

3.1.1.3 The writing pretest 39

3.1.2 The benefits of task-based learning 47

3.1.2.1 The student questionnaire 47

3.1.2.2 The teacher interview 50

3.1.2.3 The writing posttest 52

3.2 Discussion 58

3.2.1 Research question 1 58

3.2.2 Research question 2 60

Summary 63

CONCLUSION 64

Summary 64

Limitations 64

Implications 65 REFERENCES

APPENDICES

Appendix A THE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS

Appendix B THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Appendix C THE WRITING PRETEST & POSTTEST

Appendix D THE COURSE DESCRIPTION

I also would like to forward my thanks to all my teaching colleagues at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School who supported me in interviewing and surveying the participants

Lastly, I owe my family and friends a great debt of gratitude They encouraged

me to complete the thesis and finish the postgraduate course

Dong Nai, July 2024

Author

Nguyen Le Ngoc Diep

ABSTRACT

Writing is an essential language skill that promotes English learners’ study and career prospects However, while acquiring this skill, they tend to encounter several difficulties at three main stages: pre-writing, writing, and post-writing Task-based learning (TBL) is among many options for EFL writing class to facilitate writing task fulfillment As an attempt to help tenth graders at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School overcome the obstacles, the instructor implemented a TBL framework by Ellis in

2006 into one EFL writing class The research objectives are to explore the students’ difficulties in writing process and the benefits of TBL for developing their writing skills A total of 90 tenth graders were included as participants in the questionnaire besides five voluntary teachers as interviewees Two primary instruments were employed: the questionnaire and the semi-structured interview The secondary sources (textual evidence) from three writing tests: one pretest and two posttests give additional evidence to the results The findings revealed that the students encountered several challenges in writing and expressed more positive attitudes toward the use of TBL in their writing class The study has a few practical applications in teaching and learning EFL writing at the school

Keywords: EFL, writing, task-based learning

THE RECOGNIZANCE FOR NON-PLAGIARISM

I certify that the intellectual content of the project “The effects of task-based

learning on improvement of Writing Skills for Grade 10 Students at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School” is the product of my own work, and it does not contain materials

written or published by other people or other people’s ideas except the information from the references This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree

or diploma in any other institution

Dong Nai, July 2024

Author

Nguyen Le Ngoc Diep

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ELT English Language Teaching

CLT Communicative Language Teaching TBL Task-based learning

SLA Second Language Acquisition

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 A TBL Framework by Willis in 1996……….10

Figure 1.2 The Current Conceptual Framework……… 21

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 A TBL Framework by Ellis in 2006 12

Table 2.1 A teaching and learning procedure without task-based learning 29

Table 2.2 A teaching and learning procedure with task-based learning 32

Table 3.1 Students’ problems with EFL writing skills at the pre-writing stage 36

Table 3.2 Students’ problems with EFL writing skills at the writing stage 38

Table 3.3 Students’ problems with EFL writing skills at the post-writing stage 38

Table 3.4 EFL teachers’ difficulties in writing skills 39

Table 3.5 The textual evidence in the writing pretest 44

Table 3.6 The textual evidence in the writing posttest 46

Table 3.7 Students’ perceptions of the usefulness of TBL 48

Table 3.8 Students’ attitudes towards TBL 49

Table 3.9 Teachers’ suggestions on using collaborative work for TBL 51

Table 3.10 Teachers’ perceptions of the benefits of TBL for idea generation 51

Table 3.11 The textual evidence in the writing posttest 57

INTRODUCTION

This chapter introduces the research by describing its background, statement

of the problem, the research aims and objectives, research questions, the significance

of the study, the scope of the study, and the proposal structure

Background to the study

Today, English has become an international language because it is widely spoken in many parts of the world In the integration trend of the global economy and culture, English is one of the most effective means of communication for people (Hoang, 2010) The role of English is judged to be crucial in the economic, political, scientific, cultural, and educational fields In particular, Vietnam’s accession to the WTO on November 7, 2006, has opened the door to integration into the world economy, so more and more people want to learn English to communicate with foreign partners, visit, travel, work, study, and so on

Accordingly, Vietnamese students are required to acquire four basic language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing, at an appropriate level from primary to high school Besides, the topics in the new textbook program are both attractive and challenging for students Thanks to the innovation of the 2018 general education program, has helped students improve their skills through grammatical exercises to pass the exams According to the new curriculum, writing skills are still challenging and difficult for high school students

According to Williams (2020), a writing process encompasses three main steps, namely (1) pre-writing, (2) writing, and (3) revising In the first step, student writers are required to read model texts, search for ideas, make outlines, brainstorm,

or write freely about a writing topic In the second step, they compose texts In the last stage, they make revisions on their written texts in different ways (e.g., rethinking the writing strategy, reconsidering the outline, getting peer feedback, and so forth)

Statement of the problem

EFL learners can face certain challenges to complete paragraphs in class First, the time resources are limited They may be unable to complete paragraphs within time constraints in class Second, they encounter difficulties in seeking appropriate and rich ideas for paragraphs Because of limited vocabulary, grammatical

knowledge, topical knowledge and so on, they may find it difficult to express appropriate written ideas Third, they may have low motivation for writing paragraphs in class They may not be interested in writing paragraphs

Currently, at Nguyen Binh Khiem High school, the researcher acknowledges that writing is among challenging language skills for most students Through personal teaching experiences and classroom observations, the researcher realized that students encounter all the problems above Understanding this, the researcher wants

to implement TBL to enhance students’ learning motivation and encourage students

to take their own responsibility for their learning Additionally, this approach helps students enrich their written ideas, lexical resources, and grammatical patterns The TBL process also helps students overcome time pressure and enhance their language skills via interactions with peers All of this has encouraged the current researcher to

conduct the thesis titled “The effects of task-based learning on improvement of Writing Skills for Grade 10 Students at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School.” Aims and objectives of the study

a) Aims

The present study aims to identify the difficulties in writing skills encountered

by the 10th-grade students at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School and the effects of TBL on the students’ writing skills

b) Objectives

In particular, two following objectives are intended as follows:

(1) to investigate the tenth graders’ difficulties in EFL writing skills at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School;

(2) to investigate the effects of TBL on EFL learners’ writing skills at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School

graders at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School?

Scope of the study

The research is narrow in its scope because of the research context First, it takes place at only one high school, so the research findings could not be generalized into other educational contexts Second, the sample is modest, comprising only 90 tenth graders from two classes 10C3 and 10C4, and eight EFL teachers Third, the study focuses on three key benefits of TBL in writing: (1) reducing time pressure on writing paragraphs in class, (2) preparing enough suitable ideas for writing, and (3) increasing motivation for writing

Significance of the study

The research might have a few theoretical and practical applications

Theoretically, the research might contribute to previous findings about the impacts of TBL on EFL learners’ writing skills In particular, it could demonstrate that the use of TBL could facilitate the students’ writing skills Also, it could add further insights into the use of TBL for writing skills, namely raising students’ awareness of putting language in practice (through meaningful contexts) rather than just exploiting grammatical and lexical forms

Practically, the study also helps recommend a few specific applications for teaching and learning EFL writing skills at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School Thanks

to the findings, local teachers could reflect on their teaching practices and if possible they could have further improvements in using TBL for writing skills Finally, the research helps investigate specific problems with the students’ writing skills

Organization of the study

Chapter 1 – Introduction

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

Chapter 3 – Research Methodology

Chapter 4 – Findings and Discussion

Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary

The first chapter introduces the key theoretical background to this study, concerning the importance of English in national education, the feature and role

of TBL for EFL writing skills, and the necessity to conduct the current research The chapter also presents the aims and objectives of the research, its scope, significance, and organization

Chapter 1 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the theoretical foundations of EFL writing skills, EFL writing skills, EFL learners’ difficulties in writing skills, paragraphs, the measure of paragraph quality, language tasks, and task-based learning Then it gives a summary

of previous related studies before the research gap and conceptual framework

1.1 Definition of key terms

EFL: English as a foreign language, referring to any context where English is

just a foreign language, not a second or third language (Richards & Schmidt, 2010)

Writing: writing is a noun form of the verb “write” signifying “to produce

something in written form so that people can read, perform or use it” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, n.d.)

Writing skills: Writing is a “productive language skill” to construct written

texts, and it should be related to the reader of such texts, the writer self, and the text (Hyland, 2009) Many aspects are related to writing skills, namely “relational aspects” (rhetorical situations of writing), “textual aspects” (the text itself), and

“strategic aspects” (writers as learners) by Matsuda and Silva (2020) That is when it comes to writing, many aspects are included, namely the textual aspects (the grammatical forms and lexical resources, the pattern of organization, etc.), the situation or context (the writing goal and the target reader), and the characteristics of the writer (writer’s identities and the writing strategies) (Hyland, 2009)

EFL writing skills: Brown and Abeywickrama (2018) writing is a productive

language skill that comprises of skills” and “macro-skills” To perform the skills”, EFL learners need to (1) “produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English”, (2) perform timed writing, (3) create a suitable number of words in an effective order, (4) apply appropriate grammatical structures to express written ideas, (5) demonstrate different meanings with various syntactic structures, and (6) “use cohesive devices in written discourse” To perform the “macro-skills”, EFL learners need to (1) “use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse”, (2) apply the written communication suitably in different contexts, (3) show links of written ideas, (4)

“micro-“distinguish between literal and implied meaning when writing”, (5) “convey culturally specific references” in writing, and (6) develop effective writing strategies

Task: “a pedagogical task is a piece of classroom work that involves learners

in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order

to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle, and

an end.” (Nunan, 2004, p.4)

Task-based learning: the student-centered approach or the learning

approach that uses language tasks to help EFL learners learn the language through communicative, interactive, authentic situations (Ellis, 2006) By using tasks, there

is no heavy dependence on linguistic forms; instead, meaning and communication are the priority

Motivation: motives for the students’ devotion to their study Students who

achieve high motivation for learning can become fully involved in their learning processes, both inside and outside class (Redondo & Martin, 2015)

Learning attitudes: all perceptions and affections for students’ own learning

Students with positive learning attitudes tend to greatly adapt their learning strategies and capabilities to different learning conditions (Dörnyei, 2003)

1.2 Writing skills

1.2.1 The function of writing skills

As reported by Harmer (2004), writing was born when people started to invent some symbols to record important information and its system has evolved throughout time in different contexts Then writing plays an important role in the society First, writing and reading skills shape the literacy skills, a desirable goal for many people Second, writing has become one of the most commonplace areas in testing and assessment in education Accordingly, the students are usually asked to demonstrate their writing proficiency and knowledge in many important exams Moreover, students who have effective writing skills can obtain many benefits such as “the ability of reasoning”, “the ability to record information in written language”, “more

chances to seek good jobs in the future”, “the ability to improve communication skills”, and “broaden knowledge and improve creativity or thinking” (Sharna, 2019) Finally, writing skills play an important role in research as it becomes a main part of applied linguistics and other related fields (Matsuda & Silva, 2020)

1.2.2 The measure of EFL writing skills

Brown and Abeywickrama (…) mentioned that writing skill can be measured

by different assessment tools, based on four types of writing task performance – (1)

“imitative” (primarily concerning letters, spellings, words, punctuations, and very simple sentences), (2) “intensive” or “controlled writing” (strictly focusing on linguistic forms in the written text), (3) “responsive” (dealing with connecting written ideas into a larger discourse in a paragraph or short essay), and (4) “extensive” (managing all writing processes and strategies to deal with all purposes, including projects, term paper, dissertations, etc.) (2018)

Obviously, the measure of writing skill heavily relies on the difficulty level of the writing tasks For “imitative writing”, simple assessment tools are comprised of

“copying”, “listening closed selection tasks”, “picture-cued tasks for single words”,

“form completion tasks”, “converting numbers and abbreviations to words”, “spelling tests”, “multiple choice for simple words”, and “matching phonetic symbols” (Brown

& Abeywickrama, 2018) For “intensive writing”, common assessment tools are

“dictation”, “grammatical transformation tasks”, “picture-cued tasks for short sentences”, “picture description”, “picture sequence description”, “vocabulary assessment tasks”, “ordering tasks”, and “short answer and sentence completion tasks”

While those two groups of assessment tasks primarily deal with word level and sentence level in writing, the last two focus more on the discourse level of the writing The tasks include “paraphrasing”, “guided question and answer”, “paragraph construction tasks”, “strategic options”, “standardized tests like TOEFL, IELTS, etc.” and “writing projects” Brown and Abeywickrama (2018) also stressed that a

“responsive and extensive writing” task needs to be evaluated by a standardized or uniform scoring rubric to ensure the reliability of scoring methods Also, the assessment task for this type of writing skill has to be authentic and timed for its quality Three specific scoring methods for these writing types should be also

considered: “holistic” (assigning a single score to a whole written text), analytic (assigning a single score to each textual element of the text), or “primary-trait scoring” (assigning a single score based on the final goal of the text achieved)

1.2.3 Learning EFL writing skills

Learning EFL writing skills is a challenging process (Harmer, 2004) mainly due to the distinctive features of text (grammar, vocabulary, textual organization, etc.) and many discrepancies from speaking (time and space, speed, etc.) Furthermore, as reported by Matsuda and Silva (2020), writing skill needs to be directly instructed, in contrast to speaking skills Accordingly, EFL writers, with their different socio-cultural backgrounds and aptitudes, may have various writing processes and strategies to deal with writing Then EFL Likewise, the common writing process can include “brainstorming”, “drafting and reviewing”, and “proofreading before submission” (Folse, Muchmore-Vokoun, & Solomon, 2013)

Hyland (2009) noted that there exist many approaches to EFL writing, in terms

of the research purpose and context Two major approaches, “genre-based” and

“process-based”, have received much academic attention The former refers to the aim to centralize the writing curriculum at school to different genres or types of written texts students can experience (Matsuda & Silva, 2020; Richards & Schmidt, 2010) When it comes to the genre-based approach, the students as writers (or called student writers) are asked to study and write different types of text, namely paragraphs, essays, research essays, etc (Hyland, 2009), each of which requires some different writing strategies On the other hand, Richards and Schmidt mentioned that the “process-based approach” treats writing as a whole process, with concurrent steps from beginning to end (2010) In this approach, to improve the quality of writing, the students can be taught to follow particular steps, particularly ways to renovate their

“composing process” (Matsuda & Silva, 2020) Then writing should be treated as a

“problem-solving” model (using specific strategies to solve rhetorical situations of the writing tasks), “generative model” (exploring and developing new ideas while writing),

“recursive model” (revising writing content while writing), “collaborative model” (working together to construct and revise written texts), and “developmental model” (being evaluated on the writing process rather than a product) (Hyland, 2009, p 80) In

short, it is stated that the use of the “genre-based approach” focuses on the textual aspects

of the writing, and the “process-based approach” pays more attention to the writers with different cognitive processes

1.2.4 EFL learners’ difficulties in writing skills

It should be noted that one’s ability to write relates to not only linguistic elements but also socio-cultural dimensions and the ability to cognitive work (Hyland, 2009) Therefore, writing can be seen as one of the most difficult language skills as it requires many things: the ability to use syntactic structures and lexical resources effectively; critical thinking or reasoning; creative thinking; sociocultural knowledge; and so on As mentioned by Matsuda and Silva (2020), EFL learners encounter many difficulties in writing, resulting in intermediate forms or errors Pham and Duong (2015) reported many problems with EFL learners’ writing: lexical and grammatical errors Moreover, when students join academic writing tasks, they may have trouble with their collocation use (Duong & Nguyen, 2021) Nguyen and Nguyen (2020) restated the problem of textual coherence because of poor critical thinking skills in writing The study by Pham (2021) revealed that textual organization (e.g., paragraph unity-related problem; cohesion-related problem) can be an obstacle to students’ writing Thus, EFL learners, particularly Vietnamese ones, confronted many linguistic and non-linguistic difficulties in writing (Lam et al., 2020)

1.3 Task-based learning

1.3.1 Framework of task-based learning

The TBL framework includes three elements: (1) “pre-task”, (2) “task cycle”, and (3) “language focus” This framework was depicted in the following diagram by Willis (1996, p.38)

As seen from Figure 2.1, in the “pre-task” the students get familiar with the new learning topic by performing a simulation task (similar to the main ones) or they can preview key words and background knowledge The second, “task cycle”, refers to the students’ operation of the task The students’ role is the doers who conduct the task individually, in pairs, or in teams Then they need to make a report

in front of class; in other words, they need to present their products (oral or written) The students can have some work relating to giving feedback and

exchanging information later in the sub-stage called “Report” The third stage,

“Language focus” can be a suitable time for more focus-on-form activities The students can review important grammatical structures, lexical items, and other textual structures at this stage to deepen into the language lesson

Figure 1.1

A TBL Framework by Willis in 1996

1.3.1.1 Pre-task activities

Willis (1996) reported six pre-task activities

The first one is “classifying words and phrases” Teachers can write or present words or phrases on the board and ask students to classify them into specific groups For example, “Read through the words and phrases and classify them into different ways: cheap – expensive/ hot -cold How many categories can you think of?”

The second one is “odd one out” Teachers can write sets of related words and phrases on the board, inserting one item in each set that does not fit (e.g., a blue shirt, black trousers, a long dress, a smart tie, etc.) Teachers ask students to

Pre-task Introduction to topic and task

Teacher explore the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare Students may hear a recording of others doing a similar task

Students may now hear recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all did it.

discovered

Report

Some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written reports, and compare results

Language focus

Analysis

Students examine and discuss specific features

of the text or transcript of the recording

Practice

Teacher products practice

of new words, phrases and patterns occurring in the data, either during or after the analysis

discuss to odd one out

The third one is “matching phrases to pictures” Teachers can show a few pictures and phrases and ask students to match each picture with the correct caption or phrase

The fourth one is “memory challenge” Teachers can take the pictures down and ask students to match the phrases with the pictures from their memory correctly

The fifth one is “brainstorming and mind map” Teachers show a topic on

the board and ask the students to brainstorm ideas or draw a map of related ideas

The sixth one is “thinking of question to ask” Teachers can ask students to write questions to ask their friends about a topic

1.3.1.2 Task cycle

The task cycle is comprised of three steps: task, planning, and report (Willis, 1996) In the task, the teacher plays the role of a monitor who supervises students to complete assigned tasks A clear introduction to the task should be given first Then the teacher should encourage learners to join collaborative work and deliver linguistic support when necessary Errors in linguistic forms should not be paid much attention

to The teacher should consider timing which should rely on the task type and difficulty After the task, in the planning step, learners should be encouraged to present their teamwork products (spoken or written forms) The teacher plays the role

of a counselor who helps learners to revise their language products In the step of reports, the teacher selects some groups to present their report of the task in front of the class After that, teacher feedback on content and form is delivered in class

1.3.1.3 Language focus

Language focus is the final stage of the TBL framework (Willis, 1996) At this stage, learners complete text analysis and further language form practice Teachers help them review important grammatical structures, vocabulary, pronunciation, and so forth

1.3.1.4 Task-based learning activities for EFL writing

Willis (1996) recommended task-based activities for EFL writing as follows Firstly, pre-task activities include the introduction to topic and task and learners’ pre-writing activities (e.g., selecting a topic, brainstorming ideas, making

the outline, etc.) Learners can work collaboratively to discuss the writing topic and situation, and the teacher can set the written task which could follow a reading task Secondly, the task cycle can begin with learner discussion about the content

of the written text After that, the first written draft is completed It can be exchanged between two learner groups for feedback Thirdly, the redraft is written They check and revise the content of the first draft for finalized text version The final draft can be presented in class or submitted to the teacher for feedback Thirdly, the language focus stage can be conducted Form-focused activities can be held at this stage to help learners pay attention to important linguistic elements of the lesson (e.g., grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) Learners can have further reflections on their writing learning process or receive more teacher’s feedback at this stage

1.3.2 Implementing task-based learning

Likewise, Ellis (2006) reported that this framework consists of three main phases: pre-task, during-task, and post-task

A TBL Framework by Ellis in 2006

A Pre-task * Framing the activity (e.g establishing the

outcome the task)

* Planning time

* Doing a similar task

B During task * Time pressure

* Number of participants

C Post task * Learner report

* Consciousness-raising

* Repeat task

Table 1.1 A TBL Framework by Ellis in 2006

The pre-task aims to students’ preparation for a main task In detail, there can

be four different objectives of this stage: (1) students’ performance in a simulation task, (2) students’ observation of a task operation model, (3) students’ participation

in a non-task activity to prepare them for the main task, and (4) students’ plan for learning strategies Students are prepared to plan ideas for the main task

The next stage, “during task”, deals with the students’ operation of main tasks They use language to perform tasks as given They have to develop suitable strategies to overcome time pressure to get finished products (paragraphs, essays, presentations, etc.)

The last stage, “post-task”, can have three different objectives: students’ learning reflection, the students’ repeated task performance, and students’ review on key linguistic forms

The present study employs the TBL framework by Ellis (2006) There are two reasons for this First, it is understandable and applicable to the current educational context With its three main stages – pre-task, while-task, and post-task, this framework could be useful for the current researcher to apply in her class Second, the framework by Willis (1996) is more complicated and demanding In detail, the task cycle demands three steps: “task”, “planning”, and “report”

1.3.3 Characteristics of task-based learning

TBL has these key characteristics: (1) collaboration, (2) task completion, (3) teacher’s design, and (4) integration of language and life skills

Regarding collaboration, TBL provides several opportunities for students to interact with each other to practice using the language They also have chances to communicate with the teacher to ask questions and get support to fulfill tasks Applying TBL helps EFL learners use their language in communicative contexts like speaking and writing They could not feel bored because every writing lesson does not aim to present too many explanations for form-focused activities (or writing accuracy) but meaning-focused activities (fluency and efficacy)

Regarding the teacher’s design, Willis (1996) noted that task-based learning should follow specific standards First, learners need to have many opportunities to use the language, both naturally and planned Second, they need to have a certain motivation to use the language in meaningful settings (e.g., listening and speaking, reading and writing, reflection, etc.) Fourth, the instruction should focus on both meanings (fluency) and forms (accuracy)

In terms of task completion, EFL teachers need to distinguish tasks from other

artifacts in education According to Richards & Schmidt (2010), a task has many important aspects for consideration by the teachers, including (1) “goals” (the core purpose of the task), (2) “procedures” (the process of completing the task), (3) “order” (the position of the task in “a sequence of other tasks”), (4) “pace” (time duration for the task), (5) “product” (the final result of the task), (6) “learning strategy” (the specific strategies to accomplish the task), (7) “assessment” (the way to evaluate the success of the task), (8) “participation” (the involvement of students in the task – individual, pair work, or group work), (9) “resources” (learning materials with the task), and (10) “language” (the selection of primary language in the task- the native, the foreign or the second language, or mixed)

In terms of the fourth characteristic, TBL refers to the students’ act of learning

a language through tasks – completing classroom pieces of work whose goal is for communicative goals and using language to express meanings rather than forms (Willis, 1996) Thanks to the implementation of TBL with its well-organized structure (pre-, while-, and post-), the students learn language by applying their linguistic knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) to specific language skills, rather than only discussing too much about forms and theories Task-based activities are communicative and meaning-based (Ellis, 2003; Willis, 2021)

1.3.4 Benefits of task-based learning

1.3.4.1 For EFL learning

Thanks to the implementation of TBL with its well-organized structure writing, while-writing, and post-writing), the students learn language by applying their linguistic knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc.) to specific language skills, rather than only discussing too much about forms and theories Therefore, applying TBL helps EFL learners use their language in communicative contexts like speaking and writing They could not feel bored because every writing lesson does not aim to present too many explanations for form-focused activities (or writing accuracy) but meaning-focused activities (fluency and efficacy)

(pre-In detail, in terms of language, as noted by Ellis (2009), TBL presents several opportunities for improvement when being utilized in educational settings Firstly, as reported by Bao and Du (2015), EFL learners could have more chances to achieve

higher language proficiency levels with TBL because the learning approach aims to more language use in meaningful situations TBL also prioritizes fluency to accuracy Moreover, the use of TBL could help EFL learners gain higher learning motivation levels in their classes (Nguyen & Luu, 2018) Also, Husain et al (2021) restated that EFL learners could become more active in their learning process when they follow TBL Learners participating in TBL are provided the opportunity to engage in natural learning alongside exercises that simulate real-world situations

According to van Den Branden (2006), TBL can be useful for education because it helps the students in managing and overseeing cognitive progress The primary aim of task-based learning (TBL) is to facilitate language acquisition by involving learners in genuine language usage through the completion of a sequence

of tasks while engaging in collaborative interactions with fellow learners According

to Ellis (2003), it facilitates the acquisition of novel linguistic knowledge and the structuring of pre-existing knowledge among students This approach presents a viable option for educators of language In accordance with Frost's findings in 2004,

it can be inferred that teachers do not preselect the language forms that are practiced

in the classroom Rather, the lesson is structured around a central task, whereby the language forms that are utilized by the learners during task performance take precedence

Furthermore, the utilization of task-based learning has been found to be advantageous for language learners due to its learner-centeredness in comparison to alternative approaches During the pre-task, the teacher may furnish the necessary language forms for communication However, the students are allowed to utilize any form they desire, which allows them to employ all the language forms and structures they possess rather than being restricted to the course book or the lecture Furthermore, as students gain proficiency in the assigned activities, they are motivated to actively participate, which can foster their language acquisition

TBL also places emphasis on the comprehension of meaning as opposed to the acquisition of language structures by learners The rationale behind this is that learners engage in a set of communicative activities rather than engaging in discrete language drills that focus solely on form Furthermore, it is imperative for students to

articulate their own perspectives, whether through oral or written means, regarding the subject matter being deliberated Individuals can focus on their preferred subjects Educators can aid pupils in articulating their thoughts by scrutinizing the significance derived from communicative undertakings and exercises Willis (1996) stressed that

in the TBL framework, the integration of tasks and texts provides students with a comprehensive language learning experience and ample opportunities for language production Consequently, individuals engage in an inductive approach to practicing

a specific grammatical characteristic while completing a series of assigned tasks

1.3.4.2 For EFL writing

In particular, for writing skills, it was proven to develop EFL learners’ writing accuracy and fluency (Ahmed & Bidin, 2016; Derakhshan, 2018; Gonzalez & Pinzon, 2019; Husain et al., 2021; Kafipour, Mahmoudi, & Khojasteh, 2018; Milarisa, 2019; Nguyen & Luu, 2018; Pham et al., 2021), critical thinking ability (Liu & Yao, 2019; Mahdi, 2020), and “writing self-regulation” (Phuong et al., 2015) The use of TBL could facilitate teamwork skills and useful written ideas thanks to collaborative writing tasks and enhance students’ learning motivation (Husain et al., 2021)

Besides, in EFL writing classrooms the use of TBL has theoretical and practical values Theoretically, “product-oriented” and “process-oriented” pedagogies are used in EFL writing courses (Hyland, 2009) The former emphasizes

“the final product, the coherent, error-free text,” whereas the latter emphasizes “the steps involved in drafting and redrafting a piece of work” Both systems have drawbacks, therefore it's unclear whether one improves writing skills more TBL is intended to compensate with either approach (Nunan, 2004) TBL considers writing

as finished products, unlike the “product-oriented approach” and “process-oriented approach.” However, TBL approach in English writing instruction is still understudied Practically, TBL helps integrate all language abilities into learning and instruction, unlike the “product-oriented” and “process-oriented” approaches TBL emphasizes grammatical precision, forms, and communication in the target language, according to Nunan (2004) Therefore, it should help EFL learn and practice many things inside EFL writing classrooms rather than only exploiting written accuracy (Pham & Do, 2021)

1.3.5 The role of teachers and students in task-based learning

1.3.5.1 The role of teachers in task-based learning

Willis (2021) restated that the goal of TBL is not to give as many tasks as possible to EFL learners

“Task-based learning is not just about getting learners to do one task and then another task and then another If that were the case, learners would probably become quite expert at doing tasks and resourceful with their language, but they would almost certainly gain fluency at the expense of accuracy.”

TBL, therefore, takes its primary goal: to help EFL learners develop their language fluency through more interaction with authentic, meaningful contexts EFL learners can gain access to comprehensible, useful language input, focus more on meaning when using the language, and even have chances for more learning reflection on their learning process

Furthermore, according to Benati (2020), EFL teachers need to consider “task prompts”, “task requirements”, “EFL learners’ linguistic knowledge”, their schemata (prior knowledge), and “available external aid” In particular, the TBL should demonstrate the communicative feature of writing topics and the effective selection

of task designs for writing skill development Thus, “a process-based approach” to writing, which focuses on EFL learners’ cognitive work, can be useful The teacher needs to encourage EFL learners to actively participate in their writing process by

“exploring, consolidating, and developing writing objectives”

1.3.5.2 The roles of students in task-based learning

TBL needs to follow certain principles, as noted by Nunan (2004) First, EFL learners need to become active in their learning process They have to actively participate in using language to communicate and perform language tasks Second, they also have to reflect on their learning process and strategies for better learning results Third, they need to reproduce and create their own language rather than only focusing on only forms Fourth, the learning condition should have the combination between “linguistic form”, “communicative function”, and “semantic meaning” Fifth, the language used in the classroom could be recycled to help the students adapt well to their own TBL Sixth, instead of learning through separate tasks, EFL learners

need to learn through interconnected tasks Each task should be related to each other for useful learning conditions Finally, scaffolding is necessary for TBL: Each student needs to gain exposure to supportive language learning materials and lessons

1.3.5.3 The relationship between motivation, attitudes, and based learning

task-EFL learners’ learning motivation, attitudes and task-based learning is considered to be correlated to each other The learners with high motivation and positive learning attitudes are likely to join task-based learning enthusiastically (Gonzalez & Pinzon, 2019) In return, task-based learning provides enjoyable learning conditions; therefore, EFL learners can foster their own learning motivation and attitudes (Derakhshan, 2018)

1.6 Previous studies

1.6.1 Previous studies in the international context

The study by Ahmed and Bidin (2016) proved the positive results of TBL on Malaysian intermediate EFL learners’ writing skill development and attitudes toward the writing class The pretest and posttest results demonstrated that the students could improve their writing fluency The post-survey indicated that the students expressed more positive attitudes towards the task-based writing class

Likewise, TBL could have positive influences on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ writing skills, as proved by Kafipour et al in 2018 The results from the pretest and posttest could illustrate the remarkable improvement in the students’ use

of syntactic structures, lexical resources, idea development, and textual organization

In a work by Derakhshan in 2018, the researcher concluded that TBL could have positive impacts on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ writing “accuracy and complexity” The findings indicated that the students could gain the most benefits from their summary writing tasks, which require more academic language

Gonzalez and Pinzon (2019) added that the use of TBL could make Colombian intermediate EFL learners improve their writing accuracy and fluency in terms of grammatical and lexical choices and reduce errors Moreover, the students could achieve a higher level of self-efficacy in their writing

Furthermore, another work by Liu and Yao in 2019 presented the positive

influences of the TBL on Chinese intermediate EFL learners’ critical thinking and overall writing ability Thanks to effective task designs, the teacher could help students obtain a higher level of critical thinking in their writing and their writing proficiency could later increase

Milarisa (2019) is also convinced that the use of TBL could help Indonesian beginner EFL learners improve their writing achievement The students in this experimental study could show greater improvements in their writing after the treatment with TBL

Similar to Liu and Yao (2019), the study by Mahdi (2020) also indicated that the TBL could greatly support the development of intermediate students’ critical thinking and writing abilities In this Jordian context, Mahdi demonstrated the significant improvement in students’ abilities in their writing before and after the teaching intervention with TBL

Saifudin, Setiawan, and Anam also showed such improvements in their work in

2020 In an Indonesian context, the researchers indicated that the TBL could be useful for teaching descriptive writing to the intermediate students However, they also concluded two key limitations of this approach in that context, namely the predominance of the mother tongue in students’ language use and the time-consuming features of some tasks

In contrast, another Indonesian study by Husain et al (2021) could reveal more benefits, especially for the intermediate students’ narrative writing In the study, the statistical results suggested that after studying narrative writing with the TBL, the students could significantly improve their writing task performance

1.6.2 Previous studies in Vietnamese context

Vietnamese studies on this research topic share a few similar findings For example, the study by Phuong et al in 2015 demonstrated that the use of TBL could help Vietnamese EFL learners improve their “writing self-regulation” and “lexical diversity” in their “descriptive and argumentative paragraphs” However, as compared to the use of PPP, TBL could be less effective, in terms of writing accuracy

Nguyen and Luu (2018) could successfully prove that the TBL could be a useful teaching approach to Vietnamese EFL learners’ writing They showed that the

students could greatly improve “mechanics, vocabulary, grammar, content, and organization” of their written texts after the implementation of TBL Also, the students had a higher learning motivation for this approach, which was correlated to their improved writing task performance

One more thing for consideration, given by Pham and Do in 2021, was that the use of TBLT could not help Vietnamese EFL learners’ gain the best grammatical accuracy Nevertheless, the use of TBLT could help them improve their grammatical knowledge used in the writing skills because the approach facilitates the students’ frequent language use

In another Vietnamese study, Pham et al (2021) indicated that the use of TBL could have a positive effect on the non-English majors’ writing ability in terms of accuracy and fluency The students, who were being taught with the TBL, could show statistically significant improvement before the pretest and posttest scores

On the whole, the TBL has been perceived and concluded as a useful teaching approach to EFL writing Most past studies demonstrated the improvement in students’ writing ability, particularly their writing accuracy, fluency, and critical thinking Moreover, EFL learners tended to express positive attitudes towards this teaching approach However, as noted by Saifudin et al (2020), in a specific EFL context, the TBL could face some problems like the use

of mother tongue and the large time spent on some tasks This insight could provide further ideas for the current study Instead of only proving the effectiveness of this approach on students’ writing skills and the higher level of learning motivation, the current study could deepen into certain problems stude nts might encounter while being instructed with the TBL Moreover, particular problems with writing skills cannot be ignored in the classroom

Research gap

While there is a vast majority of past research into the impact of task-based learning on EFL learners’ writing skills development, most tend to rely on statistical evidence (comparison of writing test scores between groups) Very few Vietnamese studies on the actual benefit of task-based learning for EFL learners’ writing skills development, shown in students’ perceptions and paragraph writing performance

Nguyen Binh Khiem High School,

tenth graders

Writing Post-writing (Revising)

problems with topical knowledge, textual coherence, and language use At the writing stage, feedback, time resources, and language use are key challenges Because task-based learning facilitates students’ collaboration and interaction, enhances learning motivation, and supports students’ idea generation, organization, and correction, the researcher wants to implement the TBL framework by Willis (1996)

post-Summary

This chapter reports all key literature on the current research, namely EFL writing skills, writing process, paragraph writing, and task-based learning It is noteworthy that task-based learning provides collaborative, enjoyable, meaningful learning environment for most EFL learners to foster their learning motivation and attitudes Their writing skill can be gradually improved While past research focused

on the statistical evidence on writing test score improvement thanks to task-based learning, very few was conducted to analyze real paragraph writing performance and students’ learning attitudes in a writing course with task-based learning

Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY

This chapter describes the research methodology, in terms of key method, research design, course description, research context, sampling and participants, instruments, teaching and learning materials, teaching procedure, data collection, data analysis, and reliability and validity

2.1 Research design

The researcher employs a case study of TBL at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School In this case study, both qualitative and quantitative research approaches were used The qualitative data came from the semi-structured interview (primary) and students’ writing test samples (secondary) The quantitative data came from the questionnaire (after course) In detail, there are three data-collecting tools: the questionnaire (to collect information about students’ difficulties in EFL writing and evaluation of task-based learning), the interview with the teachers (to understand their insights into the students’ problems with writing skills and the use of TBL for writing skills), and the writing tests (to collect textual evidence before and after the teaching procedure) After data collection and analysis, the findings are interpreted, and practical implications are given

The researcher used the case study for these reasons First, it helps exemplify the effects of TBL on students’ writing skills development Second, it allows the researcher

to survey in the class to understand students’ attitudes towards this approach

Case study is the main method for the researcher to conduct the study for reasons First, according to Creswell (2012), it helps the research describe the results in detail without any sampling stratification or complicated data collection and analysis Second, Paltridge and Phakiti (2015) noted that this method helps the researcher focus on the specific research context more than generalize findings to all other settings

As a result, there are many advantages to conducting this case study First, the results of the students’ difficulties in writing skills could be typical among Nguyen Binh Khiem High school students The case study helps describe specific problems with writing skills among the students thanks to the questionnaires and real examples from

the students’ writing tests Second, it is the case study that could exemplify how TBL could facilitate students’ writing skills, in terms of idea generation and organization

2.2 Research context

The research will be conducted at Nguyen Binh Khiem High School, situated

in Dong Nai Province, in the second semester of the 2023-2024 school year At this school, English has been considered a compulsory subject for formal assessments However, the school also aims to promote the students’ English skills to equip them with good language skills for future employability and higher study Therefore, the school has encouraged all EFL teachers to be flexible in their classrooms and apply useful teaching approaches to help the students improve their language skills, especially writing and speaking

In terms of the writing course at this school, TBL can be seen as an uncommon approach As reported by Teacher X (the Head of the English teacher team, in personal communication), “Most high school students still have errors in their sentence writing skill due to poor grammar, vocabulary, ideas, and mechanics, so most teachers at this school pay much more attention to the writing accuracy rather than letting the students try in different writing practice Controlled writing practice

is prioritized because it can teach students how to construct sentences correctly and they could express their written ideas in a much more comprehensible way.” Therefore, TBL is new in this educational context

2.3 Sampling and participants

2.3.1 Sample and sampling

As reported by Creswell (2012), the purposeful sampling method is used when the researcher would like to gather the results from samples expected to be useful for the current research objectives Additionally, this sampling method can be often used

in a qualitative study Therefore, the current research employs this method to include assumably useful participants (students)

To reach this sample, the researcher considered the students’ previous English final test scores to select two classes Then the researcher selected two classes with the highest average marks (from 5.0 to 6.0)

2.3.2 The research participants

The purposeful sampling process helps include two classes, each of which consists of 45 students These students must be the ones who did not study writing via TBL This could help validate the results of the current study Moreover, these students should be asked not to be absent from the writing lessons in the current course

In detail, there were 90 tenth graders in two classes (10C3 and 10C4) that were targeted as the research population As regards their English learning experience, all students had studied English for at least 4 years before the survey There was no group division in the study; all students were considered as one study group, receiving the same teaching treatment – task-based learning During the last school year, these classes received no task-based writing activities The students just completed all textbook-based writing exercises and tried to correct all their errors in writing based

on the teacher’s feedback in class Although they were allowed to work in groups to complete all these exercises, the writing contexts were limited It was because they needed to finish the final English graduation test to enter this high school

2.4 Instruments

2.4.1 Questionnaire

The questionnaire, which is a list of questions used to survey ideas or any problems relating to the research objectives, can help gather the information from the informants conveniently (Creswell, 2012) A questionnaire, the most common tool for gathering data, may assist in systematically illuminating the information and replies provided by participants (Creswell, 2012) Iwaniec (2019) said that a questionnaire's designs, questions, reliability, validity, and modality must all be properly taken into account before administration

According to Saris and Gallhofer (2014), questionnaire design should adhere

to the following guidelines To start, it is advisable to include any pertinent related material in the questionnaire's introduction The researcher should then display a thank-you message or other kind of appreciation to recognize the participants' contributions The quality of the questions should be scrutinized very carefully To prevent confusion or misunderstanding, the queries should be “free from jargon or complicated technical terms.” There shouldn't be any double-barreled

research-queries and there shouldn't be many straight negative expressions Additionally, “no simple questions to get the same answers from respondents” should be prohibited Then, the different sorts of questions must be chosen The researcher has the option

of using “close-ended” questions (Likert scales, multiple choice, etc.) or ended” questions (questions that allow for written free responses) The combination

“open-of several question kinds is preferred, according to Zhou et al (2017), in order to guarantee the accurate interpretation of results

The original questionnaire includes four main sections, adapted from Pham (2021) However, because of relatively different research objectives and scope, the number of questions were reduced, and the content was revised to adapt it to the current research context Section 1, including three questions, aims to collect

personal information about gender, age, and English learning experience Section 2 aims to collect information about the students’ difficulties in the EFL writing

process It includes a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) and 5 (Strongly Agree) The scale has twenty items, divided into three parts Part 1 is about the challenges in pre-writing stage which includes the following four

statements Part 2 is about the challenges in the writing stage which consists of the following ten statements Part 3 is about the challenges in the post-writing stage which contains the following five items The third section aims to investigate

students’ attitudes towards the use of collaborative work It is a similar scale with

10 following statements The fourth section aims to investigate students’ attitudes towards the effects of task-based learning for EFL writing It is a similar scale with seven statements After each scale, there is one open-ended question to collect students’ other opinions

2.4.2 Writing tests

As a descriptive qualitative study, the present research employs 3 different writing tests Also, no test scores will be reported; instead, descriptive results of the errors in grammatical structures, lexical choices, textual organization, and idea management in the students’ paragraphs will be used

All writing tests will be adapted from the current textbook, “English 10”

(“Global Success” by “MOET”) which requires the students to construct short

paragraphs Because the writing tasks in the textbook vary in the requirements: some require paragraph writing and some require other types like email, post, letters, etc., the current researcher rewrites the requirement to make it suitable for the present research objective – in paragraph writing skills only Before the teaching procedure with TBL, the students will be asked to write a 100-word paragraph about “their family routines” (Unit 1, p 15) Another writing test will be conducted in the middle

of the course, which asks the students to construct a 100-word paragraph to retell a music event they have ever watched (Unit 3, p 34) The final writing test will be administered at the end of the semester, which asks the students to write a 100-word paragraph about the advantages of the Internet (Unit 5, p 58)

It should be noted that the tests were written in ink and the time duration for each was 20 minutes (half an hour) in the main classroom session, without any guidance from the teacher during their writing process Moreover, the student participants in this project were informed that their paragraphs were to be used for formal assessments (scores) but for the teacher’s constructive feedback and suggestions for improvement This helped the students feel less anxious while completing each paragraph

The researcher also acknowledges that “key standards of a language test” should be respected while designing and administering the writing tests As noted by Brown and Abeywickrama (2018), “reliability, validity, authenticity, washback, and practicality” should be important principles of a language test Based on these principles, the current writing tests focus on the assessment of paragraph writing skills only (“validity”) The questions come from the students’ textbook and the teacher as examiner works on only 20 pieces of student paper, within 3 separate periods (“reliability”) These writing test scores cost less because they require only students’ note paper and pens, without any requirement for high-tech devices (“practicality”) The use of these writing performances is for academic purposes only, and the results will impact the students (how to improve their writing skills) and the teacher (what should be done to help the students in their writing skills more) (“washback”) Finally, in the textbook, these writing tests include real-life, specific

situations, so they may be considered “authentic tests”

2.4.3 The semi-structured interview

The semi-structured interview is an interview that allows the interviewer to ask further questions or instruct the interviewees during an interview so that its purpose can be achieved (Adams, 2015) There are three reasons why this instrument was used in current research First, it helps include the teacher’s insights into the use

of TBL for EFL writing class Second, it allows the current researcher as the interviewer to give more hints or instruct the teachers during the interview Third, the limited sample of teachers, only 5 representatives, prevented the researcher from conducting large-scale surveys among the teachers

There are five interview questions, which were self-designed by the current researcher and carefully proofread by an invited expert before actual implementation The questions are: (1) “What are your students’ problems in their English writing process?”, (2) “What are your problems in teaching students writing skills?”, (3)

“What are your suggestions to deal with those problems?”, (4) “In your opinion, how can English teachers apply this approach into the pre-writing stage?”, and (5) “Why would you like to apply task-based learning into your EFL writing class, especially

at the pre-writing stage?”

2.5 Teaching and learning materials

The primary textbook of this course is “English 10” (“Global Success” by

“MOET”) This textbook was published in accordance with “Circular BGDDT” issued on December 26, 2018 The book is based on the communicative approach to language teaching and learning, with an integration of four language skills besides grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation Especially, all lessons are grouped into four themes familiar to the students, namely “Our Lives”, “Our Society”, “Our Environment”, and “Our Future” These four themes are developed in

32/2018/TT-10 single units, each of which deals with a topic A reviewing lesson follows every three units to help students consolidate underlying knowledge and skills

Regarding the English curriculum for the tenth graders at the school, there are

105 periods in 35 weeks in the whole school year, including 80 main periods, 12 periods for lesson reviews, and 8 periods for mid-term and final tests The current research focused on the second semester of the 2022-2023 school year only Within

17 weeks of this semester, there are a total of 51 periods, three of which are arranged

in one week (see Appendix D)

Briefly, from Unit 6 to Unit 10 (within 17 weeks), there are five main writing lessons, namely “writing about jobs for men and women”, “writing about Vietnam’s participation in international organizations”, “writing about the benefits of blended learning”, “writing about a wildlife organization”, and “writing a website advertisement for an ecotour” In all these main lessons the students are instructed to write paragraphs There are two additional review lessons in Periods 78 and 102 when the teachers help the students to review paragraph writing skills (30 minutes each)

2.6 Teaching and learning procedure

The 3-step writing process, mentioned in Williams (2020), is employed in this study It is chosen because it is aligned with the teaching sequence in the writing class – pre-writing, while-writing, and post-writing

In particular, the program consists of six periods for writing skills In the first period, the teacher lectures on relevant theories In the second period, the pre-writing activities are conducted The teacher assigns important tasks to student groups In the third period, the teacher reviews the results of the pre-task and asks each group to write the first paragraph Each group submits a paragraph for teacher feedback In the fourth paragraph, the teacher returns the students’ work and delivers explicit feedback

in front of the class Each group completes the second paragraph before submission

In the two following writing periods, the same procedure is adopted Paragraphs 3 and 4 are completed While Paragraph 3 is commented in class, Paragraph 4 and two others (5 & 6) are feedback online

The following tables describe two writing classes: one without TBL and the other with TBL

- Ss answer some questions about a topic

- T teaches five useful words or phrases related to the topic

Table 2.1 A teaching and learning procedure without task-based

learning The class starts with “Lead-in activities” when the teacher introduces the topic of

the writing and pre-teach a few key words At this stage, the students answer some

questions about a given topic After discussion and answer clarification, the teacher teaches

five useful words phrases related to the topic At the stage of the main class, the teacher

lectures on how to construct a paragraph about the topic The teacher presents a paragraph

model and instructs how to start a paragraph (concluding sentence) Then students practice

writing a topic sentence The teacher asks volunteer students to write their answers on the

board and gets teacher feedback After that, the teacher asks Ss to write three supporting

sentences Finally, the teacher asks Ss to write a concluding sentence At the end, the

teacher asks Ss for further questions and feedback before lesson review

Main class

(25 minutes)

- To let students learn how

to write a paragraph about the given topic

- T lectures on how to write a paragraph

- T provides a paragraph model

- T asks Ss to practice writing topic sentence → supporting sentences → concluding sentence

- To set the context for the writing part

- To provide students with some ideas about the given topic

- To help students get some more ideas to prepare for the writing task

* T provides the link to the website and introduces the topic of writing

** Ss do as required in the link: Write down all information students can see on the website

*** Ss share the answers

**** T checks if the answers are correct or incorrect