VIET NAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOIUNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGE INTERNATIONAL STUDIESFACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ---- rh Leos PHAM THI MINH THUY COGNITIVE READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
Aim and Objectives of the SfUCỈY - G5 11121191 TS TH ng ng 3 3 Research Questions n6
e To find out teachers’ perspectives, regarding various aspects, including their familiarity, attitudes, perception of the importance, and challenges in applying cognitive reading comprehension strategies for non-gifted students at a public high school. e To examine to what extent teachers’ beliefs and their self-reported instructional practices of adopting cognitive reading comprehension strategies are in line with the actual implementation.
Based on the theoretical framework proposed, the researcher put forward the following research questions:
1 What are the teachers’ views about cognitive reading strategies?
2 What are common cognitive reading strategies teachers adopt in their teaching?
To attain the stated aim and objectives, both qualitative and quantitative methods in which data is collected from questionnaires, observations, and interviews are exploited in this mixed-methods research At first, all nine English teachers at the chosen school are requested to reflect their views on the significance and practice of teaching cognitive reading comprehension strategies on questionnaires Later, each teacher is observed in three forty-five-minute lessons accompanied by semi-structured interviews to get direct information on their actual teaching practices.
Many interrelated factors may impact a learner's success or failure in learning a language Using cognitive strategies in teaching reading comprehension should be considered as one of these variables This research, however, is limited to the teaching of cognitive reading comprehension strategies by a small group of teachers at a high school in Ninh Binh Province Therefore, there is no attempt to generalize the findings.
The study coincides with the new emphasis on English teaching in Vietnam, which necessitates the use of new teaching techniques that focus, among others, on students' acquisition of critical thinking, decoding, vocabulary knowledge, text structure and organization, schema activation, summarization skills in order to meet contemporary challenges such as globalization and others Besides, the study takes its importance from the fact that it endeavors to give teachers in the targeted school helpful insights into the current situation of teaching cognitive reading comprehension strategies Accordingly, certain recommendations for designing activities using cognitive reading comprehension strategies are produced.
This study is divided into five chapters:
CHAPTER ONE is the Introduction, presenting the rationale of the study, the aim and objectives, research questions, scope, method, significance as well as the design of the study.
CHAPTER TWO is the Literature Review, presenting theoretical background for the study, including the nature of reading & reading comprehension, reading strategies, cognitive reading strategies with its definitions and classifications, correlation between teachers’ perspectives and classroom practices, as well as previous studies on teachers’ perspectives on cognitive strategies and their classroom practices
CHAPTER THREE is the methodology, reporting the setting of the study and the participants of the study Data collection instruments and data collection procedure are also included.
CHAPTER FOUR is the data analysis in which the collected data is examined in detail and interpreted to draw meaningful conclusions.
CHAPTER FOUR is the findings and discussion The results of the study are presented and analyzed The researcher discusses the implications of the findings and compares them to previous research or theoretical frameworks.
CHAPTER FIVE is the Conclusion, providing a summary of the study's main findings, discusses the limitations of the research, highlights the pedagogical implications of the findings, and offers suggestions for future studies.
This chapter examines existing research relevant to the study, identifies gaps, and establishes the theoretical framework.
2.1 The nature of reading and reading comprehension
Reading involves engaging with written texts to extract ideas and information It is a valuable activity that equips readers with knowledge relevant to their daily lives In an educational setting, reading motivates students to actively expand their knowledge and stimulate their cognitive abilities.
Jemamus et al (2021) proposes that reading comprises two distinct processes: word recognition and word understanding Word recognition involves comprehending the association between written symbols and spoken language On the other hand, word understanding relates to grasping the meaning of numerous words, sentences, and the overall text In other words, the process of reading encompasses the transformation of textual information into meaningful understanding, beginning with the information presented in the text and ultimately leading to the reader's acquisition of new knowledge Various experts have provided different definitions of reading, each capturing unique aspects of the activity.
Reading is an artwork that necessitates the mastery of certain abilities in order to comprehend information from written materials (Halim &Mohamed, 2006).
As much as reading relies on our understanding of each word in a text, it also relies on our ability to assimilate the material given in a text, as Dallman (1982) emphasizes in Marantina (2006:6), “Reading is more than knowing what each a letter of alphabet stands for, reading involves more than recognition, without comprehension, no reading takes place”.
According to Alderson (2000), reading can be described as a pleasurable and immersive experience, characterized by intense personal engagement It is an activity that can bring great enjoyment and captivate individuals, allowing them to be fully engrossed in the process As defined by Seyler (2004), reading is the
6 process of obtaining or constructing meaning from individual words or groups of words This definition emphasizes the active nature of reading, highlighting that the reader is not simply passive but actively engaged in deriving or creating meaning from the textual material In addition, Ramos (2018, p.24) emphasizes that “reading must be considered as an important part of people’s daily life because it allows them to acquire and interpret knowledge and the necessary information to understand their context”.
In summary, the common thread across these definitions is the recognition that comprehension is essential for effective reading It is emphasized that reading goes beyond mere identification and pronunciation of letters, words, and sentences, as traditionally known While letter recognition and word identification are crucial components, reading also entails the active process of extracting meaning, understanding, and interpreting the content being read Comprehension is at the core of reading, allowing individuals to make sense of the text and engage with its intended message.
Reading comprehension is always crucial in the process of reading because its primary purpose is for students to grasp the intended messages of the materials they read If students fail to understand what they have read, the information in the text becomes meaningless and of no use In essence, reading without comprehension serves no purpose (Rusmiati & Kamalina, 2017).
In order to get an insight of the nature of reading comprehension, researchers have drawn different ideas about the concept of "comprehension".
Tarkesley (2003) claims that comprehension is a cognitive process in which readers interpret and understand the text based on their motivation, existing knowledge, cognitive capabilities, and personal experiences Proficient readers approach a text with a purpose, utilizing their background knowledge and life experiences to connect with the material Without drawing connections between the text and their prior knowledge, readers cannot fully comprehend the content.
Scope Of the Study 21
Many interrelated factors may impact a learner's success or failure in learning a language Using cognitive strategies in teaching reading comprehension should be considered as one of these variables This research, however, is limited to the teaching of cognitive reading comprehension strategies by a small group of teachers at a high school in Ninh Binh Province Therefore, there is no attempt to generalize the findings.
Significance Of the SfUỦy G1 ST ng HH nh tt 4 7 Organization Of the S{UỈY 2c 1112111911111 1H TH TH HH ng 4
The importance of teaching reading strategies - - sôcsôcscssssee 20 2.3 Cognitive reading SÍTAf€ỉ1€S . ônh HH TH HH Hàng giàn 21 2.3.1 Definition of cognitive reading SfTAt€ỉ1âS .- se ng re, 21 2.3.2 Classification of cognitive reading strategies .- 5 set 22 2.3.3 The teachers’ instructional practice utilizing cognitive reading strategies
EFL and/or ESL educators have long been in search of solutions for the varying reading comprehension abilities among students Consequently, numerous studies have explored the factors influencing reading comprehension Some studies concentrated on grammar and vocabulary (Akbari, 2014; Ma & Lin, 2015; Sidek & Rahim, 2015), while others focused on reading strategies (Sheorey & Baboaczky, 2008; Zhang, 2008).
In a study by Cekiso (2012) involving Grade 11 ESL learners, those who received reading strategy instruction showed improved comprehension compared to those without intervention He maintains that comprehension strategy instruction benefits learners by fostering strategic reading and improving comprehension. Teachers should focus on providing explicit reading strategy instruction to empower students as strategic readers Similar findings were reported in other studies, supporting the positive impact of comprehension strategy instruction on the development of reading comprehension skills, as evidenced in studies by Cassata (2016), Marzuki et al (2018), Joseph et al (2016), and Yuan et al (2019). Consequently, teaching reading strategies holds potential for enhancing learners' reading comprehension.
As Cahoon (2008) cited in Pressley (2023) that a wealth of knowledge suggests that teaching students reading strategies can boost their comprehension Beckman (2002:3) emphasizes that strategy instruction involves teaching students about strategies, guiding them on when and how to use these strategies, and encouraging the incorporation of strategic behaviors into their learning Eskey and Grabe (1995) confirms that teachers bear the responsibility for introducing and offering practice in valuable reading strategies for students to handle texts in a
20 foreign language because teachers' instruction of reading strategies is a powerful tool for enhancing students' comprehension of content (Cahoon, 2008).
In summary, the significance of teaching reading strategies cannot be underestimated Extensive research has consistently demonstrated the positive impact of employing reading comprehension strategies in second language learning on students’ reading comprehension performance (Noor, 2016) These strategies play a crucial role in enhancing students' comprehension, critical thinking, and overall academic success Therefore, english language teachers should move beyond merely imparting knowledge and instead focus on empowering students By equipping learners with the reading strategies to approach texts effectively, teachers empower them to become independent and engaged readers.
2.3.1 Definition of cognitive reading strategies
Cognitive reading strategies have gained significant importance in recent times due to research evidence highlighting their positive impact on students' reading performance Studies have shown that using cognitive strategies can be beneficial in addressing comprehension difficulties that students often encounter while reading a text (Knight et al., 1985).
Semtin and Maniam (2015, p.55) state that Cognitive Reading Strategies are associated with "specific learning activities used during the learning process, such as linking new words in your mind and summarizing the main idea" These strategies guide the learning process by establishing a reading purpose, making predictions, self-assessing understanding, and focusing attention.
Cognitive strategies are defined by Williams and Burden (1997, p 148) as mental processes that are specifically involved in processing information for the goal of learning These activities include gathering, storing, retrieving, and utilizing information These strategies involve more direct engagement with the learning material itself and are typically adapted to particular learning activities (Brown,
Gagne (1977) describes cognitive strategies as an internal process that controls learning As a basic foundation for learning, they enable students to control and adjust their learning process Students use these strategies to overcome difficulties, and it evolves alongside their learning success, improving the internal learning processes As a result, students can achieve self-instruction and become capable of learning independently.
Reading strategies are essential for successful comprehension since they help readers surmount obstacles while enhancing their reading skills, as McNamara (2009) emphasizes By actively seeking to understand the meanings of unfamiliar terms and concepts in the text both before and during reading, cognitive strategies allow readers to interpret information more effectively, resulting in a more precise understanding of the information Block (1986) advocades that cognitive reading strategies are adopted by readers to comprehend a text effectively It involves understanding the reading material, making the reading meaningful, and determining how to address any encountered difficulties or problems during the reading process He emphasizes that using effective reading strategies to perceive that printed language is necessary in order to become a competent reader rather than simply being able to read the written language.
In essence, despite the various definitions of cognitive reading strategies revealed, they all share their essential role in enhancing reading comprehension, guiding readers to decode, comprehend, and engage with written material effectively Whether seen as techniques that aid in understanding complex texts or as methods that foster active reader involvement, the consensus remains that cognitive reading strategies empower learners to explore and understand written content better Unlike metacognitive strategies, cognitive reading strategies may not be well-suited for all learning activities Instead, they seem to be more closely connected and applicable to specific learning tasks.
2.3.2 Classification of cognitive reading strategies
In both first language and second language reading research, cognitive reading strategies are commonly divided into two categories: bottom-up and top-
22 down According to Goodman (1986), the bottom-up model is often characterized as the "common sense notion” In this approach, reading is seen as a decoding process, where readers identify letters, words, phrases, and then sentences in order to understand the meaning On the other hand, the top-down model, promoted by Lynch & Hudson (1991), calls for identifying the text's most crucial components in order to effectively comprehend it This approach considers the reading process as an active "psychological guessing game," as stated by Carrell (1998) Unlike the bottom-up approach, top-down model dismisses the idea that efficient reading solely relies on identifying letters to form words and deriving meaning from those words Instead, it argues that effective reading requires that readers generate assumptions and expectations about the text by connecting new information to what they already know while relying on minimal language clues.
The process of effective reading is comprised of three key stages: (a) pre- reading, (b) while-reading, and (c) post-reading These stages serve as systematic approaches for students to practice reading strategies (Cohen, 1998) As a result, the researcher chooses to classify cognitive reading strategies in line with three beforementioned common reading phases, which is also prefered by various scholars like Bezci (1998), Ozek & Vivelek (2006), and Madikiza et al (2018) These strategies are categorized based on the three stages of reading: pre-reading (or before-reading) strategies, while-reading (or during-reading) strategies, and post-reading (or after-reading) strategies To facilitate better comprehension, they are further organized into distinct groups While grouping these strategies, some overlap occurs, as certain techniques can be relevant to multiple stages (pre-reading, during reading, or post-reading) The following classification of cognitive reading strategies, put forward by the researcher, is mainly based on the commonly recommended cognitive reading strategies.
These strategies are intended to prepare students before they start reading. There are 4 main pre-reading strategies
23 e Activating prior knowledge about the topic
This strategy involves encouraging students to recall and utilize their existing knowledge and experiences related to the topic of the text By activating prior knowledge, students can create connections between what they already know and the new information in the text, which helps to enhance comprehension and build a foundation for understanding the material In other words, this preparatory step helps students establish connections between the information in the text and the relevant concepts or topics they already know, making it easier for them to comprehend the material during reading (Keene & Zimmermann, 1997; Miller, 2002). e Previewing the text
Chia (2001) suggests that the purpose of previewing is to assist readers in predicting or making educated guesses about the content of the text Previewing the text involves skimming or scanning through the content before reading it in-depth. During this process, students look at the headings, subheadings, images, and any highlighted or bolded text to get an overview of the structure and main ideas of the text This previewing activity helps students set expectations and prepares them for what they will encounter while reading. e Making predictions about the probable meaning of the text
Students are encouraged to make guesses or hypotheses about what they think the text might convey These predictions are based on the information gathered from the preview and their prior knowledge Studies have indicated that proficient readers leverage their experiences and knowledge to make predictions and generate ideas while reading (Block & Israel, 2005) Implementing this strategy in the classroom fosters increased student interaction, which enhances student interest and comprehension of the text (Oczkus, 2003) That is to say, making predictions actively engages students in the reading process and encourages them to search for evidence to support or revise their assumptions as they read further.
Correlation between teachers’ perspectives and classroom practices
As defined in The Oxford English Dictionary, “perspective is a particular attitude towards something or a way of thinking about something” In this study, teachers’ perspectives are recognized as teacher’s attitudes and beliefs towards specific instructional methods: cognitive reading strategies These attitudes and beliefs lead to their pedagogical principles and practices during their teaching.
The concept of belief has drawn significant attention in education, but there remains a lack of consensus on its precise meaning (Borg, 2003; Borg, 2001; Woods, 1996) Johnson (1992) emphasizes how beliefs tend to impact teachers’ approaches to their instruction whereas Burns (1992: 58) describes that beliefs guide instructional practices in the classroom According to Borg (2001), beliefs serve as influential guides for teachers' thoughts and behaviors The invisible
28 cognitive aspect of teaching, known as teachers' knowledge, beliefs, and thoughts are characterized as beliefs in Borg’s (2003) review article.
As asserted by Chung (2022), teachers’ beliefs not only shape how they approach different tasks and difficulties but also influence their behavior in the classroom (Xu, 2012) This perspective provides an alternative lens through which to examine language teachers' perspectives Therefore, gaining a thorough understanding of teachers' beliefs becomes crucial as it empowers them to make sense of their experiences, fostering critical thinking and a willingness to embrace change when necessary (Chung, 2022).
Additionally, Williams and Burden (1997, p.57) argue that “‘teachers’ deep- rooted beliefs about how language is learned will pervade their classroom actions more than a particular methodology they are told to adopt or coursebook to follow”. Gilakjani and Sabourni (2017) emphasized that teachers' beliefs directly and positively influence their classroom principles, teaching strategies to address learners' challenges, the learning environment, learners' motivation, and language abilities Given the pivotal role these beliefs assume in determining teachers' instructional practices and students' academic achievements, examination on teachers’ various aspects like their characteristics, content, and expression is of great important to make sense of their classroom activities.
As observed by Turner et al (2009), teachers' beliefs seem to mirror enduring attitudes, common knowledge, and their educational background As a result, choosing particular strategies for instruction has been significantly affected by instructors' views about teaching and learning (Aksoy, 2015) Farrell (2008), however, pointed out that not all language teachers are aware of their beliefs or the degree to which their classroom practices align with those beliefs Therefore, it is critical to conduct research that shows how teachers' beliefs are reflected in their instructional approaches in order to address the inconsistencies between teachers’ beliefs and their classroom practices (Farrell, 2008) Bearing it in mind, the current study seeks to gain insights into the teachers’ teacher’s attitudes and beliefs in
29 association with their actual classroom practices to further the knowledge about the complex factors that influence teaching and can contribute to the enhancement of teaching quality and student learning outcomes.
Previous studies on cognitive reading comprehension sírateg1es
In the context of foreign countries, there are different study about the relationship between teachers’ view about and their instructional practices of reading comprehension strategies.
In Fitri and Ginting’s (2021) research, the result shows that teachers’ perceptions of teaching reading strategies are linked to their readiness to share knowledge based on students' needs and language proficiency beliefs When teachers have good knowledge of strategies, they can effectively teach students, resulting in improved reading tasks Compensation, test-taking, and metacognitive strategies are commonly taught EFL teachers in good public schools teach most strategies, while those in excellent schools focus on fewer due to students’ proficiency Private Islamic school teachers use fewer strategies, but students benefit from the instruction Mastering reading strategies is crucial, alongside language proficiency and class size considerations for an ideal reading class.
In another study conducted by Regassa and Teshome (2015), EFL teachers! beliefs and classroom practices in teaching reading are also reviewed The study involved 40 EFL teachers from eight high schools in two Oromia regions Results indicated that teachers had their belief system of teaching reading, but it was not consistently reflected in their classroom practices The findings emphasize the need for support to improve teachers' performance in and outside the classroom. Although beliefs are challenging to measure, this study used surveys, interviews, observations, and closed-ended questions.
Smith et al (2023) examine the beliefs and practices of 284 Australian elementary teachers regarding reading comprehension instruction The findings revealed a wide range of beliefs and practices, some of which contradicted contemporary empirical evidence The discrepancies between teachers' perceived
30 valuable instructional strategies and their actual effectiveness were found out. Certain practices used by teachers were shown to be ineffective or less effective in empirical research, while other potentially valuable practices were overlooked The results of the study highlight the need for a more consistent and evidence-based approach to teaching reading, starting with improved initial teacher education.
In the Vietnamese context, Nguyen (2007) investigated high school teachers’ beliefs about teaching reading strategies and their classroom instruction The study revealed that teachers! beliefs about teaching reading strategies were not always consistent, leading to challenges stemming from their limited knowledge about these strategies Consequently, their classroom practices did not consistently align with their beliefs Some practices were influenced by their cognition and theories, while others did not reflect their beliefs External factors such as the teaching context, materials, and curriculum, as well as internal factors like teachers' abilities, training, and perspectives, played a role in shaping their beliefs and practices during the teaching process.
Bui (2012) examined teachers' attitudes and practices in cognitive reading strategies instruction, focusing on their beliefs and how they corresponded to instructional practices Most teachers recognized the importance of reading strategies in enhancing students' understanding and sub-skills development, but some did not emphasize its impact on autonomous learning Activating prior knowledge, skimming, scanning, and summarizing were deemed crucial strategies to teach While there was a positive correlation between beliefs and practices, some strategies were instructed less frequently than their importance indicated. Contextual constraints, course book visuals, and exam requirements influenced instruction Teachers’ beliefs and traditional teaching beliefs also played a role in shaping instructional practices.
In essence, while previous studies have provided valuable insights into the relationship between teachers' beliefs about reading comprehension strategies and their classroom implementation, there is still a need for further research, particularly
31 focusing on cognitive reading strategies Most of the existing research examines teaching reading strategies in general, and few studies specifically delve into cognitive reading strategies Even in Bui's (2012) study, the focus was on a gifted high school with high English proficiency students, leaving a gap in understanding this relationship in non-gifted high schools This study aims to address these gaps by exploring how teachers perceive and utilize cognitive reading strategies in a non- gifted high school in Ninh Binh, providing a comprehensive understanding of the alignment between teachers' beliefs and practices in reading comprehension instruction across diverse educational settings and ultimately enhancing students' reading comprehension skills.
The literature review chapter plays a critical role in demonstrating the researcher's knowledge of the field, and identifying the research gap that the current study aims to address More specifically, this section first provides a comprehensive overview and analysis of existing literature, theories, and research related to reading, reading comprehension, reading models, and reading strategies A review of the reading strategies employed in this study, which is cognitive reading strategies, is also presented, concerning their definitions, significance, and classifications It then summarizes and elaborates previous studies that have specifically investigated the relationship between teachers' beliefs, their instructional practices, and student outcomes in the foreign and Vietnamese contexts All of these serve as a solid foundation for the subsequent chapters, laying the groundwork for the research investigation and contributing to the overall theoretical framework of the study.
This chapter provides further details of the methodology undertaken to collect data to analyse the research questions It explicates how the study is conducted with a detailed account of the specific setting of the study, the participants, research design, data collection instruments, and data analysis procedures.
3.1 The setting of the study
The study was conducted at a non-gifted high school, located in a mountain district of Ninh Binh province The school has a student population of over one thousand and two hundred, organized into 30 classes with an average of 45 students per class The English group comprises nine teachers, while the total teaching staff consists of seventy members The school provides well-equipped classrooms forEnglish instruction, equipped with amenities such as projectors, computers, and smart interactive whiteboards However, it is essential to note that the majority of the students come from rural or remote areas, which limits their exposure to innovative teaching methods and creates challenges in accessing a conducive learning environment Each class receives three English periods per week,following the textbooks and workbooks prescribed by The Ministry of Education and Training for mainstream level students.
Participants na
Due to the limited number of English teachers at a public high school in Ninh Binh province, all nine teachers from this school were invited to participate in the study The participants' age ranges from their thirties to their fifties, and they are all female educators Their teaching experience varies, with two out of nine teachers having less than 10 years of experience, five 5 teachers with 10 to 20 years, and two teachers with more than 20 years of experience All teachers hold a Bachelor of Arts degree in English teaching education from various universities in Vietnam, but none of them possess a Master of Arts degree Additionally, all participants have achieved an advanced level of English proficiency (C1) in the Vietnamese
Standardised Test of English Proficiency The researcher conducting the study was also a former English teacher at this high school before pursuing a Master of Arts course at the University of Language and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Ha Noi.
The researcher utilized mixed methods research, including qualitative and quantitative research methods, to investigate the pedagogical views of teachers on cognitive reading comprehension strategies and the alignment between their perspectives and classroom practices A carefully designed questionnaire was employed to assess the teachers' perspectives, gauging their beliefs regarding the importance of teaching cognitive reading strategies Besides, the participants self- reported their utilization of each reading strategy, using Likert scales ranging from one (hardly ever) to five (almost always) in the questionnaires To gain deeper insights into teachers' actual instructional practices of cognitive reading comprehension strategies and the factors influencing their instruction, two more data collection methods were employed: classroom observations and semi-structured interviews These complementary methods aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of teachers' beliefs and practices in teaching reading strategies, offering valuable insights into the pedagogical landscape in the research context.
The three methods employed in the study are: questionnaires, observations and interviews To obtain quantitative data, the researcher used questionnaires, while semi-structured open-ended interviews were conducted for qualitative data Through the questionnaire, the researcher were able to collect information regarding the teachers' perspectives on cognitive reading strategies and how they apply those strategies while teaching students in their lessons.
Questionnaires are commonly implemented in educational research in general and in ELT research in particular, according to McDonough and
McDonough (1997) In practice, there are a number of advantages to using questionnaires, including the two most distinct: (1) the obtained data are standard and accurate since the same questionnaire is provided to all individuals at the same time and (2) the questionnaire takes little time to prepare and administer A questionnaire, as stated by Godwin and Harry (2009:1), a is a method of gathering information from respondents through systematically designed questions This data collection tool can take the form of a written document, where respondents are required to provide their answers in writing or select from pre-existing options.
Creating a well-crafted questionnaire increases the chances of obtaining highly accurate data for the researcher It is crucial for the questionnaire to remain impartial and avoid influencing participants to give certain expected responses. Likert-type questionnaire items were employed in parts II, and IV due to their perceived effectiveness, particularly in assessing opinions and attitudes (Turner, 1993) In brief, these advantages make questionnaires a valuable tool for researchers to gain insights into participants' perspectives and opinions on various educational topics, including their views on cognitive reading comprehension strategies in the context of English language teaching.
Adapted from Bui’s (2012) questionnaire, which consists of four sections, the questionnaire (APPENDIX A) used in this study is comprised of three sections. The author decided to omit the demographic information of the participants to streamline the questionnaire and place a more direct focus on the aim of the study, i.e teachers' perspectives on cognitive reading strategies Moreover, demographic questions can sometimes be sensitive, and respondents may feel more comfortable participating in a survey that does not require them to disclose personal information. Another adjustment in Section II is the addition of the option “I have no idea” to question 2 This change enables a more honest response, especially when teachers are uncertain about the reasons for using cognitive reading strategies.
In the questionnaire of this study, Section I aims to explore teachers' attitudes towards cognitive reading strategies, i.e how familiar they are with cognitive
35 reading strategies and what the possible reasons are for applying these strategies in teaching practices The options provided in question 2 (Section I) aim to capture a range of potential reasons for teaching cognitive reading strategies in the classroom. These options have been thoughtfully designed to encompass both pedagogical principles and practical considerations, allowing respondents to indicate multiple motivations that align with their own teaching practices More specifically, Cohen (1986, p.133) asserts that cognitive reading strategies “can support or assist the reader in understanding the texts they read” (option 1) and they enable learners “to self-learn (self-instruction) and learn independently” (option 7), (Suyitno, 2017) As indicated in option 2 and 3 as the reasons for their application, cognitive reading strategies empower the student to interact with language content using indirect methods, such as analyzing, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, and information rearrangement These sub-skills work to enhance our understanding of things stronger in our minds Additionally, learners engage in practical application within real-life contexts and formal practice of language structures and phonetics, as highlighted by Oxford (2003) According to Anderson (1991), when strategies were taught in various contexts, students ended up using similar strategies in both a regular reading test and an academic test, which helps them save time and gain high ( option 5 & 6).
In accordance with the purpose of section I, Section II is to go deep into the point that how important the cognitive reading comprehension strategies really is in the language classroom according to teachers’ opinions The last section (Section III) strive to elicit actual practices of teaching cognitive reading strategies in the classroom through teachers' self-reports.
It is worth noting that the last two sections (Section II and II) each contain
15 identical items focusing on essential aspects of cognitive strategies in reading comprehension These items are categorized based on three reading stages More specifically, pre-reading strategies are addressed in items one through four, while items from five to eleven concern while-reading strategies and the remaining items
36 are associated with post-reading strategies Moreover, these two sections adopt the Likert Scale from one to five In section II, number one denotes the least important or least agreement on a given statement, whereas number five implies the most significant or highest agreement on the item In section III, on the other hand, the frequency of using cognitive strategies in reading lessons ranges from “hardly ever” (1) to almost “always” (5) Additionally, two open-ended questions are added to Section II and III to make sure that the informants openly share their ideas without being confined to predetermined choices, thereupon minimizing the risk of neglecting any potential essential cognitive reading strategies used by teachers.
To ensure the clarity, comprehensibility, and neutrality of the questionnaire items, the piloting was conducted with nine teachers from another high school in Ninh Binh province Their valuable feedback was carefully considered in the process of refining the questionnaire This involved rephrasing certain items, introducing new ones, clarifying ambiguous wording, and eliminating irrelevant items that did not align with the study's objectives Additionally, grammatical errors were corrected, and instructions were modified based on their suggestions The piloting proved to be highly beneficial in this regard.
The questionnaire received approval from the principal of the school before being distributed to the nine teachers in person In the group meeting of English teachers at the school, they were well-informed of the objectives and data collection procedures of the study They were asked to complete the questionnaires and return them within approximately a week after filling them out.
Classroom observations are believed to benefit both sides teachers and observers Teachers can use classroom observations as a tool to reflect on their own teaching approaches, while observers can learn other, possibly more effective methods, from their colleagues Observing another teacher's classroom and having
37 their class observed can serve educational goals, 1.e allowing teachers to explain instructional techniques, assessing inequalities for a specific student or group of students, and improving their classroom instruction Observers are peers who come to learn from the specific classroom happenings, rather than evaluators or invaders who come to judge how effectively a teacher delivers his or her lesson According to Reed and Bergemann (2001), observing the teachers in action is "the bridge between the worlds of theory and practice", which may reveal a lot about how and why certain ideas and approaches match up or don't match up in a certain setting That is to say, there is no single approach that works in all situations, and methods and theories are developed and evaluated in the classroom.
The teachers’ perspectives on using cognitive strategies <5- 42 1 Questionnaire findings 20.0.0
Teachers’ general attitudes towards teaching cognitive reading strategies.
The first question was about the teachers’ self-evaluated level of familiarity with the concept of cognitive reading strategies The results of this question are displayed as follow.
Figure 4.1 Teachers’ familiarity with the concept of cognitive reading strategies.
The outcomes of the initial question indicate that the majority of teachers did not assess themselves as having a 'very' high familiarity with the concept of cognitive reading strategies Among the ten participants, only one selected the 'very' option Six participants, signifying the majority, expressed that they possess a 'somewhat' level of familiarity with reading strategies Additionally, two respondents chose the 'sliphtly' option Notably, none of the teachers chose the 'not at all' option for this question These findings suggest that all teachers have at least
42 been exposed to the concept of cognitive reading strategies and have some degree of understanding regarding them.
The second question sought to uncover the reasons provided given by teachers for incorporating cognitive reading strategies in their teaching practices. Participants were presented with a variety of reasons for teaching these strategies, and they were allowed to select as many applicable strategies as possible from the options provided Additionally, an extra option was given, enabling them to express any personal reasons that were not covered in the provided choices.
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Figure 4.2 Teachers’ reasons for teaching cognitive reading comprehension strategies.
As evident from the chart, all participants reached a consensus that the reasons behind teaching cognitive reading strategies lies in their ability to better students' understanding of texts and their preparation for tests Nearly all participating teachers (seven out of the total) conveyed that they incorporated cognitive reading strategies into their instruction to aid students in developing sub- skills for developing overall reading skills Four teachers explicitly indicated that their objective in teaching cognitive reading strategies is to raise students’
43 awareness of the language they are acquiring Out of the nine participants, three mentioned that teaching these strategies serves the purpose of fostering autonomy in students’ reading abilities Similarly, only two respondents expressed concern regarding enhancing students’ enjoyment of texts These responses seem to indicate that teachers may not prioritize training students to effectively engage with various types of reading materials they might encounter in the future, as well as their enjoyment of the reading experience Besides, all participants only cited the reasons provided and did not offer additional explanations.
Teachers’ beliefs about the importance of instructing cognitive reading strategies in the language classroom. e Pre-reading strategies
Table 4.1 Teachers’ beliefs about the importance of teaching pre- reading strategies in cognitive reading comprehension.
The results indicated that the means for three out of the four items fell within the medium range (means 2.5 - 3.4), suggesting a moderate level of recognition for these strategies in their instructional practices Among them, the strategy of activating already-known knowledge about the topic was reported a relatively high mean of 4.3, indicating this strategy was regarded as highly important by the teachers The narrow standard deviation (0.500) revealed a strong consensus among participants on its significance In contrast, the mean score of 2.9 for identifying the text structure notably indicated that teachers assigned a relatively lower level of
44 importance to this strategy Moreover, previewing the text and predicting received a moderate importance rating with a mean score of 3.4 and 3.3 respectively The standard deviations of 0.726 and 0.500 pointed to relatively consistent responses among teachers for these items.
In summary, the table highlighted both areas of consensus and divergence among teachers' beliefs regarding the importance of four pre-reading strategies. While there was an acknowledgement of the significance of activating prior knowledge, previewing, and predicting strategies, comparatively less attention was given to the significance of identifying text structures. e While-reading strategies
Table 4.2 Teachers’ beliefs about the importance of teaching while- reading strategies in cognitive reading comprehension.
5 Skimming to get the overall meaning of the text 4.8 441
6 Scanning to find specific information 4.7 500
7 Using context to guess meaning of unknown words 3.3 500
8 Taking notes or marking text 4.2 441
11 Questioning while reading the text 43 500
In terms of while-reading strategies, the mean scores revealed that the strategies of skimming (4.8) and scanning (4.7) emerged as shared priorities among teachers, both receiving high levels of importance Additionally, taking notes or marking text (Mean 4.2) and questioning while reading (Mean 4.3) were also considered significant by teachers, given their relatively high mean scores On the other hand, the strategy of using context to guess the meaning of unknown words
(Mean 3.3) and making inferences (Mean 3.3) exhibited moderate importance ratings Notably, mapping the text strategy stood out with a significantly lower mean score (2.8) than the others while-reading strategies, indicating a reduced emphasis on this strategy according to teachers' beliefs Examining the standard deviations, it is evident that all values were below 0.500, indicating a relatively narrow dispersion around the mean This suggests a low level of variability among teachers’ beliefs concerning the importance of while-reading strategies in cognitive reading comprehension Moreover, it is worth emphasizing that while-reading strategies were evaluated as more important than pre-reading strategies, as evidenced by their overall mean scores of 4.0 and 3.5, respectively. e Post-reading strategies
Table 4.3 Teachers’ beliefs about the importance of teaching post- reading strategies in cognitive reading comprehension.
15 Extending comprehension in critical and creative ways
The findings unveiled that the four post-reading strategies received low mean scores, all falling below 2.5 This indicated that teachers tend to assign relatively less importance to these strategies Among these strategies, summarizing stood out as the most important to be taught to students, with a mean score of 2.4 Drawing conclusions followed closely with a mean score of 2.3, while engaging in follow-up activities received a mean score of 2.0 Notably, evaluating strategies received the least appreciation among participants, with a mean score of 1.6 Moreover, the low
46 standard deviations indicated consistent responses among teachers for these items.
Surprisingly, the instruction of post-reading strategies, as a whole, was perceived as the least important (mean 2.1) when compared to the perceived importance of while- reading strategies (mean 4.0) and pre-reading strategies (mean 3.5).
As specified in the “data collection instruments” section, participants were not obligated to partake in the interview Out of the nine participants, three volunteered to take part in the interview In this section, the insights gathered through semi-structured interviews with a group of three participants are unveiled The interviews were designed to delve deeper into participants’ viewpoints on cognitive reading strategies and their instructional practices This exploration encompasses a range of themes, including participants' distinct definitions of cognitive reading strategies, their perceptions of the strategies' effectiveness in teaching reading, their self-reported instructional practices, and the rationale underlying their self-reported implementation of these strategies Through these interviews, a multifaceted understanding of participants' perspectives emerges, shedding light on their conceptualizations of cognitive reading strategies and their practical integration within the teaching context.
Teachers’ conceptualization of cognitive reading strategies
In the first question, teachers were asked about their understanding of the concept of cognitive reading strategies The interviewed teachers share a fundamentally similar concept regarding cognitive reading strategies, which closely resembles the definition of cognitive reading strategies in the literature review, i.e. specific, conscious techniques employed for effective comprehension reading. Teacher 1 defined cognitive reading strategies as “the strategies that help students understand the meaning of written content more easily’ Teacher 2 stated that
“ strategies involve various methods like analyzing, predicting, and connecting to help students make sense of written material effectively” In teacher 3’s words,
“techniques that guide students to think, analyze, and infer while reading,
47 enhancing comprehension.” In general, teachers had a common understanding of cognitive strategies for reading comprehension, putting the emphasis on cognitive reading strategies as tools that facilitate comprehension and understanding of written content While their phrasing varies, all three teachers highlight the strategies’ role in aiding students’ grasp of information.
Teachers’ perception of the effectiveness of cognitive reading comprehension strategies
Regarding the effectiveness of cognitive reading comprehension strategies in teaching reading (question 2), all participants unanimously agree on the positive impact of these strategies on enhancing students’ reading abilities. e Enhanced Comprehension & Time-saving
Teachers’ implementation of cognitive reading strategies in their teaching
Teachers’ self-report about the frequency of instructing cognitive reading strategies in the language classroom.
With the aim of exploring the correlation between teachers’ evaluation of the importance of fifteen reading strategies and their self-reported frequency of integrating these strategies into their instructional approaches, the researcher constructed Table 4.4 as depicted below The strategies were arranged in the identical sequence as presented in the questionnaire Mean scores and standard deviations of participants' responses for the entries were calculated across two distinct scales, namely importance and frequency of use.
Table 4.4 Teachers’ beliefs about the importance and their self-reported frequency of employing cognitive reading strategies.
5 Skimming to get the overall meaning of the text
6 Scanning to find specific information
7 Using context to guess meaning of unknown words
8 Taking notes or marking text
11 Questioning while reading the text
15 Extending comprehension in critical and creative ways in follow-up activities
As indicated in Table 3.4, merely five out of the fifteen cognitive reading strategies garnered an average score surpassing 4 on the importance scale, which means that only one-third of the strategies (33%) were perceived as vital for instructing students Conversely, three strategies were reported by respondents to be
53 implemented in teaching practices with an average frequency score higher than 4, 1.e the strategies that are often or almost always being used in teaching practices In essence, this implies that some strategies were not frequently taught in the classroom despite being acknowledged as beneficial for enhancing students' reading comprehension On the whole, the findings proposed that the assessed value of each strategy by the participants appeared to outweigh their actual frequency of implementation in the classroom This signifies that there are slight inconsistencies between what teachers think about teaching reading strategies and what they actually report doing in their teaching practices.
The following table displayed a comparison between the three most frequently taught strategies and teachers' ranking of their importance It can be found that the three strategies frequently taught (Mean > 4) were also ranked as more important when achieving higher positions (1-3).
Table 4.5 Most-instructed strategies in comparison with importance rankings.
Importance) Rankof Frequency Items importance _ of use
Skimming to get the overall meaning of
Scanning to find specific information 4.7 2 4.8
Taking notes or marking text 4.2 3 4.1
This alignment between the perceived importance and the reported frequency of instruction for reading strategies was further substantiated by the paired samples T-test conducted for each strategy ( See the table below)
Paired Samples Correlations Table 4.6 Correlations between self-reported instruction of reading strategies and actual practice were examined using paired samples analysis.
Self-assessed importance & Self-reported practice Correlation | Sỉz.
Pair 1 | Activating prior knowledge about the topic -.500 170
Par4_ | Identifying the text structure 853 003*
Pair5 | Skimming to get the overall meaning of the text 756 018*
Pair6_ | Scanning to find specific information /26 018*
Pair 7 | Using context to guess meaning 500 170
Pair8 | Taking notes or marking text -.189 626
Pair II | Questioning while reading the text 378 316
Pair 15_ | Extending comprehension in follow-up activities -.500 170
As can be seen from the table, a positive correlation existed between the two sets of results for the majority of strategies (12 out of 15), with seven strategies showing a statistically significant positive correlation (p