This study seeks to explore the errors associated with verb-noun collocations in academic writing and the strategies employed by teachers to help students avoid these errors.. Keywords:
Background to the study
There have been quite a number of approaches to teaching languages, each of which has its own focus Among these, the Lexical Approach (LA) is one that emphasizes teaching prefabricated chunks rather than individual words (Bircan,
2010) This prominent approach was founded on the premise that learning and using chunks for lexical units can significantly enhance communicative competence of learners in general, a viewpoint that has been widely acknowledged by scholars in this field For example, Pawley and Syder (1983) stated that the majority of our speech consists of chunks Harmer (2001) also supported this notion by remarking that fluency in oral speech demands a natural process of language that is identifiable by the numerous frequent vocabulary phrases used Those claims were confirmed by Jiang and Nekrasova (2007), revealing that formulaic sequences are dealt faster and more precisely than non-formulaic sequences
Collocation, a cornerstone concept in language acquisition (LA), refers to the frequent pairing of words These pairings, known as formulaic sequences, are vital for both language learning and communication Collocation provides insight into word combinations within a language, facilitating fluency and comprehension.
Although collocation is crucial, it might be difficult for learners owing to a variety of problems To begin, while native speakers effortlessly construct collocations, most learners cannot acquire them without a great deal of effort (Granger, 1998) In reality, because the exposure to L2 of ESL/EFL learners is relatively restricted; therefore, they frequently turn to memorizing, which appears to be an inefficient approach for acquiring a wide range of vocabulary (Li, 2004) According to Liu (2010), the memorization of collocations is more difficult because of the arbitrary combination rules For example, why knowledge must be followed by acquire as in acquire knowledge but not by learn, which has a similar meaning Learners who find these principles confusing may struggle to recall and produce collocations appropriately (Bonk, 1996)
L1 influence is another factor that leads to the acquisition and production of collocations being more challenging (Phoocharoensil, 2013) Selinker (1971), Dulay (1982), and Nguyen (2017), claimed that students often turn to their mother tongue in an effort to communicate their intended ideas However, the technique does not guarantee the accuracy because even when two words in one language are collocations, there is a chance that their equivalents in another language do not necessarily have the same relationship (Phoocharoensil, 2013) Therefore, word- for-word translation along with L1 may violate the use of collocations in L2, making learners appear odd and have detrimental impact on the fluency of them
Research indicates that learners experience difficulties in English production (Bahns and Eldal, 1993; Farghal and Obiedat, 1995) Vietnamese students particularly struggle with collocation errors in written assignments (Dang, 2014) Additionally, producing collocations in written form is more challenging as it demands accuracy and refined language use (Tran, 2012) Notably, students with higher English proficiency tend to make more collocation errors due to their use of a broader vocabulary (Nesselhauf, 2003).
Proficiency in verb-noun collocations is crucial for effective academic writing, as errors can hinder students' proficiency and comprehension Inaccurate collocations can obscure the intended meaning, making it difficult for readers to follow the logical flow of ideas and undermining the credibility of the writing Furthermore, these errors may reflect gaps in language proficiency and cultural awareness, indicating broader issues in students' overall communicative competence and academic performance.
Statement of the problem
Verb-noun collocations have the highest frequency of occurrence and have been demonstrated to be the most problematic even with English majors in many previous studies (Hong et al ,2011; Bahardoust M ,2012; Kurosaki, 2012; Dukali, 2016) In addition to that, this collocational pattern has been proven to be the most troublesome to Vietnamese learners as well (Nguyen, 2006; Dang, 2014, Cao & Alice, 2018); however, it is not clear what specific types of verb-noun collocational errors English majors, specifically English majors at Nha Trang university often commit Existing literature also reveals that collocational errors can be minimized by increasing students' understanding of collocations using a variety of instructional strategies, such as identifying and correcting collocational errors or teaching selective collocations (Bahns and Eldaw, 1993; Li, 2005; Darvishi, 2011; and Dang, 2014) Nevertheless, it is not known what strategies teachers, particularly, teachers at Nha Trang university use to help English major students to avoid collocational errors Therefore, further investigation of specific types of verb-noun collocational errors as well as teacher teaching strategies need to be conducted.
Aims of the study
The above research gap compelled the researcher to conduct the study with the aims of:
(1) identifying types of verb-noun collocational errors in students' writing (2) exploring strategies teachers use to help students avoid collocational errors.
Research questions
The study is guided by the following questions
1 What are the common types of verb-noun collocational errors made by English major sophomores at Nha Trang university in their academic writing?
2 What teaching strategies do teachers use to help students avoid verb- noun collocational errors?
Significance of the study
The current study has addressed the need for more research into ver-noun collocational errors in the context of English language teaching in Vietnam Its significance can be demonstrated as follows
From a theoretical perspective, this study provides a careful review of the relevant literature on collocation and errors in the use of collocations Moreover, the study determines the most common type of verb-noun collocational errors, which are categorized into the three verb-noun collocational types, illustrating the relative distribution of errors among each type This could be considered an advantage for researchers who are interested in the phenomenon of verb-noun collocational errors These findings could serve as a stepping stone for those who want to further explore which types of verb-noun collocational errors may be more challenging for learners Furthermore, the teaching strategies of collocation in academic writing classes at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at NTU were investigated, revealing teaching practices regarding collocations in this institution to a certain extent
From a practical perspective, the errors identified in this research could benefit both students and teachers With a thorough examination of error types and teaching strategies, the study was supposed to give students and teachers an opportunity to reflect on their own errors and teaching practices From that, students could avoid such errors, and teachers are likely to improve their teaching to a certain extent Furthermore, the study pproposed some implications for teachers and in order to increase students' collocational knowledge and assist them in overcoming challenges in writing collocations
The study's findings enhance our understanding of verb-noun collocation errors While the study's scope limits its generalizability, its insights are valuable for improving collocation teaching and learning.
Languages at NTU and to provide theoretical and practical background for future studies.
Scope of the study
The current study focuses on verb-noun collocational errors in academic writing of sophomores majoring in English at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Nha Trang University Within this focus, the study's parameters need clarification Firstly, the study covered 96 English major sophomores who were taking the Academic Writing course, as well as the three teachers in charge of classes in which student participants took part Specifically, all of the student participants were in the second semester of their second year at NTU, which means that they were expected to belong to the group of upper-intermediate to advanced English learners Secondly, the study took into consideration only the written productive performance of the participants Thirdly, the mode of error elicitation opted for in this current research was a 250-350-word academic writing midterm exam test The reasons for these choices are clearly explained in Chapter 3.
Overall structure of the study
There are five main chapters in this study: Introduction, Literature Review,
Methodology, Findings and Discussion, and Conclusion and Recommendations
The first chapter, Introduction, begins with the background information then the statement of the problem is provided This chapter also presents the aims, significance, and scope of the study
The second chapter, Literature Review, is broken into two primary sections The first provides a thorough examination of concepts related to collocations and errors in the use of collocations, laying the theoretical background for the study Then a review of key aspects regarding teaching collocations are presented Finally, the conceptual framework which serves as a guideline is established and clearly illustrated
The third chapter, Methodology, describes clearly how the research was carried out The descriptions of the research design, instruments, procedures for data collection and analysis are provided in detail
The Findings and Discussion chapter follows, it includes the results and discussion of the analyzed data of the research It not only addresses the research questions indicated above, but it also acts as the foundation for the implications provided in the next chapter
The last chapter, Conclusion and Recommendations, briefly summarizes the current research, then provides pedagogical implications for teachers and students in teaching and learning collocations, and last but not least suggestions for further research are offered.
Theoretical Issues on Collocations
Collocation, as defined by Firth in 1957, refers to the common co-occurrence of words in texts The frequency-based approach, pioneered by Firth, has influenced several definitions of collocation Jones and Sinclair (1974) defined it as the joint presence of two words, while Cruse (1986) viewed it as lexical sequences that frequently appear together Similarly, Sinclair (1991) described collocation as the close proximity of multiple words within a text Thus, frequency of occurrence serves as a key criterion in most definitions based on the frequency-based approach.
Nonetheless, there were several scholars proving the notion that not every group of words that appear together often is a collocation For instance, Kjellmer (1982) examined the Brown Corpus and discovered that some nearby two-word sequences, such as "of the," "although he," and "but too," appeared frequently in the Corpus (cited in Kurosaki, 2012) Despite the fact that these sequences were often found to co-occur in the corpus, the majority of native speakers do not regard the frequency of occurrence should not be seen as the only benchmark to define collocation
Another prominent approach regarding collocation is phraseology Researchers in this approach have endeavored to make a dinstinction between collocations and other kinds of formulaic sequences Some scholars tried to differentiate collocations from free combinations Howarth (1998), distinguished collocations from free combinations and idioms using two criteria (1) the extent of replacement restrictions and (2) the meaning (literal or metaphorical) of words combined This idea had its foundation from Cowie (1981), one of the phraseological approach's founders Cowie suggested two elements to distinguish collocation from free combinations and idioms - combinability and transparency Regarding combinability, it refers to the level of restriction The other refers to the meaning of the words, whether they express literal or metaphorical meaning
The aforementioned approaches have offered crucial standards for defining collocation Nevertheless, each had their own advantages and disadvantages While the frequency-based approach offers an idea of the frequency of occurrence, it falls short of offering a thorough way to differentiate collocations from meaningless strings of words that regularly co-occur and more importantly, other formulaic sequences The definitions based on phraseological approach advances a solution to the mentioned problem with the two concepts of combinability and transparency However, these definitions have been considered insufficient if it lack the criteria established by the other one
Combining the two approaches, Hodne (2009) defines collocations collocations as “arbitrarily restricted lexeme combinations that are syntactically fixed to a certain degree” (p.8) This definition also provides the set of important criteria to identify collocations, which involves Mutual Information (MI score) and raw frequency (FREQ) – the two crucial values widely accepted by many collocation researchers to be the set of determining collocations (Nesselhauf, 2005; Kurosaki, 2012; and Wood, 2019) In the definition proposed by Hodne (2009), if a combination presents Mutual Information (MI score) higher than 3.0 and have a raw frequency (FREQ) of more than three in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA), it is considered a collocation The FREQ reveals the number of occurrences in corpus It could be said that this figure indicates how frequently native speakers employ that combination To put it differently, combinations with higher FREQ are used more frequently The MI score shows how strongly a node word is linked to the words around A high MI score could indicate a strong association between words Typically, an MI score of 3 or higher is considered a strong and objective indication of collocation (Durrant, 2008; Hunston, 2002; Wiechmann, 2008; and Wood, 2019) Therefore, the present study adopted the MI threshold of 3 as one of the criteria
Nesselhauf (2005) and Hong et al (2011) also applied the frequency of occurrence in a corpus as a standard threshold to determine whether a combination is a collocation in their research It is worth noticing that the two studies had set the raw frequency of at least five in the the British National Corpus (BNC) as one of the criteria for a combination to be deemed a collocation, which is different from the one set by Hodne (2009) mentioned above However, it is clear that COCA is
10 times larger than the BNC, with over a billion words, so the threshold of three for FREQ set by Hodne (2009) might not be sufficiently representative Therefore, the raw frequency of at least five tokens put forward by Nesselhauf (2005) and Hong et al (2011) will be used in this study
Based on the definition of Hodne (2009) and the aforementioned reviews, the operational definition for this study is formed as follows: Collocations are
“arbitrarily restricted lexeme combinations that are syntactically fixed to a certain degree” (p.8), present Mutual Information (MI) score of 3.0 or higher, and have a raw frequency (FREQ) of at least five tokens in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) The operational definition mentioned above provides the major set of criteria to identify a collocation Four possibilities are taken into account as follows:
(1) If a combination has FREQ ≥ 5 and MI ≥ 3, it is regarded as a collocation since the combination is often employed and has a strong word placement
(2) If none of the two criteria (FREQ < 5; MI < 3) is met, the combination is deemed as an error since it is not frequently used and not sufficiently strong to be be a collocation
(3) If the FREQ alone satisfies the standard condition (FREQ > 5; MI < 3), then the combination is considered free since native speakers often employ it but it is insufficiently strong to qualify as a collocation
(4) This will be difficult if the MI is the only one that satisfies the requirements (FREQ < 5; MI > 3) Clear (1995) asserts that in cases where the frequency of occurrence is low, the MI score is high yet untrustworthy As a result, combinations in which the MI alone satisfies the criteria will be regarded as errors in this study
Collocation categorization varies depending on viewpoints Cowie and Mackin (1975) categorized collocations based on idiomaticity, ranging from fixed idioms to open collocations Alternatively, Benson et al (1986) and Lewis (2000) classified collocations as grammatical or lexical.
This study solely examines lexical collocations since they pose more challenges for learners by the way they call for a more intentional and precise use of language This type of collocation is categorized into distinct subtypes Farrokh (2012), based on Benson et al (1986), suggested seven types of lexical collocation, which are shown in Table 2.1 below
Table 2 1: Types of lexical collocations (Farrokh, 2012, p 59)
1 verb (creation/activation) + noun compose music, make an impression
2 verb (eradication/nullification) + noun revoke a license, demolish a house
3 adjective + noun strong tea, a rough estimate
4 noun + verb bees buzz, bombs explode
5 noun1 (+of) + noun2 pack of dog, a herd of buffalo
6 adjective + adverb/ adverb + adjective sound asleep, hopelessly addictive
7 verb + adverb anchor firmly, argue heatedly
However, according to Benson et al (1986), the first and second types are comparable in terms of components Therefore, they will be combined into one resulted in verb + noun type and is regarded as the focus of this study
"Node," "Collocate," and "Span," are the key components of a collocation (Ibrahim, 2003), and are crucial to understanding since the current study entails indentifying collocations in written texts and checking them by a corpus (COCA)
The Significance of Collocations in EFL
Many linguists and scholars believe that understanding a word entails more than just knowing its pronunciation, meaning, and word family Richards (1985) claimed that understanding a word includes knowing its syntactic behavior and network of connections He further argued that once these ties, referred to as grammatical and lexical collocations, are created, learning will be enhanced Nation (1990) defines knowing a word as knowing its form, position, function, and meaning in both receptive and productive skills These are intended to emphasize the importance of knowing and being able to use word collocations in language acquisition
Collocations, ubiquitous language phenomena present in all languages, play a crucial role in language Due to their prevalent use in spoken and written English, collocations have gained significant importance in language processing By understanding the collocational range of words, learners develop a comprehensive grasp of vocabulary and its appropriate usage Thus, collocations should be an essential aspect of vocabulary instruction, enabling learners to employ words effectively with their proper collocations.
Furthermore, collocation is the most effective way to assist students to comprehend and make the most use of vocabulary (Dang, 2014) There are several synonyms that students may find difficult to differentiate Take the words injury and wound as an example It is challenging for students to distinguish the meanings of two terms However, the distinction could be easily seen in their collocations: stab wounds rather than stab injuries, or internal injuries rather than internal wounds McIntosh et al (2009) stated that the precise meaning of any context could be mainly determined by collocations This appears to be beneficial in the differentiation of diverse meanings of polysemous words (Duan & Qin, 2012) Collocations can also help learners retain words better since memory aids can be provided via collocational associations (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2008) Vocabulary is perceived to be best learned in context, and one word is better and easier to recall if it is related to context than those that are not
Collocations play a crucial role in enhancing learners' communicative competence They facilitate both fluency and appropriateness in language use (Nation, 2001) Without a solid grasp of collocations, learners resort to circumlocution, using longer, more grammaticalized expressions to convey ideas that native speakers express succinctly through precise lexical phrases (Hill, 2000; McIntosh et al., 2009) Fillmore (1979) and Nesselhauf (2005) emphasize the importance of fixed phrases in developing fluency Collocations, as prefabricated units, are essential for students to achieve proficiency in language learning.
Collocational Errors in Writing
There have been many researchers investigated EFL learners' difficulty in producing collocations in writing
Firstly, Liu (1999) examined collocational errors in students' writings, 127 copies of final exam papers, and 94 copies of their compositions 63 collocational errors were found in students' compositions and examination papers Among these errors, it was found that the verb + noun pattern and verb + preposition + noun pattern were noticeable errors, and there were five sources of learners' errors According to Liu (1999), negative transfer was the most noticeable source of collocational errors among these five sources of errors
In another study, Chen (2002) conducted a study to investigate collocational errors in the writing of high school students as participants The unacceptable grammatical/lexical collocational errors were classified according to the types of errors they contained, using a modified classification originally established by Benson, et al (1986) Findings revealed a total of 272 collocational errors, consisting of 147 grammatical collocational errors and 125 lexical collocational errors
A study by Nesselhauf (2003) examined the use of verb-noun collocations by advanced German learners of English through written production Analysis revealed verb-noun collocation errors, and the impact of language restrictions and native language on collocation production was also explored Findings showed significant influence of native language on collocation use The author emphasized teaching implications, including focusing on the functions of collocation teaching, raising learners' awareness of collocations, selecting appropriate collocations for instruction, and providing effective teaching strategies.
Li (2005) investigated collocational errors in 38 EFL Taiwanese learners The BBI Dictionary of English Word Combinations, the British National Corpus (BNC), and the Chinese e-learning project TANGO were used to identify inappropriate grammatical and lexical errors in the participants' in-class practice and written assignments Participants' perceptions of the difficulty of collocations were also examined According to the findings of the study, participants perceptions of collocational difficulty differed from the sorts of collocational errors they made in their assignments and in-class practice Finally, based on second language learning theories, the study provided numerous explanations for why participants committed such errors
The aforementioned research came to a possible conclusion that collocational errors frequently appear in the written production of learners and should be further investigated It has been demonstrated that learners of all levels, from non-English majors to majors, from low to high level produced collocational errors in their written work, indicating a lack of required collocational understanding.
Collocational Errors in Academic writing
Academic writing is essential in higher education, allowing scholars to convey ideas, conduct research, and advance their fields It comprises various genres, such as essays and dissertations, each adhering to specific conventions Distinctive features of academic writing include a formal tone, objective presentation of facts, and alignment with disciplinary standards, as defined by Swales and Feak (2012).
Effective academic writing requires proficiency in various skills, such as critical thinking, research, and synthesis of ideas Additionally, clarity, coherence, and precision are paramount in conveying complex concepts and arguments Instructional approaches to academic writing often include explicit teaching of writing conventions, integration of writing tasks into disciplinary content, and feedback mechanisms for improvement (Flower & Hayes, 1981; Hyland, 2003)
In summary, academic writing plays a fundamental role in scholarly communication and knowledge dissemination By understanding its characteristics, conventions, and instructional approaches, students can develop the skills necessary to engage effectively in academic discourse and contribute meaningfully to their fields of study
2.4.2 Collocational Errors in Academic writing
Collocational errors, particularly in academic writing, can significantly impact the clarity, coherence, and persuasiveness of written texts Collocations, defined as fixed or semi-fixed combinations of words that frequently occur together, play a crucial role in conveying precise meaning and maintaining appropriate register in academic discourse (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992) However, learners often struggle with selecting and using appropriate collocations, leading to errors that can hinder effective communication
Research has identified various types of collocational errors in academic writing, including mismatches between verbs and nouns, incorrect prepositional usage, and inappropriate word choices (Hill, 2000) These errors may stem from learners' limited exposure to authentic language use, overreliance on translation, or lack of explicit instruction in collocational patterns (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2009) Additionally, cultural and linguistic factors may contribute to learners' difficulties in mastering collocations, particularly in contexts where the target language differs significantly from their native language (Hill, 2000)
Effective instructional strategies for addressing collocational errors in academic writing include explicit instruction in collocations, integration of collocation-focused activities into language instruction, and providing feedback on collocational usage (Milton & Alexiou, 2009) Corpus-based approaches, which involve analyzing authentic language data to identify common collocational patterns, have also shown promise in enhancing learners' collocational competence (Wray, 2002)
In conclusion, collocational errors pose significant challenges for learners of academic writing, impacting the clarity and effectiveness of written communication By understanding the nature of collocational errors and implementing targeted instructional strategies, educators can support learners in developing greater proficiency in selecting and using appropriate collocations in academic discourse.
The Teaching of Collocations
For years, there has been an ongoing debate regarding how to teach collocations Scholars that embrace LA such as Conzett (2000), Hill (2000), Lewis (2000), Lewis (2000b), and Woolard (2000) believe that learners should be exposed to the concept of collocation If teachers simply tell students that native speakers do not usually say so when students make a mistake like expensive price instead of high price There would be a confusion among students (Conzett, 2000) Apart from the concept of collocations, collocations should be taught explicitly from the very first lesson (Hill, 2000)
Collocations can be taught by the use of various techniques and approaches They should be treated as a linguistic feature such as grammar or pronunciation (Hill, 2000) As a result, a few studies on various collocation teaching approaches have been conducted by Chang and Myers (2009), Pirmoradian and Tabatabaei (2012), Chang (2013), and Jafarpour, Hashemian, and Alipour (2013)
The multiple-strategy-based approach is referred to as the use of various pedagogical activities in teaching Chang and Myers (2009) conducted an experimental study to examine the effects of employing this approach in teaching vocabulary and collocation in the classroom Concept wheels, word maps, personal vocabulary notebooks, pantomiming, semantic mapping, and verbal-visual word association are used in this research The outcomes of the two treatment groups led to the conclusion that this approach was beneficial for vocabulary and collocation acquisition However, the study demonstrates that this has no impact on learners' ability to enhance their writing skills (although it does on the other three skills) This means that, because it gives minimal attention to writing, the approach is not among the best ones for teaching collocations in writing skills In fact, a greater understanding of collocations is still insufficient; how collocations are employed to enhance writing abilities is more important
Data-driven learning is an alternative approach, as illustrated by Pirmoradian and Tabatabaei's (2012) study They employed the Collins Collocation Dictionary as a tool for teaching collocations This approach empowers students to learn independently based on a provided database The experimental group, provided with access to the dictionary on computers, outperformed the control group, who relied on text for collocation identification This demonstrates the effectiveness of data-driven learning, particularly for inductive learning of collocations.
Blended instruction is another approach to collocation teaching and learning Chang (2013), in her experimental research, examined the use of blended instruction in business English collocation teaching The experimental group received blended instruction, whereas the control group received traditional collocation instruction (examples of collocations followed by exercises) A blended learning paradigm was developed using an electronic collocation platform to provide collocation sources and materials in addition to traditional classroom instruction Both instructions could facilitate the production of collocations, as later demonstrated However, after evaluating how well the participants performed using business English collocations, the researcher found that blended training outperformed the conventional method for improving learners' performance The main advantage of the blended learning approach is that it enables students to study untaught business collocations thanks to the electronic platform, which the traditional approach was unable to do
Another dominant approach for teaching collocations is the corpus-based approach Jafarpour, Hashemian, and Alipour (2013) examined the impact of the corpus-based approach as opposed to the conventional one on learning and employing collocations of close synonyms With the help of concordancers from BNC, participants in the experimental group learned and produced collocations of nearly identical words with greater comprehension and production In the corpus- based approach, word combinations are highlighted in context, and participants are instructed to pay close attention to these word combinations The corpus-based approach additionally offers authentic language, assisting students in independently learning word definitions, usages, patterns, and collocations This method is effective and significant in the age of computer-assisted language learning
These studies on collocation learning employ diverse approaches While Chang and Myers (2009) utilized a multifaceted technique, the remaining three studies relied on language corpora ranging from traditional dictionaries to modern computer-assisted concordances This signifies the increasing significance of language corpora in collocation education Integrating concordancers into instruction is crucial for enhancing students' grasp and production of collocations Combining concordances with dictionaries can optimize learning outcomes (Woolard, 2000).
Collocations can be taught in EFL classes using the approaches laid out in the discussion above However, it is also important to investigate practical strategies for teaching collocations in the classroom
The very first thing teachers should do is to improve students' understanding of collocations According to Woolard (2000), the best strategy to deal with this is to focus on learners' mis-collocations He also stated that teachers should keep track of these mis-collocations as they correct their students' writings so that they can bring them into the classroom at appropriate times to reinforce and broaden the vocabulary of students Hill (2000) advised that more time in class should be spent on some of the more frequent words, notably the de-lexicalized verbs such as get, make, or do These activities are intended to help learners pay more attention to collocations in addition to teaching them about the idea of collocation
The strategy of providing collocation concepts to students is conducted through the activity described by Lewis (2000) This activity requires students to identify which words make strong word partnerships in English with each of the verbs, as illustrated below:
Exercise Type 3: Choose from these five words that make strong partnerships in business English with each of the verbs below:
Bill Presentation Cost Invoice Discount
Debt Lunch Message Expenses Deal
Service Calculation Mistake Money Promise
Lewis (2000) also proposed that teachers (1) provide extra collocations, not just corrections when errors are found; (2) make learners use language more precisely by providing the correct collocation; (3) provide collocates to differentiate two synonyms; (4) direct learners attention to collocations in given texts; (5) give collocations prior to learners essay writing activities; and (6) make the most of what learners have These strategies have been demonstrated to be effective in developing learners' knowledge and producing collocations Similarly, Hill et al (2000) also proposed the same strategies but included additional essay feedback
Boonyasaquan (2009) improved on these strategies and integrated them with a few others to create a more comprehensive and simple-to-use set In paricular, these strategies of collocation teaching should be integrated into the teaching of all four English skills Teachers are encouraged to persuade learners of the usefulness of collocations in their communication, advise learners to notice collocations frequently, carefully choose which collocations to teach, foster learners' ability to guess word meanings from context, repeat and recycle already- met collocations, use peer/group learning, use task-based activities, and introduce the use of corpora for advanced learners
All of the suggested strategies strive to integrate collocations into the four English skills They can be used to teach collocations in EFL schools However, certain strategies appear to overlap marginally Therefore, they should be merged in order to improve teaching and learning collocations After being revised, the general strategies based on LA include the following:
(1) Introducing the concept of collocation and its significance
(2) Directing attention of learners to collocations in given texts
(3) Selecting which collocations to teach
(5) Repeating and recording previously encountered collocations
2.5.3 Strategies for Collocation Teaching in Vietnamese context
In the Vietnamese educational landscape, addressing collocational errors is imperative for fostering effective communication and enhancing students' academic writing skills Educators employ various strategies tailored to the linguistic, cultural, and pedagogical context of Vietnam to assist students in improving their collocational accuracy
First, teachers integrate collocations into language input by incorporating them into reading materials, listening exercises, and classroom discussions (Tran, 2016) By exposing students to authentic texts and materials containing collocations, educators provide opportunities for learners to encounter and internalize collocational patterns in context Exposure to collocations in authentic language input enhances students' ability to recognize and use verbs and nouns accurately in their writing
Error Analysis
The fundamental concepts of collocation have been provided in the previous sections This section will be deidcated to major theories and concepts central to error analysis, which is the primary emphasis of the present study
Identifying an error often goes beyond explaining what an error is In this regard, linguists pay attention to the distinction between an error and a mistake, so it is necessary to go over the definitions of the two different phenomena According to Richard (1992), a learner makes a mistake when writing or speaking because of a lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance Mistakes can be self-corrected when attention is paid, whereas an error is the use of a linguistic item in such a way that a fluent or native speaker of the language regards it as showing faulty or incomplete learning In other words, errors occur because the learner does not know what is correct, and thus it cannot be self- corrected To distinguish between an error and a mistake, Ellis (1997) suggests two ways The first one is to check the consistency of the learner’s performance If he sometimes uses the correct form and sometimes the wrong one, it is a mistake However, if he always uses it incorrectly, it is an error The other way is to ask learners to try to correct their own deviant utterances Where he is unable to, the deviations are errors; where he is successful, they are mistakes
Errors have drawn a lot of attention from scholars due to their importance, particularly those who are interested in error analysis According to Brown (1980), error analysis is the act of observing, classifying, and analyzing how the rules of the second language are broken before revealing the learner's operating system Error analysis, according to Richards and Schmidt (2002), is "the study and analysis of errors made by second language learners" (p 184) Error analyses are carried out (1) to comprehend how students acquire a language; (2) to pinpoint the underlying reasons for student errors; and (3) to collect information on typical difficulties encountered in language acquisition It is thought that by analyzing errors made by students and pinpointing the reasons behind them, one may determine where students' knowledge is deficient and what the best strategies are for improving their proficiency
The error analysis process incorporates a variety of procedures recommended by various authors For instance, Corder (1974) offered a five-step process that included the following steps: (1) collecting learner language; (2) error identification; (3) error classification; (4) error explanation; and (5) error seriousness assessment Another technique with six steps was presented by Gass and Selinker (2008): (1) data collection, (2) error identification, (3) error classification, (4) error quantification, (5) source analysis, and (6) error remediation Both procedures actually have a lot in common Although the final step is described in different ways, they are obviously similar since they both concentrate on the remediation of errors The technique of Corder, however, lacks the stage of quantification of errors This phase is crucial because it provides a deeper understanding of the learning process and the types of errors that require further intervention Therefore, in order to undertake the error analysis in the current study, the approach proposed by Gass and Selinker (2008) was used as the framework
2.6.2 Types of errors related to verb-noun collocations
With regard to the types of collocational errors, different scholars proposed different categorization standards depending on their viewpoints and the kinds of collocations being examined Nesselhauf (2003) provided the one widely accepted classification, which includes the nine types of collocational errors shown in the following table
Table 2 2: Types of collocational errors (Nesselhauf, 2003, p 232)
1 Verb: Wrong choice of verb (or non- existent verb)
*carry out races (hold races)
2 Noun: Wrong choice of noun (or non- existent noun)
3 Usage 1: Combination exists but is not used correctly take notice (to notice)
4 Usage 2: Combination does not exist and cannot be corrected by exchanging single elements
*hold children within bounds (show children where the boundaries lie)
5 Preposition (verb): Preposition of a prepositional verb missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong
*fail in one's exams (fail one's exams)
6 Preposition (noun): Preposition of a noun missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong
*raise the question about (raise the question of)
7 Determiner: Article or pronoun missing, present though unacceptable, or wrong
*get the permission (get permission)
8 Number: Noun used in singular instead of plural or vice versa
*pass one's judgments (pass judgment)
9 Structure: Syntactic structure wrong *make sb friends
This classification of Nesselhauf was, then, adapted by many researchers such as Hong et al (2011), Nguyen (2014) and Nguyen (2017) who eliminated several categories refer to grammatical collocations such as the types realed to prepositions and structure, which were not the focus of their studies
Because the focus of the current study is on verb-noun collocations, the classification by Nesselhauf is pertinent and comprehensive This cannot, however, be applied to the current study without being modified Because the study only looks at lexical collocations, errors involving determiners, prepositions, and structures are regarded as grammatical errors and have no bearing on the study's aims Determiners, prepositions, numbers, and structures are the four categories that ought to be excluded Therefore, the categories of verb-noun collocational errors that Nesselhauf (2003) proposed are updated to include the following:
1 Wrong choice of verb: An incorrect verb choice is used in a collocation
2 Wrong choice of noun: An incorrect noun choice is used in a collocation
3 Wrong combination: The whole combination is incorrect or circumlocutory
It is important to take into account that, according to Nesselhaulf (2003), the incorrect combination comprises usage 1 and usage 2 categories These categories relate to incorrect combinations when both components are selected erroneously; hence, it is needlessly difficult to differentiate between them in the current study As a result, they are categorized under the previously stated name The extracted errors would be categorized using the three verb-noun collocational error types indicated above, which is a crucial step in the data analysis process
The primary cause for collocational errors among learners, as posited by Howarth (1998) and Darvishi (2011), stems from their lack of awareness regarding collocational concepts This deficiency in understanding may adversely affect their performance To address this knowledge gap, learners often employ specific strategies, such as paraphrasing or synonymy Nonetheless, it is important to note that these strategies are not the sole contributors to collocational errors
Numerous studies, including those by Farghal & Obiedat (1995), Yamashita & Jiang (2010), and Kurosaki (2012), have highlighted interlingual transfer as a prominent factor contributing to errors Interlingual transfer involves the interference of the native language, where learners are linguistically and culturally influenced by their mother tongue This influence manifests when learners resort to literal translation from L1 to L2, particularly when confronted with intricate expressions in a foreign language Besides interlingual transfer, intralingual transfer, characterized by errors occurring within the target language, is another crucial factor that warrants attention, especially in cases where L2 significantly differs from L1, introducing numerous unfamiliar traits to learners
Hong et al (2011) provided a comprehensive categorization of the causes of collocational errors, considering both interlingual and intralingual transfer The classification includes the following elements:
(1) L1 transliteration/L1 literal translation, which frequently arises from the adverse impact of literal word-for-word translations from L1
(2) Language switch, denoting the use of L1 in situations where L2 should be applied
(3) False conceptions, wherein errors are hypothesized due to a lack of comprehension of differences in the target language
(4) Overgeneralization, which involves the formation of an erroneous structure based on two structures learners have acquired in L2
(5) Ignorance of rules restrictions, defined as the failure to adhere to the limitations of existing structures, i.e., the application of rules to contexts where they do not apply
(6) Approximation, occurring when learners select an incorrect lexical item or structure possessing semantic features comparable to those of the intended item
As proposed by Hussein (2011), numerous factors contribute to collocational errors These include: (1) interference from first language (L1); (2) overgeneralization of collocations; (3) inadequate target language (L2) vocabulary; (4) lack of exposure to authentic L2 input; (5) confusion with similar words or structures; (6) transfer of idioms and proverbs from L1 to L2; (7) the influence of non-native teachers; and (8) semantic differences between L1 and L2 This comprehensive list emphasizes the multifaceted nature of collocational errors, highlighting both linguistic and non-linguistic factors.
(1) L1 transfer/literal translation, denoting the predisposition of students to incorporate their native language (L1) into their second language (L2) translation when they perceive a deficiency in adequate language resources
(2) Substitution/paraphrase serves as a compensatory strategy driven by a choice to replace words based on semantic associations or specific semantic qualities
(3) Assumed synonymity involves the use of a synonym or a closely related term as a substitute for the appropriate word
(4) Analogy and overgeneralization represent cognitive tendencies in students to extend the meaning of a given word to other semantic contexts where it may not logically
(5) Formal/semantic association emerges when students perceive a formal or semantic relationship between collocating elements
(6) Idiomaticalness reflects students' inclination to create idiomatic expressions in English similar to those in their native language
(7) Quasi-morphological similarity arises due to inadequate learning, where students may sense a resemblance or echo of certain linguistic forms in other words and employ such forms incorrectly
(8) Avoidance/abandonment of the assignment signifies instances where students omit phrases, which may result from factors such as ignorance, carelessness, an inability to recall information, and time constraints
Dang's (2014) study on collocational errors classifies their sources into five categories: hypothesized false concepts, use of synonyms, negative transfer, word coinage, and approximation Notably, Dang excludes overgeneralization and ignorance of rules as they are specific to grammatical errors The use of synonyms involves substituting desired items with synonymous words or expressions, while word coinage involves creating new words to convey a specific idea.
While these categorizations exhibit distinctions in their components and titles, they share numerous similarities Firstly, the widely recognized translation technique of literal translation, identified by various authors, including Hong et al (2011), as a significant contributor to collocational errors, constitutes a primary factor in negative interlingual transfer and can thus be subsumed under the broader category of L1 transfer Secondly, the causes designated as assumed synonymity and the use of synonyms are essentially different names for the same strategy, wherein learners employ a lexical item to replace its synonymous word or expression Nguyen (2017) asserted in his study that hypothesized false conceptions, associated with learners' difficulty in distinguishing similar words in the target language, may also fall under the umbrella of learners' use of synonyms However, Dang (2014) and Dukali (2018) contend that learners may erroneously believe certain verbs are de-lexicalized and can be freely replaced with others Consequently, hypothesized false conceptions should be addressed separately as a significant cause of collocational errors For studies focusing solely on lexical collocations, the two causes - overgeneralization and ignorance of rules - contribute to grammatical collocational errors and, therefore, were not examined Dang (2014) identified errors resulting from the misplacement of parts of speech and categorized them under approximation Errors stemming from word coinage warrant distinct consideration as a separate category due to their distinct nature from approximation.
Conceptual framework
From the literature discussed in the previous sections of chapter 2, the conceptual framework guiding this study is synthesized in the Figure 2.1
Figure 2 1: Conceptual framework of the study
One of the most significant processes in error analysis is error categorization It not only makes the study more systematic, but it also gives vital information on what aspects need specific attention in connection to the error types Consequently, the framework integrates an error typology established on the principles outlined by Nesselhauf (2003) Despite consisting of only three categories (wrong verb choice, wrong noun choice, and wrong combination), it is considered fundamental yet adequate for error classification In order to avoid these errors, numerous strategies based on common approaches of teaching collocations have been suggested A revised list of collocation teaching strategies have been illustrated in the Figure 2.1 above.
Summary
The review of the literature has shown the vital role of verb-noun collocations in language acquisition in general and language production in particular The researcher also reviewed and discussed relevant empirical studies on the different types of collocational errors along with collocation teaching strategies Then, using the conceptual framework devised by the researcher, the research would present the findings – common types of verb-noun collocational errors committed by English major sophomores and strategies to avoid them and compare them with the previous study in the following chapter This review holds paramount importance as it provides comprehensive guidance for conducting the research It proves beneficial not only in shaping the design of research instruments but also in structuring error analysis into a manageable procedure, supported by ample theories at each stage.
Research design
This study was conducted by the use of mixed-methods, employing a descriptive method with data drawn from students’ midterm papers and teacher interviews Seliger and Shohamy (1989) asserted that descriptive research can be used to specify, delineate, or describe phenomena without carrying out an experimental intervention The researcher would also like to identify the strategies that teachers used to help students avoid committing verb-noun collocational errors; therefore, interviews were utilized because an interview “allows for greater depth” in the information that is being sought (Cohen et al., 2007, p 352)
This study was conducted at the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Nha Trang University (NTU) in Khanh Hoa province The researcher opted for the Faculty of Foreign Languages at the university since this was where she spent her university life Therefore, her familiarity with its curriculum and learning atmosphere can provide favorable conditions for conducting the study
Academic Writing (AW) is a crucial course for second or third-year students to develop their writing abilities for academic purposes Despite previous language skills courses, AW focuses on sentence and paragraph construction, catering to the specific needs of specialized courses requiring substantial written output The course covers modules such as the writing process, sentence structure, paragraph building, citation, and academic writing styles Through extensive writing assignments, both individually and in groups, students hone their writing skills to prepare for specialized coursework and beyond.
The primary emphasis of the present study was on the collocational writing errors made by students To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the issue, pertinent data was collected not only from students but also from teachers Therefore, participants of the study includes both students and teachers
The study includes a cohort of 96 student participants from the four Academic Writing 4 classes They are all sophomores who have dedicated three semesters to improving their English proficiency through general English courses and other introductory coursework (e.g., Academic Writing 1-3, Speaking 1-3, etc.) There are several reasons why the researcher opted for sophomore participants Firstly, despite majoring in English, students who are freshmen are likely to make basic grammatical and spelling errors To avoid this problem, the researcher chose sophomores who had completed prerequisite English skills courses In addition, without prior practice in writing, regardless of their language skills, students may find writing tasks challenging, which is likely to hinder students' collocational performance Therefore, among the four courses of writing, students from Academic Writing 4 were chosen Since these students had taken the prerequisite English skills courses and achieved a certain level of writing competence, their writing products are expected to reflect more accurately their collocational performance
The other group of participants comprised teachers responsible for Academic Writing 4 classes Specifically, there were four teachers overseeing the mentioned classes; however, one of them was unable to partake in the study due to personal reasons The remaining three teachers expressed enthusiasm and eagerness to participate All three possess Master's degrees in TESOL and boast extensive teaching experience While gender was not a focal point in this study, it is noteworthy that all three teacher participants are female Beyond the details outlined above, any additional personal information about the teachers is considered private and irrelevant for the study's objectives, thus not disclosed
Although the inclusion of only three teacher participants may appear limited, the study specifically focused on the AW course during a particular period These teachers were the sole instructors for the course during that time, making them the most appropriate participants Their direct involvement in teaching provided them with invaluable knowledge and insights into the students and the instructional context, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the study's subject matter.
3.1.3 Reference source for the study
The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) was chosen as the reference for identifying collocations produced by students due to its comprehensive nature and focus on contemporary American English COCA's vast collection of text data and its representation of real-world language usage make it an ideal resource for analyzing language patterns and identifying collocations.
Initially, it is possible to opt for the utilization of a collocation dictionary in lieu of a corpus, or alternatively, both resources could be employed concurrently Nevertheless, it is essential to note that collocation dictionaries are constructed based on corpora but possess a considerably smaller database (Nguyen, 2017) Therefore, the use of a dictionary alongside the corpus leads to unnecessary complication The second reason relates to the updating of the corpus According to Hunston (2002), one more factor that contributes to the features of a representative corpus is its updatedness Given the addition of 20 million words annually and the dynamic nature of English, COCA emerges as the most reflective source of the English language, particularly American English Significantly, the selection of COCA as the tool for verifying collocations is attributed to its user- friendly interface and open accessibility COCA can be readily accessed at http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/ British National Corpus (BNC) is also a corpus widely used by many scholars, but it was not used in this study because regarding corpus size, COCA contains up to 4 billion words, which is much bigger than BNC (Tran, 2022) In addition, with regard to collocates, COCA proves to have a larger coverage than BNC, as illustrated in Table 3.1 below
Table 3 1: A comparison of collocates between COCA and BNC
(https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/compare-bnc.asp)
To gather reliable data for addressing the two research questions, this study employed two research instruments: the midterm exam papers of students and interviews with teachers
3.1.4.1 Students' midterm exam papers in Academic Writing
To generate a data set to identify verb-noun collocational errors that English major sophomores at NTU often make, the researcher decided to use learners’ midterm Academic writing papers as can be seen in Appendix A The reason for the choice is that this data set could yield an understanding of learners' productive use of collocations In addition, gaining access to midterm exam papers was easier than the final ones Therefore, there were 96 AW writing papers collected with permission from the management board of the Faculty In the midterm exam, students were asked to write an essay of about 250-350 words on one of the four topics in Table 3.2
Table 3 2: Topics of the essays
Topic 1 Major cities in the world are growing fast, as well as their problems
What are the problems that young people living in those cities are facing? Suggest some solutions
Topic 2 An increasing number of people are choosing to have cosmetic surgery in order to improve their appearance Why do people have operations to change the way they look? Do you think this is a positive or negative development?
Topic 3 While many people go to university for academic study, more people should be encouraged to do vocational training because there is a lack of qualified workers such as electricians and plumbers Do you agree or disagree?
Topic 4 In many countries, not enough students are choosing to study science subjects What are the causes? And what will be the effects on the society?
The interview was conducted to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the strategies that the teachers used to help students avoid collocational errors in Academic Writing because of several reasons Firstly, interview can help researcher to know “what is inside a person’s head” (Tuckman 1972, p.99) and
“access the perspectives of the person being interviewed” (Patton 1990, p.278) The reason why the researcher opted for the use of the interview alone to collect this source of data was the restriction on observing classes of academic writing This leads to the choice of only interviews instead of a combination of both instruments to gather a more comprehensive understanding Moreover, choosing interview as an instrument is necessary since the interviewees are the three teachers
- the ones directly teaching classes investigated; therefore, they are the ones who result, their viewpoint was anticipated to produce meaningful data to address the question about the strategies teachers use to help students avoid collocational errors The interview was carefully planned, with questions (see Appendix D) concentrating on three major areas: (1) the teacher's perceptions of collocation, (2) their teaching strategies, and (3) their observations of student performance
Data collection procedure
This study utilized two research instruments, and meticulous preparation of the procedure was essential to acquire comprehensive information required for addressing the research questions.The data were collected as follows
First, the researcher contacted the Faculty of Foreign Languages at Nha Trang University to ask for permission to access the data Because the researcher used to be a student in this faculty, it was not difficult for her to gain access to the contact information of almost all teachers and the staff of the faculty The researcher emailed the dean of the faculty and gained permission after several days Subsequently, the researcher emailed the administrative staff for the list of teachers who were in charge of the four Academic Writing 4 classes After receiving the list, the researcher contacted those teachers to invite them to participate in the study via emails and phone calls During the process of inviting them, the researcher also asked them when the midterm exam paper would take place and, in the meantime, asked for permission to copy the test papers There were 96 AW writing papers collected with permission from the management board of the Faculty When all midterm exam papers had already been collected, the the interview was carried out
Due to geographical barriers, specifically that the researcher was working in Ho Chi Minh City and all three teachers were living in Nha Trang City Al three interviews were conducted online via the Google Meet platform and recorded with the approval of all participants Before the interviews, the researcher presented the title and briefly introduced the aims of this study Throughout the interviews, detailed notes were diligently recorded The questions used in the interviews were all in English, and the interviews were done in English as well because there was absolutely no necessity for the interview to be carried out in Vietnamese while the participants were all teachers of English The average amount of time for each interview was approximately thirty-five minutes.
Data analysis procedure
The initial step was the extraction of verb-noun collocation candidates from midterm exam papers In order to extract verb-noun collocation candidates, the procedure proposed by Cao and Badger (2021) was employed as follows:
1 Identify verbs and nouns in finite and non-finite clauses (Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, and Adjunct) of a sentence
2 Extract all verb-noun combinations
Non-finite verb-noun combinations within non-finite clauses possess significance Despite the auxiliary nature of non-finite verbs in these clauses, their capacity for versatility allows them to occur alongside nouns or noun phrases, forming cohesive units known as verb-noun collocations These constructions contribute to the language's richness and expressive potential (Castro, 2019)
In order to ensure reliability, another experienced English language expert was invited to independently code a random midterm exam paper She is a teacher in charge of the academic writing course at NTU
The second step in the data analysis procedure is identifying Verb-noun collocational errors Based on the operational definition of collocation, which was discussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.1.1, errors in the students' academic writing were detected All verb-noun combinations extracted from the previous procedure were checked to determine whether or not they were collocations Every combination should have one word acting as the headword which is referred to the node mentioned in Chapter 2, Section 2.1.3 and it is argued that people usually start with a noun when forming their ideas (McIntosh et al., 2009) Therefore, nouns are considered headwords in all combinations
When all combinations had been found and their headwords determined, COCA was used to examine the collocability of the components in each combination In accordance with the operational definition of collocation, the Frequency (FREQ) and Mutual Information (MI) values of a combination within the COCA corpus could signify whether it was a collocation (FREQ ≥ 5, MI ≥ 3), a free combination (FREQ ≥ 5, MI < 3), or an erroneous one (FREQ < 5) The interface for utilizing COCA is elucidated in detail below
Figure 3 1: The COCA Search Interface
At first, the procedure for checking word collocability on COCA was implemented The combination meet demands was exemplified in this instance
The noun demand served as the node and was placed within the box labeled
"[Noun]s" encompasses both singular and plural forms To exclude auxiliaries like "be", lexical verbs ("verb.LEX") were chosen from the POS LIST box This automatically populated the COLLOCATES box with [vv*].
"COLLOCATES" box indicated the number of words to be considered in each search entry before (left) and after (right) the headword, which was also referred to as the span of the collocate In this instance, five words can appear on the left and five on the right of the word demand to present the results in both active and passive voice The search results are narrowed down by the bottom boxes, RELEVANCE - MUT INFO and FREQUENCY, which display the count of how frequently they appear in the corpus and how tightly they are linked It is important to note that the search requires a minimum of five FREQ, which satisfies the operational definition's criteria The researcher can evaluate if meet demands is a collocation by looking at the FREQ and MI in the search results FREQUENCY and MUTUAL INFO would restrict the search results, displaying them in terms of FREQ and MI, as illustrated in Figure 3.3 below
Figure 3 2: Sample COCA Search Result 1
The combination meet demands appears 2728 times with a MI score of 3.87, which was considered a collocation according to the operational definition
To determine the Free combination, the context in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is considered alongside the operational definition's criteria (MI and FREQ) For instance, the combination "appeal attention" appears 15 times with a MI score of -1.48, initially considered Free based on the operational definition.
Figure 3 3: Sample COCA Search Result 2
Subsequently, the researcher examined the context provided by the corpus to ensure that the 15 appearances were verb-noun combinations The result showed that appeal attention did not appear as a verb-noun combination in the corpus context, as illustrated in Figure 3.5 below:
Figure 3 4: Sample COCA Context of Search Result 2
Therefore, despite satisfying the criteria of free combination in the operational definition, appeal attention was considered an erroneous combination
The assessment of sentence meaning is crucial, as a correct collocation may not always effectively convey the intended message For instance, in "Doing a washing-up of knowledge," the verb-noun combination is correct but fails to convey the intended meaning, making it an error in this context This evaluation is meticulously conducted by the researcher in collaboration with a writing course instructor at NTU, who also ensures accuracy while extracting collocation candidates Any discrepancies are resolved through further evaluation by an additional language expert.
In summary, the verb-noun combinations extracted, which successfully communicated the intended message and adhered to the criteria outlined by the operational definition, would be categorized as collocations Conversely, combinations that failed to accurately convey the message and/or did not meet the specified criteria, on the other hand, would be identified as errors If the verb-noun candidates met the requirements for free combinations, they were re-examined in the context of the COCA corpus; if they failed to appear as verb-noun combinations, as illustrated previously, they were identified as erroneous
After all verb-noun collocational errors were identified, they underwent a thorough classification step The erroneous combinations discussed in Chapter 2 were divided into three groups based on the nature of the errors: wrong choice of verb, wrong choice of noun, and wrong combination The first, as the name indicates, pertains to combinations that are inappropriate due to verbs and may be improved by changing them with alternative verbs In the second group, it is the nouns that must be replaced However, the last one is more sophisticated than the other two since combinations of this kind cannot be enhanced by just altering one of their components
The following sentence is taken as an example to illustrate the step
“Definitely, such a situation will considerably impact national development, and the government should do some suggestions to improve it.” In this sentence, a verb-noun collocational error was do suggestion It can be seen that in this context, the use of the noun suggestion makes sense, but the use of the verb to go with do makes it wrong Therefore, the error in this instance was classified as the wrong choice of verb In a similar step, all the other verb-noun collocational errors were categorized into appropriate types When this error classification process was completed, errors would be thoroughly quantified Error quantification was not a daunting task However, this would be carefully done to answer the first research question (What are the common types of verb-noun collocational errors made by
English major sophomores in their academic writing?)
This study used content analysis to analyze the interview data because it is a useful approach to explore a set of data when there have been some existing ideas about what is expected to find from the data (Drisko et.al , 2016)
Firstly, three audio recordings from the three interviews were thoroughly transcribed into text data A sample of interview transcription can be seen in Appendix E Once finished transcribing, these files were uploaded to Google Drive for safe storage of data The researcher decided to transcribe the text manually because the length of the text was rather manageable In addition, according to Creswell (2012, p 240), the process of handling data analysis by hand is of great benefit since the researcher could stay “close to the data and have a hands-on feel for it without the intrusion of a machine”
Reliability and Validity
Reliability and validity are crucial aspects of research design that contribute to the overall credibility and rigor of a study's findings In this section, the measures taken to ensure the reliability and validity of the research are described
To ensure the reliability of this study's findings, several strategies were employed Firstly, the research methodology was designed to be replicable, allowing other researchers to conduct similar investigations and obtain comparable results The process of identifying verb-noun collocational errors followed a systematic approach that included multiple rounds of analysis A random sample of the collected academic writing samples was independently evaluated by another experienced English language expert to establish inter-rater reliability The Cohen's Kappa coefficient was computed to measure the degree of agreement among the raters, including the researcher and another invited English language expert, indicating a high level of consistency in error identification (Kappa = 0.85)
Several measures were taken to enhance the validity of the research findings First, content validity was established through a comprehensive literature review that informed the development of the coding criteria used to identify verb- noun collocational errors The review also helped ensure that the research questions were aligned with existing knowledge in the fields of second language acquisition and writing Second, construct validity was addressed by employing a mixed-methods approach Quantitative data obtained from the identification and categorization of errors was complemented by qualitative insights gathered through interviews The use of qualitative data allowed for a deeper understanding of the identified errors, enhancing the overall validity of the findings
In conclusion, the rigorous attention given to reliability and validity in this research study underscores the credibility of the findings related to verb-noun collocational errors in the academic writing of English major sophomores The combination of systematic error identification procedures, inter-rater reliability assessment, literature-based content validity, and a mixed-methods approach contributes to the overall quality and trustworthiness of the study's outcomes.
Summary
The chapter offered a comprehensive elucidation of the methodology employed in the current study Aligned with the study's aims, a clear exposition of the research instruments was presented Pertaining to these instruments, the methodology for data collection and the subsequent data processing procedures were explicitly outlined In addition, the measures taken to ensure the reliability and validity of the study are also carefully depicted.
Results from students' midterm exam papers
4.1.1 Verb- noun collocational errors in academic writing
The collocational errors examined in this study were collected from students' midterm exam papers in the Academic Writing course These errors were then analyzed using the error analysis framework developed by Gass and Selinker (2008).
A total of 1807 verb-noun combinations were found in 96 midterm exam papers in AW Each paper was carefully checked by COCA search tool and systematically put in an Excel table as can be seen in Table 4.1 below
Table 4 1: Coding table for a sample of midterm exam test
Combinations Correct collocation Incorrect collocation Free combination Error Type
1 address [the] issue FRQ = 2198; MI = 4.26
4 meet [the] demand FRQ = 2728; MI = 3.87
FRQ = 15; MI = -1.48 (not a V-N combination in COCA)
7 fuel [the] country FRQ = 123; MI = -0.51
8 secure [their] family FRQ = 133; MI = -0.15
11 rise [the] use FRQ = 207; MI = -0.76
12 worsen [the] situation FRQ = 113; MI = 5.79
17 increase [the] need FRQ = 906; MI = 5.05
18 run [the] money FRQ = 2481; MI = 1.09
19 hold [an] effect FRQ = 60; MI = -1.97
21 face [the] situation FRQ = 408; MI = -0.04
In accordance with the criteria outlined by the operational definition explicated in Chapter 2, these extracted combinations were classified into three groups, as delineated in Table 4.2 namely correct collocations, free and erroneous combinations
Table 4 2: Lexical combinations from the midterm exam papers
The percentage of free combinations in this study accounts for a significant proportion of 51.69% More than a quarter of all combinations (25.84%) are correct collocations There are 406 of erroneous combinations formed by students, accounting for 22.47% of all combinations accumulated
4.1.2 Types of verb-noun collocational errors in academic writing
Once all verb-noun collocational errors were identified, they were systematically categorized and presented in Table 4.3
Table 4 3: Types of verb-noun collocational errors from the midterm exam papers
Types of Error Count Percent Examples
Wrong Choice of Verb 247 60.83% *make the best (do),
*sustain pressure (withstand/ stand/bear),
Wrong Choice of Noun 56 13.79% *have high life (living standard), *make a choice (decision),
Wrong Combination 103 25.37% *make beneficial (offer benefits), *cure stressful (relieve stress),
The data shows that wrong verb choice is the leading category, accounting for 60,83% of all errors Some examples that could be found in this type are *make the best, *sustain pressure, *rise confidence which should be do the best, withstand/stand/bear pressure, raise/boost confidence The second most frequently used type of error is wrong combination, which constitutes 25,37% As a consequence, wrong noun choice is the category with the fewest occurrences
There are only 62 combinations (15.1%) in which the nouns were erroneously selected.
Results from the teachers’ interviews
The error detected in the analysis suggests a deficiency in collocational knowledge among the students, which might have a link with the teaching and learning process The examination of teaching strategies in the Academic Writing classes was conducted utilizing data gathered from interviews with the teachers
To begin, it is crucial to understand the teachers’ perceptions, as this is a major influence on determining their actual teaching techniques The initial question was formulated to assess their understanding of verb-noun collocation In response to this question, all three teachers proved their understanding of the concept
T1: Collocations refer to two or more words that often go together T2: […] verb-noun collocations are combinations between verbs and nouns that native speakers often use
T3: […]it’s about the combination of specific nouns and specific verbs, such as you have to say “take medicine”, not “drink medicine,” as in Vietnamese “uống thuốc” [ ] you cannot combine a noun with any random word
In answer to question 2, a consensus was reached, with all participants acknowledging the crucial importance of understanding collocations, especially verb-noun collocations, in the realm of Academic Writing T1 stated that "it plays an important role in so many aspects of English, not only writing, but when it comes to academic writing, I think there are a lot of things to talk about"
"Knowledge of verb-noun collocations aids students in conveying more understandable ideas; without this, the way they convey the intended message will make it difficult for readers to understand," T2 stated T3 mentioned the role of verb-noun collocations in not only learning but also teaching AW and claimed it is neccessary for teachers to teach collocations in their classes
T3: I think verb-noun collocation is extremely important in Academic
Writing and teaching Academic Writing [ ] I think teachers have the responsibility to teach as many collocations as possible […] it is more time-saving for students when writing an essay
All three teachers are aware of the significance of collocations; therefore, they all confirmed that they teach collocations in AW lessons However, when elaborating further, they admitted that they had not always provided explicit teaching on this kind of collocation Only T2 claimed to teach collocations through exercises like paraphrasing The other two used an integrated teaching technique most of the time, drawing students' attention to the mistakes related to collocations and correcting them
T1: […]I write the verb-noun colocations that I think may confuse students on the corner of the board and make it noticeable so that the students
T2: I don't spend entire lessons dealing with collocations […]I can spot them ahead of time because I know they will cause difficulties, […] I go a step forward and inform learners about the distinctions before they begin making those mistakes [ ] I introduce these difficult collocations as a part of a glossary [ ]I employ exercises like paraphrasing sentences or phrases
T3: I do teach verb-noun collocations [ ]in the syllabus we don’t have any particular session dedicated to teaching it entirely [ ] I cannot stop at every collocation […]because there are too many of them
Considering the actions teachers often take when they notice errors, the three teachers share a relatively similar method of correcting the mistakes immediately Nevertheless, T1 and T3 added some more different actions while they noticed the errors In particular, T1 specified two situations “If errors occur in the test, sometimes I note them down and remind students in the class when I give the papers back to them When I notice errors in the class, or in the activities,
I correct them immediately.” She also elaborated that she often writes them on the board and asks the whole class to notice the error; subsequently, she corrects it
Sometimes, she mentions some more relevant collocations of that error T3 had a completely different method which is showing the interface of the search result to her students “When I notice an error in verb-noun collocations, I immediately fix it by showing my students the Google search or the result in Ozdic, which indicates that the incorrect phrase they use is not common or even does not exist, or my suggested phrase would be much more common”
To address verb-noun collocational errors, three educators shared effective strategies These techniques, detailed below, aim to enhance students' understanding of appropriate word combinations and minimize errors in their writing.
Firstly, all three teachers stated that they used two main strategies, namely (1) Identifying errors and asking students to seek corrections or giving corrections themselves; and (2) Directing attention of students to collocations in tasks or texts when they encounter them to help students avoid errors related to verb-noun collocations Additionally, T1 and T3 concurred that these two mentioned strategies are most common ones among teachers in the Faculty since they do not have any independent modules or sections devoted to collocations T1 and T3 also admitted that they do not often explicitly teach collocations in their classes since it is so burdensome
T1: I often write them on the board and make the whole class notice the error
Then correct it I mention some more relevant collocations of that error [ ] I do not often explicitly teach collocations in my class […]most of the lecturers in this Faculty share similar teaching strategies because we do not have a separate module for collocations
Teaching collocations from textbooks and materials is common practice, but it can be overwhelming to cover every possible combination To address this challenge, educators may provide corrections or encourage students to self-check using Ozdict, a reputable online dictionary This approach allows educators to focus on the most essential collocations while providing students with a valuable resource for further learning.
T3: I do not teach verb-noun collocations explicitly in my classroom [ ]I point out the collocations we encounter along with their meaning every now and then [ ] direct their attention to the errors and immediately fix them
Discussion
In the previous section, the results corresponding to the two research questions were presented In this section, the researcher will provide a discussion of the findings, which will be compared and contrasted with the results of the previous studies to see if they are congruent or contradictory or if any new findings have emerged
4.3.1 The common types of verb-noun collocational errors made by English major sophomores at Nha Trang University in their writing
The subsequent sections elaborate on the common types of verb-noun collocational errors committed by the participants Moreover, the researcher also made an effort to provide possible explanations with regard to the causes of errors Nevertheless, it is difficult to determine the exact mental processes reponsible for each error The explanations for causes of errors provided below should not be considered conlusive as they are the predictions based on the perspective of the author of this study
In terms of the number of erroneous combinations, the proportion is nearly a quarter Despite the lower percentage of incorrect combinations compared to correct collocations, this figure remains considerable, raising a question related to the collocational competence of English major students When compared to previous similar studies, the result is relatively different In Dang (2014), for instance, the proportion of incorrect combinations was a mere 6.72% However, it was 31.9% in Nguyen (2014), which is modestly higher than the proportion in the present study Another point worth noticing is that the majority of the erroneous combinations found in the collected midterm papers were already familiar to the students The teachers in the interviews shared that students had encountered a great number of verb-noun collocations during the course In essence, it is imperative to draw students' attention to collocations
The most prevalent verb-noun collocation error is incorrect verb selection, which aligns with prior research (Dang, 2014; Wang, 2015; Dukali, 2016; Jiang and Xiao, 2018; Tran, 2022) Learners may start with nouns and then search for corresponding verbs as collocates, resulting in a high incidence of incorrect verb selection Furthermore, learners may mistakenly believe that noun-verb combinations that appear semantically meaningful are valid collocations, leading to errors such as "alleviate consequence," which lacks the required frequency and mutual information criteria Misconceptions and synonym use may contribute to this error.
The dominance of inaccurate verb choices might stem from the cognitive processes in the acquisitions of verbs during language learning Cognitive linguistic studies have proved that the human brain is not good in dealing with verbs compared to other categories such as nouns (Earles & Kersten, 2000; Engelkamp, Zimmer, & Mohr, 1990; Reynolds &Flagg, 1976) In addition, learners might face difficulties in retrieving verbs from their memories to use if the immediate context is different from the context they learnt the verb (Earles & Kersten, 2000) This could be because the meanings of the verbs are strongly related to the contexts (Tran, 2022); therefore, verbs have more variations
The second most common type was found to belong to the wrong combination, which was clearly explained in Chapter 2, Section 2.5.2 This might be because the participants seem to resort to words that share similar semantic features (synonyms, antonyms, or superordinate items) or the wrong part of speech words to replace the ones they cannot accurately remember, which leads to the wrong use of the whole combination, e.g *cure stressful in stead of relieve stress, or *take the treat instead of receive the treatment, etc This is in line with the findings from the study by Dang (2014) It is possible that the participants did not know or were uncertain of the lexical items they would want to use, and thus made attempt to use of some words they had known This could be the result of approximation It also infers that learners lack not only collocational knowledge, but also range of vocabulary
The third most common type of verb-noun collocational error is the wrong choice of nouns This frequency of error reported in the current study is mostly in line with the findings from the research by Boonyasaquan (2009) and, more recently, Nguyen et al (2021) This might be explained that the participants have the tendency to use nouns with similar meanings interchangeably For instance, they use *make a choice instead of make a decision to convey the intended meaning of a sentence This specific type of verb-noun collocational error might be traced back to the cause called approximation
In summary, the foremost challenge for students is the selection of correct verbs for verb-noun combinations Nonetheless, this does not suggest that producing accurate nouns is a straightforward task for them Moreover, as mentioned earlier, the selection of the noun within a specific context determine the choice of the verb in a verb-noun combination Consequently, an incorrect choice of the noun often results in a corresponding error in selecting the verb This elucidates why the count of errors involving wrong combinations surpasses the count of errors involving incorrect nouns alone In simpler terms, it is reasonable to infer that participants also encounter difficulties in choosing appropriate nouns for verb-noun combinations
4.3.2 Teaching strategies teachers use to help students avoid verb-noun collocational errors
The current study delves into the teaching strategies employed by teachers to assist students in overcoming verb-noun collocational errors, a prevalent issue in language learning The findings contribute to the existing literature by shedding light on effective pedagogical approaches in this domain This section contextualizes the study's outcomes within the broader educational view and discusses the implications for teaching practices
The results show that the teachers do not conduct any explicit classroom activities that focus on collocations in general or verb-noun collocations in particular This finding is in line with many studies in the Vietnamese context, such as those by Tran (2012), Dang (2014), Nguyen (2017), and Nguyen et al (2021) This could be considered an unfavorable condition for the improvement of student collocational competence As supported by previous research, explicit instruction in collocations has been highlighted as an essential element in vocabulary acquisition (Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Lewis, 2000) Also, Dukali (2016) claimed that conducting classroom activities to learn collocations can play a vital role in enhancing learners' overall language proficiency Hill et al (2000) presented a variety of collocation-focused activities and exercises They have two goals: the first is to immediately practice new collocations and build learners' mental lexicons The second has a longer-term goal, which is to raise learners' awareness of collocation as a powerful tool for improving their ability to write precisely and well That is to say, there is a need to incorporate collocations into the curriculum and instruction
The initial strategy employed by the teachers in this study involved identifying errors and instructing students to seek corrections or provide corrections themselves, which could be considered part of the Constructive Feedback approach The feedback received from instructors plays a crucial role in shaping students' language development (Hyland, 2006) Such a collaborative approach aligns with social-constructivist theories, which underline the importance of social interaction in knowledge construction (Bruner, 1985) However, according to Nguyen (2017), giving corrections for the student's errors was also beneficial, although not always possible, probably because it would burden the teachers with their heavy workload
Teachers effectively engage students in verb-noun collocation exploration by directing their attention to real-world language contexts This aligns with the corpus linguistics approach, which highlights the value of authentic language use Through corpus analysis, students gain a deeper understanding of collocation nuances, enhancing their language awareness and overall proficiency.
Regarding the strategy of encouraging self-study, the study's outcomes echo vocabulary learning in language acquisition Empowering students to identify, explore, and practice verb-noun collocations independently not only enhances their understanding of these linguistic patterns but also cultivates a lifelong learning habit This aligns with contemporary educational paradigms that promote self- regulated learning as a vital skill for the information age (Zimmerman, 2000) Moreover, self-study approaches offer a flexible and adaptable learning environment, catering to diverse learning paces and preferences Learners' active engagement in selecting resources and setting learning goals fosters a sense of agency, resulting in a more personalized and helpful learning experience (Bension, 2001) The study's findings are also in line with the principles of social constructivism, highlighting the importance of students constructing their knowledge through self-directed exploration and interaction with resources (Vygotsky, 1978) Nonetheless, without their supervision, some students may not have had sufficient motivation to study diligently on their own, which raises attention to the issue of enhancing students' awareness about the significance of collocations Therefore, teachers should make an attempt to introduce the significance of collocations
The teaching strategy of instructing students to use collocation dictionaries is also a valuable strategy for mitigating verb-noun collocational errors The study's results resonate with the work of Hill (2000), who advocated for the integration of specialized dictionaries as a means of enhancing language accuracy Cognitive theories of language learning suggest that explicit knowledge of linguistic patterns contributes to more accurate language production (Ellis, 2002) Furthermore, the utilization of collocation dictionaries encourages self-directed learning and autonomy (Benson, 2001) In accordance with the principles of learner-centered education, this approach empowers students to take control of their learning process by actively seeking and applying relevant information.
Summary
In conclusion, this section summarizes and discusses the major findings regarding the common types of verb-noun collocational errors and the strategies teachers use to help students avoid making these errors In detail, the most common type of verb-noun collocational error found is the wrong choice of verb, which is aligned with those in previous studies Additionally, the five main strategies used by teachers comprise (1) identifying and correcting errors; (2) directing learners’ attention to collocations in given texts; (3) encouraging self-study (4) introducing the significance of collocations; and (5) instructing students to use collocation dictionaries These strategies were contextualized within the broader educational view and discussed to yield implications for teaching practices.
Overview of the study
The study was carried out with the aim of examining verb-noun collocational errors produced by English major sophomores in their writing in order to gain an understanding of the type of errors and the strategies teachers used to help students avoid these errors
A quarter of verb-noun combinations from collected midterm papers contained errors, primarily incorrect verbs, combinations, or nouns Incorrect verb usage posed significant challenges for students, necessitating focused attention These errors highlight students' limited collocation knowledge and lack of attention to their usage.
The results also revealed that teachers employed a multifaceted array of strategies to rectify and prevent these errors, including (1) identifying and correct errors; (2) directing the attention of students to collocations in given materials when they encounter them; (3) encouraging self-study; (4) introducing the significance of collocations; and (5) instructing students to use collocation dictionaries To be more specific, despite the acknowledgment of collocation instruction in this course, it seems that the teachers did not give adequate attention to teaching collocations Instructions on collocations, in particular, was typically supplied by the way of teaching integratedly, and the effectiveness of this approach was contingent on the nature of the activities employed Furthermore, the teachers promoted independent acquisition of collocations by the students, they seldom provided guidance for self-study and were not in control of the process They also pointed out collocational shortcomings in students' writings but did not always provide remedies, resulting in students frequently overlooking these errors
Based on study’s findings, some suggestions to both teachers and students on how to solve the aforementioned challenges are provided in the following sections.
Implications of the study
Guidelines pertaining to the instruction and acquisition of collocations within academic writing are systematically developed and presented for the benefit of both teachers and students in this academic domain
Although all of the teachers interviewed stated that they taught collocations in academic writing classes, the research found that their methods were not always effective As a result, the researcher proposed some modifications to the teaching of collocations based on the theoretical issues developed by previous researchers and authentic data
To begin, it is advised that collocations should be taught more explicitly Recent research has demonstrated that explicit instruction on collocations is useful to students While the teachers articulated that courses such as academic writing do not explicitly prioritize collocations in their curriculum, it remains incontrovertible that collocations constitute a crucial component of writing, often posing challenges for students, as confirmed by the study The teacher's implicit instructions on collocations were insufficient to spark students' interest; in fact, some even were unfamiliar with the collocation concept Given the foregoing, it is not only acceptable but also vital to explicitly teach collocations in academic writing and writing courses in general
In addition to that, in order for collocation teaching to be effective, students' awareness must be raised As previously stated, the interview found that a high proportion of students were unaware of either the concept of collocation or even the teaching of collocation Consequently, they were unable to acquire knowledge of collocations from their teachers, nor could they enhance their understanding through self-study Hence, the initial phase in the instructional process should involve heightening students' awareness In achieving this, teachers must initially acquaint students with the term collocation, elucidate its concept, and underscore its significance They can also use the student's native language to impart the concept because it is a global occurrence that exists in all languages (Dang, 2014) Explicit teaching of collocations is also helpful in augmenting students' awareness Through furnishing explicit and formal guidance on collocations, teachers can inherently enhance students' understanding of this linguistic aspect
Furthermore, it is essential to elucidate fundamental concepts related to collocations, including congruence and collocational equivalence to students, as it is usual for students to make incorrect assumptions that readily lead to errors if these concepts are not introduced to them For instance, individuals may exhibit a tendency to seek equivalence in collocations through direct word-for-word translation or to substitute synonymous terms for those they do not recall Teachers can employ contrastive analysis to underscore distinctions between native and foreign languages, elucidating the concepts of congruence and incongruence Additionally, tasks involving collocations can serve to underscore the notion that not all collocations can be translated using a word-for-word approach Furthermore, it is crucial to convey that synonyms should not be interchangeable in collocations, given that combination rules are frequently arbitrary, and the meaning of one element in a collocation may be restricted by the other
Teachers may find it necessary to instruct students on utilizing collocation dictionaries or corpora as tools to assist them in their assignments or homework Teachers will subsequently revise the groups' collections of collocations and utilize them as a dictionary for the students Teachers have the opportunity to enhance their students' understanding of collocations while concurrently optimizing time for other essential in-class activities by structuring self-study in this manner
Aside from modifications to teaching procedures, there are a few additional concerns that require instructors' attention since they could have an impact on student's performance The first aspect is the use of dictionaries The improper use of such a beneficial instrument might lead to significant errors According to the teacher from the interview, the students' informal reliance on bilingual dictionaries led to certain errors that could have been mitigated with greater attentiveness
Teachers should explicitly emphasize to students the significance of bilingual dictionaries, cautioning them to use these resources judiciously It is imperative to recognize that a word in English may have multiple meanings in Vietnamese, and vice versa Consequently, the utilization of monolingual dictionaries should be emphasized, particularly when bilingual dictionaries cause confusion among students Linguistic corpora also stand out as a valuable alternative to dictionaries, offering unrestricted access to a considerably larger database and various capabilities that students can leverage to enhance their knowledge However, due to the intricacies of corpora, teachers may need to provide guidance on their usage
An additional consideration is the necessity for teachers to consistently update their understanding of collocations, given that languages are perpetually evolving, and their knowledge may become outdated Once again, linguistic corpora with regularly updated databases, such as COCA, emerge as a more reliable and comprehensive resource for teachers to cultivate their expertise and design collocation courses
Explicit teaching on collocations and related concepts would be extremely beneficial to students; however, due to time constraints, such formal education is hard to undertake Teachers in reality impart a huge amount of knowledge to students during the restricted duration of the course, which allows them to focus solely on particular modules that they think are vital Given these difficulties, it is essential to have a system that can make collocation instructions more plain and effective while still maintaining the adequacy of knowledge provided to students within the time frame Some crucial phases in such a strategy involve choosing relevant collocations and contexts, choosing appropriate teaching activities, and last but not least, giving appropriate corrections
The initial step involves selecting suitable target collocations for instructional purposes Given time constraints, teachers should opt for collocations that are both advantageous and fundamental for students' learning (Nguyen, 2017) Nevertheless, this task is notably challenging, as the determination of usefulness and necessity is contingent on various factors, including the students' proficiency levels and the objectives of the course A proposed set of criteria by Hodne (2009) mentioned in Chapter 2, Section 2.4.3 is the one teachers should consider when picking which collocations to teach their students These criteria, which are described below, take into account a number of important elements, such as students' demands, the frequency with which collocations occur, and the probability that they would be employed in communication Students should also be instructed in incongruent collocations, collocations featuring synonymous words, those encompassing cultural gaps, and other challenging instances, as advised by Bahns and Eldaw (1993), Hodne (2009), and Kurosaki (2012) Delivering collocation instruction within contexts proves advantageous, as contexts assist students in comprehending the meaning and usage of collocations (Dukali, 2016) Nevertheless, the chosen contexts should align with the students' proficiency levels and incorporate the target collocations (Nguyen, 2017) Thanks to technological progress, this task is now more convenient than before Teachers can avail themselves of valuable reference materials, such as corpora like COCA or BNC, enabling them to familiarize themselves with collocations commonly utilized by native speakers (those with high FREQ) and the contexts in which they are employed
The careful design of activities to teach collocations should be regarded as a crucial aspect of collocation instruction Firstly, the activities designed to teach collocations in writing should furnish students with opportunities to engage in writing practice while simultaneously expanding their understanding of collocations The integrated teaching of collocations through writing activities used by the teachers is an effective strategy since students can pick up new collocations while involved in the activities The difficulty with this strategy as found from the study is that its effectiveness is dependent on whether the activities include enough helpful collocations for students to learn This issue, however, may be remedied by carefully selecting target collocations and contexts Teachers might contemplate creating activities that are not only centered on collocations but also encompass the instruction of writing, employing an integrated approach As students fill in the gaps with determined target collocations The sentences might be drawn from several types of essays, which are the focus of the course and from which teachers can teach both collocations and writing without worrying about time constraints Additionally, teachers may also organize an activity wherein students are tasked with identifying collocations in texts based on teachers' instructions and subsequently translating these collocations into their native language This practice will help students become more aware of collocation and less dependent on translating word-for-word (Lewis, 2000) It may also be used as a self-study strategy
To enhance students' understanding of collocations, Lewis (2000) suggests activities where students identify strong word partnerships in English These exercises help students grasp the influence of neighboring words on a word's meaning Educators should guide students to translate collocations into Vietnamese, highlighting the importance of selecting appropriate equivalents and avoiding word-for-word translations due to potential ambiguity Students should be made aware of the limitations of using synonyms and delexicalized verbs in collocations and encouraged to practice constructing correct collocations from synonymous words and translating them By doing so, they recognize that synonyms and delexicalized verbs may not be interchangeable in certain collocations and that their interchangeability depends on the specific combination Lastly, instructors should emphasize strong-word partnerships repeatedly, as the task focuses on identifying the most robust pairings.
The study revealed that while the teacher participants identified collocational issues in their students' writing, they did not consistently offer corrections Teachers just frequently emphasize grammatical collocational problems rather than lexical ones since the former are more easily spotted Teachers should be aware of the significance of corrections They should also assist students to not only recognize and but also learn from their errors Identifying and correcting collocational errors is, in fact, a great way to teach collocations Greater attention should be paid to spotting and correcting lexical collocational errors in students' writing Teachers might opt to focus mainly on common errors to decrease the amount of time required for error correction They can also task groups of students with autonomously identifying and rectifying errors In summary, the correction of collocational errors, particularly those of a lexical nature, should be promoted, as it serves as a direct method for teaching collocations and fostering students' awareness of collocational nuances
The study's results indicate that students should exert more effort to improve their comprehension of collocations, given the substantial number of identified collocational errors It is crucial for them to reinforce their understanding of the term collocation and its related concepts, along with their roles in communication and writing This enhanced awareness can potentially reduce the likelihood of errors associated with collocations A comprehensive grasp of how words come together will assist them in accurately identifying and constructing collocations, especially those of a lexical nature As it is evident that teachers cannot teach them everything about collocations, students need to widen their knowledge on their own by following the teachers' guidance They can, for example, read material on collocations Extensive reading is also beneficial since it allows them to develop not only their reading comprehension skills but also discover new vocabulary and collocations from the books Moreover, it is strongly recommended for students to utilize collocation dictionaries and corpora These resources can empower students to construct their own collocation glossaries
Another implication focuses on students' vocabulary development, which is thought to have a beneficial impact on collocation acquisition and vice versa Effective vocabulary learning necessitates collocational knowledge Furthermore, acquiring words in conjunction with their collocations can aid students in comprehending their meanings and employing them with greater precision and simplicity This, in turn, contributes to an improved understanding of collocations They may consciously or unconsciously remember combinations as chunks, which will subsequently benefit them when they need to use particular collocations
Limitations of the study
This research has identified challenges and pedagogical strategies for mitigating verb-noun collocation errors in writing However, it acknowledges the limitations in its generalizability and interpretation due to the inherent constraints of the study process.
One of the primary limitations of this study is the sample size The study primarily focused on a relatively small group of participants within a specific educational context While this sample provided in-depth insights into the experiences of these learners and their teachers, it may not be representative of the broader population of English language learners Expanding the sample size could yield a more comprehensive understanding of verb-noun collocation errors and instructional strategies
The research primarily adopted a cross-sectional approach, providing a snapshot of verb-noun collocation errors and instructional strategies at a specific point in time A longitudinal perspective, tracking the progress of learners over an extended period, would offer insights into how these errors evolve and how the effectiveness of instructional strategies unfolds over time Such an approach could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of collocational error correction
Despite investigating educators' strategies, the study overlooked significant challenges and constraints they encounter during implementation Time constraints, large class sizes, and resource limitations hinder teachers' effectiveness, impacting the efficacy of their pedagogical approaches.
In conclusion, while this study yields valuable insights into errors associated with verb-noun collocations in writing and the strategies teachers use to address these errors, it is important to acknowledge the limitations discussed above These limitations, including sample size, a limited longitudinal perspective, and pedagogical implementation challenges, should be considered when applying the study's findings Future research endeavors should strive to address these limitations and further contribute to our understanding of how collocational errors can be effectively mitigated in writing instruction.
Recommendations for future research
This study has shed light on the errors related to verb-noun collocations in writing and the strategies teachers employ to assist students in mitigating these errors While the findings contribute significantly to the field of language education, there remain several avenues for future research that can further enrich
Firstly, due to time and scope limitations, the study exclusively focused on one type of collocation, specifically verb-noun collocations Conducting larger- scale research that encompasses various types of lexical collocations would be necessary to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the problem In addition, for greater generalizability, future studies should be conducted with a larger sample size
Secondly, future research could benefit from adopting a longitudinal perspective to investigate how learners' proficiency in verb-noun collocations evolves over time Such studies would track the progress of students across different proficiency levels and assess the impact of instructional strategies over an extended period of time Longitudinal research can provide insights into the development of collocational knowledge and more robust collocational competence
In addition, comparative studies could explore how verb-noun collocation errors and instructional strategies differ across diverse linguistic and cultural contexts Such research could investigate how the nature of errors and the effectiveness of teaching methods vary among learners with different native languages or cultural backgrounds Comparative studies can help educators tailor their instructional approaches to specific learner groups
Future research could explore learner-centered approaches to collocational error correction Investigating how learners themselves perceive their collocational errors and which strategies they find most effective in self-correction can provide valuable insights This learner-centered perspective can inform more collaborative and learner-driven instruction
Last but not least, the current study suggests several recommendations for teaching and learning collocations in writing However, because these recommendations were primarily based on theory, additional empirical studies should be undertaken to validate the effectiveness of suggested strategies and to convince educators of the importance of incorporating collocation instruction into the classroom
In conclusion, this study has advanced an understanding of verb-noun collocation errors in writing and the strategies teachers employ to support students
By pursuing these recommended avenues for future research, educators and researchers can continue to refine and innovate collocation instruction, ultimately benefiting language learners striving for greater proficiency and accuracy in their writing
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APPENDIX A MIDTERM TEST IN ACADEMIC WRITING 4
MIDTERM EXAMINATION Course: Academic Writing Time Allotted: 90 minutes Exam Date:
Choose to write an essay of 250 - 350 words on either of the following topics
Topic 1 Major cities in the world are growing fast, as well as their problems
What are the problems that young people living in those cities are facing? Suggest some solutions
Topic 2 An increasing number of people are choosing to have cosmetic surgery in order to improve their appearance Why do people have operations to change the way they look? Do you think this is a positive or negative development?
Topic 3 While many people go to university for academic study, more people should be encouraged to do vocational training because there is a lack of qualified workers such as electricians and plumbers Do you agree or disagree?
Topic 4 In many countries, not enough students are choosing to study science subjects What are the causes? And what will be the effects on the society?
APPENDIX B SAMPLE OF MIDTERM EXAM TEST
APPENDIX C CODING TABLE FOR A SAMPLE
Combinations Correct collocation Incorrect collocation Free combination Error Type
1 address [the] issue FRQ = 2198; MI = 4.26
4 meet [the] demand FRQ = 2728; MI = 3.87
FRQ = 15; MI = -1.48 (not a V-N combination in COCA)
7 fuel [the] country FRQ = 123; MI = -0.51
8 secure [their] family FRQ = 133; MI = -0.15
11 rise [the] use FRQ = 207; MI = -0.76
12 worsen [the] situation FRQ = 113; MI = 5.79
17 increase [the] need FRQ = 906; MI = 5.05
18 run [the] money FRQ = 2481; MI = 1.09
19 hold [an] effect FRQ = 60; MI = -1.97
21 face [the] situation FRQ = 408; MI = -0.04
APPENDIX D INTERVIEW WITH AW TEACHERS
1 Which academic degree do you possess?
2 How long have you been teaching English?
B Perception of verb-noun collocation
1 Do you know about verb-noun collocation?
- If the answer is ‘Yes’
How do you understand verb-noun collocations? (Types, uses, etc,…)
- If the answer is ‘No’
Give examples and the definition of verb-noun collocation
2 What do you think about the role of verb-noun collocation in Academic Writing and teaching Academic Writing?
C Teaching of verb-noun collocation
3 Do you teach verb-noun collocations in your class on Academic Writing?
If the answer is ‘Yes’ a How do you teach verb-noun collocations? (Explicitly or implicitly) b Do the students often commit verb-noun collocational errors?
1.b If so, how often do the students commit such errors?
2.b What are the most common types of verb-noun collocational errors? 3.b What do you think could be the main causes of verb-noun collocational errors?
4.b What do you do when you notice the errors? c What teaching strategies do you use to help students avoid verb-noun collocational errors? d How do your teaching strategies for verb-noun collocations help the students?
If the answer is ‘No’ a Why do you not teach verb-noun collocations in your class on Academic Writing?
APPENDIX E EXAMPLE OF A TEACHER'S INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTION
Length of interview: 28 min, 27 sec
Interviewer: Huynh Le My Hanh
Position of interviewee: Teacher of English
Good morning My name is Huynh Le My Hanh Thank you for your participation
My study examines Errors in the use of Verb- noun collocations - The case of English major sophomores at Nha Trang University The information from this interview will be collected as one of the sources of data This interview involves two parts The first part is about your perceptions of verb-noun collocations The second part is to gain deeper insight into the teaching of this kind of collocation in your class There are no right or wrong, desirable or undesirable answers I would like you to feel comfortable saying what you really think and how you really feel
If it is okay with you, I would like to record our conversation The purpose of this is so that I can get all the details while at the same time being able to carry on an attentive conversation with you I assure you that all your comments will remain confidential I will compile a report that will contain all teachers’ comments without any reference to individuals
Interviewer: So, the first question is, Which academic degree do you possess? Respondents: A Master's Degree
Interviewer: So, the next question is, How long have you been teaching English?
Respondent: Okay, honestly, I’ve been teaching English for ten years
Interviewer: Okay, so the first part of the interview is about your perceptions of verb-noun collocations Do you know about verb-noun collocation? (Types, uses)
Verb-noun collocation, a concept in language learning, refers to the pairing of particular verbs with specific nouns This established combination ensures accurate and idiomatic language usage For instance, in English, the correct phrase is "take medicine" rather than "drink medicine," as the latter is a direct translation from Vietnamese Understanding verb-noun collocations enhances linguistic proficiency by enabling appropriate word selection and grammatical correctness.
“uống thuốc” I mean, you cannot combine a noun with any random words For example, you have to say “take a break”, not “relax a break” Regarding uses,