an exploratory study of conceptual metaphors in english news articles implications for translation study at ho chi minh university of banking khóa luận tốt nghiệp đại học

39 4.2 Metaphorical mapping process of difference structural metaphors in English business news articles.... Therefore, the undergraduate thesis “AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF CONCEPTUAL METAP

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

The exploration of metaphor has consistently been a focal point in linguistic research According to traditional linguists, metaphors have been exclusively employed in literature for aesthetic, expressive, and ornamental purposes This view dates back to the era of Aristotle, who first recognized the role of metaphors in poetry (Zhu, 2022)

In 1980, Lakoff and Johnson put forward the conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) with the publication of their renowned work Metaphor We live by They argued that the metaphor is a rhetorical device and a cognitive mechanism that facilitates understanding abstract concepts via more familiar and concrete entities Therefore, metaphors are omnipresent in everyday language and are essential in shaping how humans perceive and react to the world (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003)

Since then, the scope of research has expanded to various fields beyond the confines of poems or novels In particular, many scholars have increasingly emphasized employing conceptual metaphors in the news language (Jawad & Noori, 2021; Nuzulia

& Firmonasari, 2023; Ying, 2023; Alaoui & Jalid, 2023) The utilization of metaphors in news media represents a strategic choice to influence how readers perceive and interpret information As Lakoff & Johnson said (2003), conceptual metaphors can highlight some aspects while simultaneously hiding other aspects in news media Additionally, metaphors in journalistic articles generally produce a "creative impact by juxtaposing unrelated domains, potentially conveying a subjective experience unique to a specific culture" (Alaoui & Jalid, 2023, p 18) What is more, metaphors are valuable means by which the news can be more readily accessible to lay readers since they assist in familiarizing non-expert readers with complex and abstract concepts in the process of sharing knowledge (Thibodeau et al., 2019)

Furthermore, news translation has recently garnered significant attention from scholars, who have been particularly interested in the challenges in translating this genre Translating news differs from literature, as news aims to communicate factual information rather than create artistic imagery through language use (Zheng, 2019) Shafia (2021) claimed that news translators must be concerned with metaphors' pervasiveness and roles to avoid misunderstanding or misinterpretation, as metaphors

2 may be seen as mere aesthetic features rather than integral parts of the news messages Moreover, Newmark (1988) emphasized that finding the TL equivalent expression is not always possible because of cultural and linguistic differences between the SL and

TL This problem is no exception to news translation

Among the five translation methods suggested by Newmark (1988), communicative translation is an appropriate option for handling the translation of news articles featuring lexical and grammatical characteristics since they are closely affiliated with information transmission (Wu, 2017) Communicative translation generates cultural words and functional terms through explanations and compromises the original grammatical structure to make the translation easy for the target reader to read to In the same vein, news translators also adopt faithful translation to transfer cultural terms and grammatical structures into the TL while attempting to be faithful to the intentions and the text-realization of the SL writers (Rizkiana, 2015) It is essential for translators to have a thorough understanding of the cultural aspects of both the source and target texts In this respect, gaining insights into conceptual metaphors can help translators bridge the knowledge gaps of culture between TL and SL since it facilitates a deeper understanding of how metaphorical expressions are culturally embedded across languages (Alshunnag, 2016)

Moreover, a single individual generally performs both the responsibilities of a translator and a journalist, contributing to the overall news production process, even if the person is a non-professional translator (Bielsa, 2007) Generally speaking, the process of converting L2 news content into L1, technically, involves journalists receiving input from a local L2 news station, reading the L1 information, analyzing it, and then recoding it In this process, if translators cannot comprehend L2 conceptual metaphors, they will find it impossible to elaborate and articulate L1 content effectively Türker (2015) has demonstrated that translators are capable of interpreting L2 metaphors based on their conceptual knowledge, which reflects their familiarity and experience with the source and target domains of the L1 and L2 conceptual metaphors, respectively

Through translation courses, the Faculty of Foreign Languages of Ho Chi Minh University of Banking aims to provide students with the skills and knowledge necessary to become proficient translators, both in English and Vietnamese The curriculum

3 emphasizes the development of essential translation techniques, including cultural awareness, text analysis, text coding and decoding process, and ultimately, interpretation However, introducing conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) into translation courses for students of the Faculty of Foreign Languages to enhance translation skills has yet to be investigated The existing literature indicates that CMT provides a fresh perspective on sparking students' interest in text analysis, cultural awareness, and the coding, decoding, and recoding processes involved in translation practices Therefore, the undergraduate thesis “AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN ENGLISH NEWS ARTICLES: IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSLATION STUDY AT HO CHI MINH UNIVERSITY OF BANKING” aims to raise awareness and advance the understanding of conceptual metaphor theory within Ho Chi Minh University of Banking's context.

Research Gaps

In Vietnam, the emergence of cognitive linguistics has sparked local scholars to delve into conceptual metaphors in various discourse genres Current studies have primarily focused on exploring conceptual metaphors based on the corpus of poems, idioms, and songs in Vietnamese language or in contrastive analysis with English Phan and Luong (2014) analyzed conceptual metaphors used to denote images of lovers in English and Vietnamese poems and songs Vu (2022) explored the conceptual domain of marriage and family in modern prose In addition, Phan and Trinh (2023) uncovered metaphorical expressions that highlight the significance of love in human life, drawing from English and Vietnamese poetry and guided by conceptual metaphor theory As a result, the majority of research conducted by Vietnamese linguists and researchers focuses on the significance of CM as a means of beautifying literary texts

No research has been conducted to date that examines conceptual metaphors in the context of the Faculty of Foreign Language at Ho Chi Minh University of Banking Hence, this study offers an excellent opportunity to conduct further research and enrich the empirical evidence It will make a humble contribution to the curriculum of business English courses, in general, and those for business translation, in particular.

Scope of the Study

Considering the limitations presented by the time of an undergraduate thesis and the researcher's research competence, this study has opted to focus exclusively on

4 examining structural metaphor - one of the three subtypes of a conceptual metaphor Lakoff and Johnson (2003) defined structural metaphors as conceptual metaphors where one idea is structurally constructed in the form of another

Given that news as a genre includes various sub-genres such as politics, sports, science and technology, business, and health, the scope of the research is confined to analyzing English business articles because the economic situation often is a hot spot in many newspapers The choice is also driven by the fact that economic publications can influence public opinions and perceptions through metaphors (Tang, 2019) At the same time, the use of metaphor within economic reporting is a shortcut to comprehending the complexities of economic status Therefore, the research scope ensures that the exploration of the intersection between structural metaphors and economic discourse contributes to implications for translation courses in the business context

Lastly, the thesis concentrated on online news texts as online news offers readers advantages such as “24/7 updates, unlimited storage, hypertextuality, searchability, multimedia, customization, and interactivity” (Nguyen, 2008, p 91) The choice is further motivated by the independence from spatial and temporal constraints, streamlining data collection.

Research Aims

Within the limited time and expertise, the researcher aims to deal with two research goals, as follows

1 To identify the categories of structural metaphors that appear in English business news articles;

2 To explore the mapping process of the categories of structural metaphors used in English business news articles;

Research Questions

This study aims to answer the following questions:

1 What categories of structural metaphors are used in English business news articles?

2 What is the mapping process for each structural metaphor identified in English business news articles?

Significance of the Study

This study attempts to spread the understanding of conceptual metaphor to students and its implications for translation courses at the Ho Chi Minh University of Banking Practically, the study makes a modest contribution to demonstrating Lakoff and Johnson's theory (2003) that metaphors are pervasive in cognitive processes, and their significance extends beyond the literature works In addition, the research offers a system of common source domains portraying the economy while establishing the mapping process to clarify how structural metaphors operate and are constructed in business news These findings are intended to encourage L2 learners, translators, and teachers to consider the analysis of conceptual metaphors for understanding cultural nuances in L1 business news, thus enhancing translation skills and qualities in business contexts and academic settings Finally, the researcher expects to spark students’ interest in this research subject and motivate similar studies at Ho Chi Minh University of Banking to improve translation learning among English majors.

The Structure of the Thesis

The thesis is divided into five chapters

Chapter One discusses a detailed background, research problems, the purpose of the study, research questions, research objectives, and the significance of the study

In Chapter Two, metaphors are explored within the theoretical framework of cognitive linguistics and other perspectives This section provides a brief introduction to conceptual metaphor theory and relevant studies

In Chapter Three, the methodology used for this study is discussed in detail, as well as the reasons for selecting them The purpose of this chapter is to present the research design, the data collection methods, and the data analysis methods

In Chapter Four, the study's data analysis and discussion are discussed

Lastly, Chapter Five summarizes the main points and discusses the implications for future research

LITERATURE REVIEW

Lexical Metaphors

Scholars of linguistics have defined metaphors in various ways over time The English term “metaphor” itself stems from the Greek word “metaphora”, where “meta” is “over'' and “phora” is “to carry”, indicating the transference of one idea to another Taverniers (2004) defined lexical metaphor as the possibility of a word or phrase expressing metaphorical meanings in addition to its literal meaning

Awareness of metaphor is not recent, having first been described by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE Aristotle considered metaphors as a type of semiotic displacement In other words, metaphors are intentionally used to replace one agreed meaning for an object, concept, or experience with another (Veale et al., 2016) Besides, this Greek philosopher also highlighted the importance of metaphors in terms of rhetorical roles Metaphors are powerful in promoting imagination and creativity According to Warner (1973, as cited in Tang 2019), the Aristotelian theory of metaphor has led to two viewpoints, namely the substitution theory and the comparison theory The former proposes that the creation of metaphors occurs when one word is replaced by another that has a similar meaning It hypothesizes that a substitution process is the primary mechanism for establishing metaphors Thus, the metaphor “He trumpeted out the new” can be replaced by “He told to anyone who wanted to listen” (Werner 1975,

15) On the other hand, the latter sees metaphor as “a kind of comparison, a condensed simile” based on similarity (Trčková, 2014, p 25) Thus, the metaphor “You are the light in my life” is viewed as a reduced version of “You are like the light in my life”

However, the comparison theory has a limitation in that it fails to differentiate between comparison and categorization According to Trčková (2014), metaphors are a fascinating phenomenon in that they can construc similarities between seemingly unrelated entities instead of merely comparing similar concepts He also critisized the comparison perspective for overlooking metaphor use in scientific contexts In essence, the aforementioned theories consider metaphor as a linguistic matter, specifically, an aberrant form of language compared with the literal language being perceived as the norm and the convention

Contrary to the comparison and the substitution theories, the “interaction” theory of metaphor, the third approach to metaphor, does not treat metaphor as a figurative statement that could have been said literally but instead as a way of constructing new meanings (Black, 1990) This approach is based on the work of Richards (1936), who introduced the terms "vehicle" and "tenor" to refer to figurative and literal elements of an expression, respectively As noted by Trčková (2014), the interaction theory asserts that a metaphor consists of a primary subject (metaphorical focus) and a subsidiary subject (literal frame) During the metaphorical process, a set of associated implications from the subsidiary subject is projected onto the primary subject This process requires a strategic emphasis or de-emphasis on specific traits of the primary subject This process requires using statements consistent with the qualities of the associated implicative complex of the subsidiary subject For example, the metaphor “man is a wolf” conveys a profound message through the interplay of human cognition and the associations of man and wolves (Soskice and Harré, 1995, p 289) Metaphor taps into the idea that both entities possess an innate wildness and ferocity Notably, this theory also pays attention to the cognitive aspects of metaphors

In short, metaphors were traditionally perceived as a linguistic deviation from a literal expression However, the interaction theory of metaphors highlighted the cognitive dimensions, aligning with the follow-up theory's critical aspect The following section presents a detailed account of the fundamental concepts of cognitive theory.

Conceptual Metaphors

The emergence of cognitive linguistics dates back to the 1970s, when there was an increasing interest in cognitive science (Sinha, 2010) This field, which integrates

8 cognitive psychology and linguistics, has since evolved significantly, focusing on cognitive semantics and approaches to grammar (Evans & Green, 2006) Besides, cognitive approaches to grammar refer to “the study of the symbolic linguistic units that comprise language” (Evans & Green, 2006, p 50)

On the other hand, cognitive semantics investigates the relationship between human experience, the conceptual system in the human mind, and the semantic structure encoded by language (Evans and Green, 2006) In opposition to traditional semantic philosophies, it is asserted that human experience is an essential component of language organization and manifestation (ĩnal et al., 2019) In other words, language can only be fully understood by considering how people perceive and experience the world around them Accordingly, cognitive semantics scholars investigate knowledge representation (conceptual structure) and meaning construction (conceptualization) As Evans and Green (2006) stated, four guiding principles collectively characterize the collection of approaches that fall within cognitive semantics Firstly, conceptual structure is embodied Secondly, semantic structure is conceptual structure Thirdly, meaning representation is encyclopaedic Fourthly, meaning construction is conceptualization

Numerous research works have contributed to cognitive linguistics, yet George Lakoff and Mark Johnson are pioneering scholars in the Conceptual Metaphor Theory

Conceptual metaphor is a central to cognitive semantics (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003) Metaphor is a figure of speech and cognitive tools that shape our understanding and responses to the world around us “The locus of metaphor is in how we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another” (Lakoff, 2006, p.185) In addition, Grady (2006) indicated that metaphors provide a “pattern of conceptual association” for understanding complex issues through the lens of familiar concepts (p.188) As Lakoff and Johnson (2003) defined:

Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature (p 3)

In other words, metaphors appear to rely on things people already know and experience (known as the source domain) to convey new or complex ideas (known as the target domain) Therefore, metaphors facilitate the perception of the physical, mental, and emotional world

CMT provides an alternative approach to metaphor analysis and its application in language teaching and learning Many studies have asserted the functions of metaphors as a cognitive mechanism rather than the previous period Conceptual metaphors establish close connections and facilitate the comprehension of complex concepts and concrete ones through embodied experiences (Radden & Dirven, 2007; Tran, 2009) It introduces the critical components of metaphor, including “source domain” and “target domain”, to replace the terms “tenor” and “vehicle” from traditional philosophies The source domain is the object from which the metaphor originates, whilst the target domain is the subject to which the metaphor is applied Evans and Green (2006) claimed that the target domain may represent higher-level notions, so their nature is more abstract, diffuse, and unclear For this reason, the need for metaphorical conceptualization arises (Kửvecses, 2010) On the other hand, the source domain can be more tangible and relate to concrete entities or aspects based on embodied experiences Cameron (2003) also argued that source domains typically involve physical objects or movements To express the relationship between the two domains, the structure of CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN X IS CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR Y is formulated Writing conceptual metaphors in small capital letters is conventional while metaphorical expressions are usually depicted in italics (Kửvecses, 2010) Notably, metaphorical projection occurs only from the source to the target domain, i.e., the process is unidirectional CMT argues that the source domain is the primary driver in metaphorical reasoning, in contrast to the aforementioned “interaction view”

The correlation between metaphor and semantics is well-established and delineated in cross-domain mapping In the classic example Lakoff and Johnson (1998) presented, LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor has two domains: LOVE as the target and JOURNEY as the source This metaphor implies that love has phases, challenges, progress, and destinations, similar to people on a journey In particular, cross-domain mapping involves mapping the concept from a more concrete source domain to a more abstract target domain – from JOURNEY to LOVE In this case, the source domain of

JOURNEY is projected onto the target domain of LOVE, thus creating a figurative expression The conceptual mapping is provided below

Table 2.1 The mapping of conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY

The vehicle → The love relationship itself The journey → The length of the relationship The obstacles encountered → Events in the relationship The destination of the journey → The goal of the relationship The obstacles encountered → The difficulties experienced Decisions about which way to go → Choices about what to do

Source: Adapted from Metaphor we live by, by Lakoff & Johnson, 2003

Moreover, when undertaking a mapping process, it is critical to consider the inherent qualities and attributes typical of that domain and the distinctive relationships, situations, events, and other elements that characterize that specific domain (Grady, 2007) The illustration below shows how metaphor emerges from cross-domain mapping Moreover, complex metaphors like LOVE IS A JOURNEY are made up of simpler conceptual metaphors, such as PURPOSES ARE DESTINATIONS, A RELATIONSHIP IS A CONTAINER, and INTIMACY IS CLOSENESS In brief, mapping is a collection of systematic correspondences where the target domain is projected onto the source domain (Lakoff, 2008)

Lakoff and Johnson (2003) classified conceptual metaphors into three main types based on source domains: ontological metaphors, orientational metaphors, and structural metaphors

According to Lakoff and Johnson (2003), ontological metaphors are metaphors whose cognitive function is to generalize abstract categories by more concrete objects or matters In other words, they reflect how emotions, feelings, ideas, and activities are perceived as physical things It is widely accepted that ontological metaphors are rooted in people’s daily experiences These metaphors are built through sensory and motor experiences, which allow distinctive ideas to have similar features The invisible gap between abstract notions and human real-life experiences tends to be eliminated to conceptualize abstract thoughts, experiences, and processes into something that can be physically experienced, referenced, categorized, and measured by humans In the example of conceptualizing happiness, “It was only later in life that she found her happiness”, her happiness is transformed into a more tangible and easily-grasped object so that she can find it In addition, personification, in which non-human entities are given certain human qualities, can be characterized as an ontological metaphor subtype

In the instance, “Life has cheated her”, life is personified by assigning it a human-like quality of deceit

As noted by Lakoff and Johnson (2003), orientational metaphors describe abstract concepts in terms of a range of spatial structures, such as up or down, front or back, in or out, on or off, central or peripheral, deep or shallow, and so on These metaphors stem from first-hand experiences based on how ordinary people perceive spatial orientation in the physical and natural environment As a result, a non-physical, abstract structure spatially projects onto a physical, non-abstract one Expressions like

“I'm feeling up today” and “I'm feeling down this week” are typical examples of orientational metaphors, where happiness is associated with an upward direction and sadness with a downward direction (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003, p 23-24) Generally, positive feelings are correlated with an upward movement; negative ones are correlated with a downward movement

Lakoff and Johnson (2003) defined structural metaphors as conceptual metaphors in which the structure of one concept is metaphorically utilized to understand another The target domain “borrows” the attributes from the source domain For

12 instance, in the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, the argument is conceptualized as possessing similar properties to war To restate, the structural similarities between the two domains are built that the nature of arguments is identical to that of wars Many daily expressions employ this metaphor, such as “His criticism was right on the target”,

“He attacked every weak point in my argument”, and “I’ve never won an argument with him” The interpretation is that our language can provoke conflict, despite the lack of physical harm during debates The viewpoint of opponents is viewed as a target, while the speakers aim to defend their opinions Remarkably, the conceptual mapping is parallel and structured between the source and target domains, as in the following illustration

Table 2.2 The cross-domain mapping of ARGUMENT IS WAR

Surrendering → Giving up your opinion

Source: Adapted from Metaphor we live by, by Lakoff & Johnson, 2003

Metaphor in English news articles

2.3.1 General overview of news articles

News plays a critical role in informing people about important events on local and international levels According to Newson and Wollert (1988, as cited in Cotter, 2010), news is whatever people want and need to know or, more broadly, by society

As one of the text types in a newspaper, news articles are written based on the mass of facts or event data Additionally, there are two common types of news reporting that are widely recognized among media professionals: hard news and soft news The hard news is reports on political, economic, and scientific news worldwide, while the soft news is about entertainment and unusual news of our daily lives (Wang, 2018)

In terms of news structure, most news has both headlines and sub-headlines Headlines are the primary tool to attract readers to any news piece (Djurayev, 2020) According to Al-Hadmani (2020), “The reason behind this is that a headline contains the main information about an article; hence, catching the reader’s attention and determining whether the article is worth reading or not Headline writing, thus, contributes in one way or another to determining the successfulness of news articles, newspapers, and magazines all around the world.” (p 2) The present tense is the prevailing tense used in headlines, while the past tense is rarely used and is avoided when translating (p 14)

Wang (2018) further notes that the special rule of news writing is “Let the fact speak itself” (p 23) This means that news reporters should use facts to prove the reality of the news they are reporting, which helps maintain the “cognitive regularity of readers” (p 23) In order to make “Let the fact speak itself” easier to realize, news reporters should use the third person point of view, mark the source where they get this

15 news, and try their best to state all the facts as much as possible When writing a news story, there are five necessary elements that should be included: who, what, why, where, and when Any piece of news must contain those five elements, which are usually covered in the first part of the article, using the inverted pyramid structure of news reporting This means that the important information is presented first, followed by supporting details and background information

As a traditional mode of news reporting, print has started to be neglected in recent years, and the spread of digital news articles, accompanied by the rise of social media, has made news more accessible to a wider audience However, just because the news has become more accessible does not mean that the readers can understand all of the news This is true, especially if the news comes from international sources, as some readers might be unfamiliar with the language used Additionally, the language used in writing the news needs to be changed to make it understandable to a broader community, achieved through translation (Junining & Kusuma, 2020) Translation of news functions as a mediator between different cultural backgrounds, languages, and societies Therefore, Troqe and Marchan (2017) said “that translation is a crucial factor in disseminating news in the (inter)national arena” (p 277)

The workflow of news publishing entails various phases, ranging from the selection and refinement of original texts by in-house editors to the discussion and ultimate approval of chosen texts at editorial board meetings (Doroteja, 2022) In the process, the role of a news translator is to comprehend the fundamentals of general news writing in order to produce a flawless general news translation (Wang, 2018) Specifically, in a news agency, translators translate, edit, and introduce meaning alterations when necessary This modification reflects the translator’s dynamic position, influenced not only by linguistic and cultural factors but also by historical, cultural, and socioeconomic circumstances (Azodi & Salmani, 2015) Hence, a translator must possess bilingual skills and an understanding of bi-cultures or multinational cultures to translate new articles effectively from a source to a target language

2.3.2 The role of conceptual metaphors in business news articles

It is noteworthy that the language in news articles is rich with metaphors Journalists employ metaphors to mirror their diverse conceptualizations of news work

16 and they subtly persuade and interpret events through the adoption of metaphoric anaphora (Saíz, 2010) Similarly, some studies indicated that metaphors in journalistic texts could highlight new events, manipulate public opinion, and define or redefine facts by changing the focus (Lakoff, 2008; Cammaert, 2012) The purpose of using metaphors is also to capture the reader's interest and make them more appealing In English news discourse, employing metaphors is a complex phenomenon that requires careful consideration of various factors Sociocultural context, political and geographical differences, and the specific genre of the news significantly impact the way authors use metaphors in their news articles (Requejo & Romano, 2013) An example of this complexity can be found in the economic and business news, which is an essential part of every newspaper and their websites

Metaphor studies on economic-related articles have grown in importance since CMT was adopted as a theoretical framework to research this type of news The first discussions and analyses of the metaphorical use of language in the economic domain emerged during the 1980s (Henderson, 1980; McCloskey, 1983; Krugman, 1985) These scholars noticed that metaphor is often used to discuss the economy Significantly, economics is heavily reliant on metaphors, which are a part of its empirical reality Even the lines, curves, points on the diagram and graphs are used metaphorically to represent economy or economic variables A metaphor also serves as a heuristic device when it comes to conveying economic information in economic modeling Undoubtedly, metaphor is vital to write economic news Its importance was highlighted in Dalalau’s exploration study (2001) where conceptual metaphors are used in business press articles as one of the significant characteristics to simplify complicated ideas

2.3.3 Conceptual source domains in business news articles

The analysis of conceptual metaphors has received considerable results in some economic domains, including finance, the stock market, money, advertising, and business

In foreign studies, Charteris-Black and Musolff (2003) claimed that UP-DOWN movement and HEALTH metaphors are used mainly to describe the Euro currency in the comparative studies on English and German press Physical combat metaphors are utilized in British reporting, wherein the Euro is portrayed as an active participant that

“hits out” and “suffers” In the studies on analyzing financial news reports, Charteris- Black (2004) observed that the economy is often metaphorically described as a living organism A range of expressions are created to refer to the state of the economy, such as growth, infant, healthy, decay, ailing, depression, and so on Similarly, Bratoz (2004) found that ECONOMY IS AN ORGANISM metaphor appeared both in English and Slovene economic discourse The health metaphor projects the state of an economy, just as one would describe the health of human beings Koller (2004) identified that WAR metaphors are common in business news discourse Other metaphorical expressions relating to SPORTS and GAME were also found in marketing discourse, coupled with FIGHTING, MATING and FEEDING in articles reporting mergers and acquisitions news Kovacs (2007) proposed several major conceptual metaphors in business discourse as follows:

• BUSINESS IS A GAME AND SPORT

• BUSINESS IS ACTING IN THEATER / CINEMA / CONCERT

Kovecses (2010) argued that the economy is a target domain, frequently metaphorized with source domains like BUILDINGS, PLANTS, JOURNEY, MACHINE, and HUMAN BEINGS Additionally, Chow (2010) also discussed the prevalence of metaphors in economic discourse, focusing on two metaphors: mechanistic and organic The mechanistic metaphor portrays the economy as a machine, especially the characteristics of efficiency, output, and operation In contrast, the organic metaphor views aspects of the economy as features of an organism, such as health-related metaphors A sick or healthy organism describes the up and down states of the economy Spatial metaphors, such as vertical and horizontal movements, are also explored with a focus on how they conceptualize economic processes Moreover, the research delved into exploring the JOURNEY metaphor, which is common in economic discourse, and briefly mentioned other metaphors like WATERY, WARFARE, SHIPS and SAILING, and SPORTS metaphors Based on the corpus of news headlines, Gao (2016) explored some conceptual metaphors, including JOURNEY, GAME, WAR, STUDENT, MARRIAGE, AGRICULTURE, LIGHT, and HEATH metaphors Chen and Li (2021) figured out that structural metaphors are commonly used in finance and

18 business-related articles, particularly using ANIMAL, JOURNEY, HUMAN ACTIVITY, and WAR metaphors

In Vietnam, several attempts have been made to study economic news under the framework of cognitive linguistics Ha (2011) found that English economic news articles featured more metaphorical expressions and their usage frequency than Vietnamese economic news articles In another study by Trieu (2016), the source domains of JOURNEY, WAR, GAME, SPORT, and HUMAN BEINGS were frequently employed to represent the target domain of economy Pham (2017) showed that the dominant metaphor in English economic articles is that THE ECONOMY IS A LIVING ORGANISM metaphor The state of the economy is portrayed as the state of physical health or mental movements, and trading is conceptualized as a physical conflict Additionally, Le and Do (2021) pointed out the BUILDING metaphors as a popular source domain while examining both English and Vietnamese news articles Furthermore, the study aims at uncovering the conceptual metaphor models ECONOMY IS A BUILDING in two languages.

The Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP)

Metaphor analysis presents the challenge of identifying them in text discourse While several scholars have discussed metaphors in their research, the criteria or process for determining whether a linguistic expression is metaphorical or not is unclear (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) In 2007, Pragglejaz Group of esteemed scholars in the field proposed a solution to the question of how these metaphorical expressions are identified in a discourse – the introduction of Metaphor Identification Procedure (MIP) A number of individuals have contributed to the development of MIP, including Zoltỏn Kửvecses, Raymond W Gibbs Jr., Gerard Steen, Graham Low, Peter Crisp, Alan Cienki, Lynne Cameron, Elena Semino, and Alice Deignan Their proposed approach simplifies the metaphor identification process so that even people without linguistic expertise can understand it MIP can be a reliable research tool that helps find metaphorical content while ensuring the process is free from subjectivity and an individual-based approach Several recent studies have applied MIP successfully to reveal the metaphorical expression (Tcaciuc, 2013; Steen, 2014; Alshunnag, 2016; Shuttleworth, 2017)

A central principle of MIP is that each lexical unit examines its specific context and distinguishes between its basic meaning and its contextual meaning The procedure

19 includes the following steps: First, understand the messages and context by reading the text; second, find out the lexical units in the text; third, determine basic meaning and contextual meaning of each lexical unit; fourth, evaluate whether the distinction have between basic meaning and contextual meaning (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) Basic meanings do not necessarily reflect the most common meanings of the lexical unit In general, the answer is affirmative when the contextual meanings of lexical units contrast with those of the basic senses but are still understandable in relation to those of the basic sense Consequently, the researchers can classify lexical units as metaphorical

As a demonstration of the applicability of the MIP, this study presents the following example:

Table 2.3 The main steps of MIP

Reading the entire text–discourse

“Will winning the battle for locked-down Western stomachs ever translate into profits?” (“Food-delivery wars heat up,” 2020)

Determine the boundaries between lexical units within the text discourse

Will | winning | the | battle | for | locked-down | Western | stomachs | ever | translate | into | profits?

(a) Establish the meaning of lexical units in context battle -> difficulty and failure

(b) Establish the literal meaning of lexical units battle -> a fight with armies

(c) Determine if the contextual meaning contrasts with the basic meaning but can be interpreted in comparison with the above example

The answer is yes The abstract conflict or struggle can be understood in terms of a physical fight between organized armed forces

If the answer to step 3(c) is yes, mark the lexical unit as metaphorical

Therefore, the lexical unit “battle” is being metaphorically used in this context

Source: Adapted from MIP: A method for identifying metaphorically used words in discourse, by Pragglejaz Group, 2007

The MIP focuses on clarifying both the literal meanings and the contextual meanings within the same metaphorical units If a word is considered metaphorical, its contextual meaning must differ from its basic meaning but still be understandable in relation to it In this case, the use of dictionaries can be beneficial As mentioned by Steen et al (2010), employing dictionaries is significant to realize fundamental meanings A meaning is not considered fundamental if it is not covered in the contemporary dictionaries accessed by the public users The use of dictionaries in this research helps to check and confirm the metaphorical status of lexical units Consequently, there is less dependence on individual intuition, which makes the identification process more evident and limits misinterpretations.

Cognitive approaches to metaphor translation

Translation is a complex process by which a translator decodes a message from one language (the source language) and encodes it into another language (the target language) This linguistic transformation is essential for communication across different languages and cultures As discussed in Section 2.4.1, translation is vital in disseminating news globally News agencies rely on translation to expand their reach and maximize their audience in different countries Many media outlets offer news in multiple languages to cater to a diverse readership The role of translation in journalism cannot be overstated According to Vybiralova (2012), translation is crucial for dominant countries to expand their journalistic activities in foreign markets

Darwish (2009) observed that translation quality depends on several factors ranging from lexical, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic to functional and semiotic levels The translator's task is challenging as it involves dealing with a different language and culture that may be vastly different from their own With the advent of

Cognitive Metaphor Theory (CMT) by Lakoff and Johnson (2003), translation studies have focused to handle these translation’s problem through the cognitive aspects of metaphor translation Metaphors are considered as one of the crucial elements of translation theory, and their translation poses a significant challenge in different cultures, as per Newmark's (1988) observations

Christina Schaffner has contributed significantly to the field of translation studies by applying cognitive linguistics principles to translation It has been suggested by Schaffner (2004) that the interpretation of metaphors should consider their cognitive function since metaphors are fundamentally cognitive in nature His philosophy is in accord with the viewpoint of Lakoff and Johnson (2003), which views metaphors as more than mere embellishments or rhetorical devices The emphasis has shifted from examining metaphorical equivalents in the source text to examining conceptual systems at the cultural level in both source and target cultures During the translation process, conceptual metaphors are shifted or changed from the source language to the target language The translation, however, is not necessarily inaccurate as a result of such a shift or change As long as the translator captures the intended meaning and conveys it accurately in the TL, the translation will be accurate

A number of translation strategies for conceptual metaphors have been developed based on the revision and improvement of traditional metaphor approaches proposed by Newmark (1981, 1988), van den Broeck (1981), and Toury (1995) In the first case, a metaphor is directly translated without modifying the metaphorical expression (direct translation) The second method involves substituting a metaphor in the target language which has a similar or equivalent meaning to the image in the source text (substitution) As a third approach (paraphrasing), metaphorical expressions may be transformed into non-figurative equivalents through paraphrasing The fourth option is to omit a metaphor from the translation (omission) Fifth, a metaphor in the target text is used to represent a non-metaphorical expression in the source text The final strategy involves the inclusion of a metaphor in the target text without any linguistic motivation in the source text (Schaffner, 2004, p.76)

Based on the suggestion of Schaffner (2014), some studies applied a cognitive approach to metaphor translation in analysis of conceptual metaphors employed in

22 political discourse During his analysis of conceptual metaphors used in European Union political discourse, Dvorak (2011) identified three commonly used translation strategies These strategies include the reproduction of the same image in the target language, converting metaphors into their essence, and the replacement of metaphors with standard images in the target language (p.67) Similarly, an examination of three political speeches delivered by the late former Egyptian President, Mohammed Morsi, was carried out by Issa (2018) to explore the conceptual metaphors employed and their translation from Arabic to English Her study found that literal translation approaches were employed as a main strategy This entails direct translation, defined by Schaffner (2004), and involves the transfer of the sense, meaning, and imagery of the source language's metaphor to an equivalent metaphor in the target language

In terms of economic discourse, Tcaciuc (2013) identified the techniques employed by translators to deal with metaphorical language in economic documents of the European Central Bank and examined how the translations were influenced by the cultural and linguistic differences between English and Romanian The translators have used five strategies for translation, listed below: (i) Retaining the conceptual metaphor or borrowing the English term into the Romanian, (ii) shifting the image or, introducing a different image, or addition, (iii) translating the metaphor into a non-metaphor or metaphorization, (iv) omitting the metaphor entirely, (v) utilizing a combination of the aforementioned strategies

According to Aziz (2019), the most common approach for translating English economic metaphors into Bahasa Melayu is the literal translation strategy Because of the specialized nature of the text, it is important to maintain the metaphorical nature of the English expressions The explication strategy can be used instead of the literal strategy to simplify and clarify the meaning of English metaphors for the target audience Moreover, Chen and Li (2019) discussed the challenges of translating structural metaphors from English to Chinese They suggested two main strategies for achieving this task The first strategy, known as literal translation, is useful when the metaphor is already established in the target language and can convey the same meaning as that in the source text The second strategy, known as free translation, requires finding a metaphor in the target language that has a similar contextual meaning to the source text A translation strategy should also be considered in light of the specific context and the intended meaning of the metaphor used in the source text

Conclusion

In summary, metaphors are significant aspects of language in general and economic discourse in particular The theoretical framework for the analysis of structural metaphors is based on the CMT of Lakoff and Johnson (2003) Since our cognition of the world stems from the experiences of embodiment, many metaphorical expressions in economic discourse relate to popular concepts, such as plants, machines, buildings, games, sports, journeys, and natural phenomena This approach provides new insights for understanding metaphors in economic discourse in terms of the projection between two domains In other words, the mapping process concerns the description of how the properties of the source domain conceptualize the attributes of the target domain Besides, following the proposal of Schaffner (2004), who supports the cognitive approach in translation, many studies concluded the common translation strategy for conceptual metaphors is the literal translation

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This study applied both quantitative and qualitative approach to answer the research questions

The quantitative approach seeks to identify the frequency and distribution of structural metaphors in English business news articles The employment of the quantitative approach guarantees the objectivity and credibility of findings This, in turn, facilitates the derivation of reliable results and predictions (Kumar, 2011) According to Tang (2019), the quantitative method is particularly suited to systematically and comprehensively revealing the prevalence and patterns of metaphorical expressions This provides empirical evidence to support the claims made by Lakoff and Johnson (2003) about the ubiquity of metaphors

Simultaneously, the qualitative approach employs a descriptive method to analyze the structural metaphors and the image schemas represented through metaphors Qualitative research is characterized by its in-depth exploration and interpretation of human experiences within a specific context, often employing interviews, focus groups, or content analysis Specifically, content analysis is a qualitative research method well-suited to the interpretative nature of research (Kumar, 2011) Through content analysis, the author could systematically organize metaphorical examples into various categories and sub-categories based on their respective source domains This qualitative exploration also provides insights into the functions of these metaphors in comprehending abstract economic concepts and phenomena.

Research Instrument

For this current research, the investigation entailed the primary data in words and phrases presenting metaphorical expressions in news stories The data was taken from 45 business articles in several English newspapers and magazines Considering the large group of followers and the prevalence and influence, this study chose prominent publishers, such as The Guardian, The Economist, The New York Times,

The Independence, and the Wall Street Journal The data were randomly collected from the business columns in their electronic versions These business news articles were published in 2020 This period saw the profound effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on business operations and the global economy Therefore, news reporters paid significant attention to producing economic and business-related news Since then, the researcher has randomly gathered these news articles to read and learn English The year 2020 marked a significant milestone in human history due to the outbreak of a dangerous disease that swept across the globe The news reports published during that period were crucial in conveying the prevailing circumstances from every aspect These reports continue to hold immense value as they offer valuable insights into the past, aiding us in learning from the events that transpired The decision to choose business news articles in 2020 as the research data is motivated by the above reasons

Furthermore, the author selected three well-known UK newspapers, The Guardian, The Independent, and The Economist, and consulted along with two prominent US newspapers, The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal, for this study The selection was based on their established track records for providing accurate and timely information News articles from US and UK publications were included on purpose These countries represent the Inner Circle of Kachru's model (1985), in which English is primarily spoken as a native or first language It is evident from the contributors to these publications that their journalism is deeply rooted in the social and economic politics and cultures of their respective nations As a result, their perspective and the linguistic choices they make when reporting current business news are affected by their contextual grounding Besides, the Expanding Circle includes countries where English is introduced as a foreign language in education, mainly for communication purposes Vietnam is one such country These newspapers have become the primary channels for Vietnamese learners to obtain first-hand information or learning materials Native-like language users produce these articles, so analyzing CM will reflect the L1 speakers' thinking and the cultural nuances behind their language use

Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was referred to check the basic meaning of lexical units in the analyzed articles This dictionary is chosen because of its widespread recognition as English's most classic historical dictionary Moreover, this tool gives definitions and includes different ways the lexical items can be understood in various situations On top of that, its online version easily accesses and displays detailed

26 information ranging from basic meaning to the word's origin More importantly, the electronic version contains more examples for each specific use than its hard copies

In addition, Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel were helpful tools to help the author archive and analyze data.

Data Collection Procedures

The researcher gathered raw data from online portals of newspapers and magazines mentioned earlier Afterwards, qualified articles were extracted and stored in Microsoft Word files to determine their word counts The extraction process was carried out by adopting the metaphor identification procedures (MIP) established by the Pragglejaz group Although the author acknowledges that manual data collection and analysis is potentially more prone to errors, it was the most convenient way due to the limited number of analyzed articles The corpus of this study comprises 45 news articles with different lengths of 250 to 2000 words A total of 29443 words was analyzed in this thesis Consequently, a total of 318 language expressions were found and archived in a Microsoft Excel file.

Data Analysis

The researcher applied Lakoff and Johnson's theory (2003) to identify structural metaphors in English business news articles The first step was identifying metaphorical expressions in the self-compiled corpus These metaphorical expressions are lexical units In particular, the author marked lexemes and phrases with potential metaphoricity and entered the data in an Excel sheet The collected expressions were sorted according to their source domains The frequencies and percentages of each structural metaphor were then analyzed by analytical tools in Microsoft Excel More importantly, in presenting the frequency of each type of structural metaphor, the lexical units were organized into groups based on their specific lexical bases or root words Despite this grouping, the occurrence of each word within its respective group was still individually counted To elaborate, the author found the word "compete" and its variations

"competing" and "competed" as metaphorical expressions Accordingly, the lexical units "compete/competing/competed" were assigned a cumulative frequency count of three occurrences

Additionally, metaphorical expressions in the source data were grouped into primary source domains of structural metaphors, with careful consideration given to contextual nuances Then, the mapping process of metaphors was given to showcase the working mechanism from the source domain to the target domain However, it is not possible to project all the features of abstract target domains onto familiar target domains (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003)

The 45 news articles were coded alphabetically from a to v (small letters) for easy analysis and citation For the sake of clarity, these articles also appear in Appendix

Validity and Reliability

Maintaining the integrity and credibility of scholarly work necessitates ensuring the validity and reliability of research Validity refers to the extent to which a study accurately measures what it claims to measure Firstly, the author thoroughly reviewed existing literature on structural metaphors and their usage in business news discourse to establish a conceptual framework and identify relevant variables for analysis Secondly, the thesis employed a strict selection process for sourcing business news articles to ensure the reliability of the data The researcher focused on reputable and established news outlets known for their accuracy and credibility Additionally, multiple sources were cross-referenced to verify the consistency of our findings Thirdly, the research method systematically identified and analyzed structural metaphors in business news articles The study utilized established linguistic and metaphorical analysis techniques to ensure the accuracy and consistency of our results

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of research findings over time and across different contexts The research followed standardized protocols for data collection, ensuring uniformity and consistency in the selection and extraction of business news articles Moreover, the author maintained detailed documentation regarding data collection procedures, coding methodologies, and analytical techniques throughout the research process

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Types of different structural metaphors denoting ECONOMY

The quantitative research shed light on the first research question to determine the structural metaphor applied in English business news articles and identify the most frequently used among them

By identifying structural metaphors in the self-built corpus, those with the exact source domains are grouped for analysis The findings reveal a total of 337 metaphor expressions covering repetitive expressions If the repetition of each lexical unit is excluded, the number of metaphorical terms is only 188 All these expressions fall into seven types of structural metaphors, which were elaborated further in the following section

According to statistics, seven dominant structural metaphors used in English business news articles are as follows:

The ECONOMY IS A WAR pattern accounts for the highest proportion (47.18%) This subtype constitutes nearly half the structural metaphors identified in English source data It is followed by BUILDING metaphors (12.17%), MACHINE

29 metaphors (9.79%), and JOURNEY metaphors (9.20%) The three least prevalent metaphors include PLANT, GAME / SPORT, and NATURAL PHENOMENON, with a proportion of under 8%

The types of structural metaphors found in English business news articles, with the numbers of appearance and percentage of occurrence, are provided in Table 4.1 below:

Table 4.1 Distribution of types of structural metaphors

No Types of Structural Metaphors Occurrence of

This analysis demonstrates that the distribution of structural metaphors utilized in English business news articles is highly varied Some are frequently employed, while others are far less preferred Accordingly, these findings support the claim of previous observations (Koller, 2004; Kovacs, 2006; Gao, 2016; and Chen & Li, 2021) that the WAR source domain is found to dominate the highest frequency In the context of media coverage of economic situations in the COVID-19 period, the journalists tend to take the readers to the familiar attributes of a WAR to associate ECONOMY This also works with the rest of the structural metaphors, which can organize and structure the content into a familiar structure, simultaneously gaining the reader’s interest and understanding Based on the analysis, the widely used structural metaphors indicate that English writers employ metaphors to convey various aspects of the economy through

30 experientially concrete and familiar source domains In line with Lakoff and Johnson’s theory (2003), metaphors are pervasive in everyday language, even business contexts

In addition, the concrete and familiar source domains are not chosen randomly, but instead follow certain patterns in the way the specific culture perceives those abstract economic concepts

The lexical items (words and phrases) that form the structural metaphor of ECONOMY IS A WAR, their respective occurrence, and the percentage of representation in the analysis are detailed below

From Table 4.2, the researcher found 159 repetitive expressions from 77 lexis in the metaphor The most frequently used items are rival, launch, control, hit, lose/lost, win, and battles The metaphorical expression with the highest percentage of occurrence is rival (8.81%) It is followed by the terms launch, control, and hit (6.92%, 6.29%, and 5.66%, respectively) The same proportion of 3.77% shares for both lexemes, lose/lost and win, followed by the word battles (3.14%) The rest of the metaphorical expressions belonging to the WAR source domain only appears one to three times (under 1.89%)

Table 4.2 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A WAR

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Percentage

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Percentage

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Percentage

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Percentage

Table 4.3 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

As seen in Table 4.3, the total 41 repetitive expressions from 19 lexis are found in the metaphor ECONOMY IS A BUILDING The most prominent metaphorical expression is floor (17.07%), followed by open door (12.20%) The metaphor also underlies lexis such as restructuring, shutter/shuttered, build/building/built, and collapsed with the same number of occurrences in analyzed data (3 times) The rest were the most miniature salient expressions that appeared only once or twice

Table 4.4 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A MACHINE

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

Table 4.4 displays 33 repetitive expressions from 18 metaphorical terms in the metaphor ECONOMY IS A MACHINE The most salient word was run with the highest proportion of 26.47% The two metaphorical expressions, operate and boost, took second place regarding their frequent use in the data The following items took off,

36 pace, and accelerated/decelerated, accounted for 5.88% The rest were the minor least- minor least salient expressions, with a proportion of 2.94%

Table 4.5 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A JOURNEY

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

The above table presents the linguistic metaphors related to the domain of JOURNEY were found in the corpus with words such as plunge/plunging/plunged (4 occurrences), direction (3 occurrences), and go away/ahead (3 occurrences) The items, including brink/cliff edge, departure, reach, steps, and light, all occurred twice, and the remaining ones appeared only once in the research data

Table 4.6 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A PLANT

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

As can be seen from the table (above), the total 28 repetitive expressions from

13 terms were found in the metaphor ECONOMY IS A PLANT The most salient lexis was grow/grew/growing/growth (53.57%) This table was followed by thrived/thriving with 2 occurrences (12.20%) and the remaining ones with 1 occurrence (3.57%)

Table 4.7 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A GAME/A SPORT

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

In the above table, there are 24 repetitive expressions from 17 metaphorical expressions of the conceptual pattern ECONOMY IS A GAME/A SPORT The most frequently used expression was bet (20.83%) The lexis, such as competition, loser/winner, and gamble, took up 8.33% The rest of the metaphorical expressions accounted for only 4.17% each

Table 4.8 Metaphorical expressions' analysis of the conceptual model ECONOMY IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON

No Metaphorically-expressed words Occurrence Frequency

It can be seen from the data in Table 4.8 that structural metaphor ECONOMY

IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON was found through the total 21 metaphorical expressions in English business news articles The most prominent word was forecast, accounting for 23.81% The terms diversify/diversified, wave, and season appeared three times, equivalent to 14.29% Others only took up 4.76% as the least prominent expressions reflecting the metaphor.

Metaphorical mapping process of difference structural metaphors in English

The meanings of structural metaphors can be mentally constructed and negotiated by mappings, as demonstrated by the following cases:

4.2.1 The mapping process in ECONOMY IS A WAR

It is clear from the above survey that the concept of ECONOMY IS A WAR is a prominent structural metaphor that regularly appears in English business news articles According to the rule of partial and unilateral mapping, the attributes from the source domain WAR are activated and mapped onto the target domain ECONOMY, causing the target domain to bear some properties of the source domain

Table 4.9 Metaphorical mapping process of ECONOMY IS A WAR

1 Battleground → Profitable market and industry

2 Targets in the battles → Aims of economic events

3 Participants in war → The organizations in the economy

4 Tactics in the battle → Economic policy and strategy

5 Failures → Bad results of economic activities

6 Victory → Good results of economic activities

7 Activities of warring parties in war → Activities of economic organizations

8 Weapons in war → The means to gain advantages

4.2.1.1 Profitable markets and industries in the economy are battlegrounds in the war

This mapping process is shown by some typical examples from the data, as follows:

(1) My hunch about the exhibition business being in the middle of a revolution was correct (Nicole Sperling, 2020)

(2) Already, there are a few high-profile battles, including one involving a retail complex in Times Square that is owned by the family of Jared Kushner,

President Trump’s son-in-law (Matthew Goldstein, 2020)

(3) Analysts have predicted a grocery price war, and Roberts said Sainsbury’s had lowered prices on a further 200 products in recent weeks and extended its “price lock” promise to 1,000 items (Butler, 2020)

In the first example, the term “revolution” has been borrowed from the source domain of war It refers to changes occurring on the battlefield or a period marked by transformation, during which new ideas and principles are pursued It represents a comprehensive and transformative shift within the business landscape when applied to the economic context This could include significant changes in consumer behavior, groundbreaking innovations, and disruptive technologies, all of which can be categorized as a “revolution.” Such changes can potentially reshape the economic terrain, creating profitable markets and industries In (2) and (3), the keywords “battles” and “war” depict the competitive struggles and conflicts that businesses face in their quest for success and profitability within the economic landscape The term “battles” refers to individual competitive encounters or strategic maneuvers that companies undertake to gain advantages over their rivals Similarly, the term “war” characterizes the overall economic environment as a battleground where businesses engage in an intense struggle for market share, customer loyalty, and overall dominance It implies a prolonged and systematic competition, encompassing various battles and strategic moves over an extended period Such militaristic language emphasizes the pursuit of profitability in the economic realm

4.2.1.2 Aims in economic events are targets in the battles

In the domain of war, the term “target” usually denotes an object, location, or entity that military forces aim to occupy Targeting is a crucial concept in military tactics, which entails identifying and prioritizing specific objectives to achieve strategic goals in a conflict In the economy domain, a target might represent specific financial or business goals Adapting the term “target” in the economic domain reflects a cognitive process from the physical nature of warfare to the strategic pursuit of objectives in the business context

(4) He carried out what Martin Deboo of Jefferies, a bank, calls “the chief- executive version of Blairism”, steering a middle course between the aggressive profit-margin targets desired by the Americans and the meager restructuring tolerable to the Swiss (The Economist, 2020v)

4.2.1.3 The organizations in the economy are participants in war

In the source domain of war, there are various entities involved, such as soldiers, armies, and combatants When discussing business, companies and organizations are projected onto participants in the war, similar to soldiers or combatants in the original domain The frequently used expressions, such as rivals, force, veteran, and armies, are employed to code the relevant parties or subjects involved in the trade war

(5) IKEA began making an effort to be kinder to the environment earlier than its rivals (The Economist, 2020k)

(6) Tencent could be a force for good if it promotes mobile gaming globally (The Economist, 2020l)

(7) That grim prognosis of the potential legal and business consequences of the viral outbreak in China comes from a veteran of the country’s business scene (The Economist, 2020d)

(8) The trio of later arrivals on the scene—Uber Eats and two American rivals, Postmates and DoorDash—rely instead on armies of gig-economy couriers (The Economist, 2020m)

4.2.1.4 Economic policies and strategies are military tactics in the battles

As mapped in the above, economic policies and strategies are projected onto military tactics

(9) Tencent’s gaming acquisitions overseas looked more like disparate bets than part of a strategic master-plan, which helped keep them under the radar (The Economist, 2020l)

(10) Traders whisper that mainland firms are using the viral outbreak to try to renegotiate terms, a tactic they deride as “price majeure.” (The Economist, 2020l)

The use of “strategic master-plan” and “tactic” in both cases follows the metaphor "ECONOMY IS A WAR" by portraying economic strategies as similar to tactical maneuvers on the battleground

4.2.1.5 Good results of economic activities are victories in the war, and Bad results of economic activities are failures in the war

Achieving success in the domain of economy parallels the victory attained in a military campaign Businesses that secure market share and operate profitably can be likened to gaining strategic territory in war The use of the term "empire" signifies a powerful entity that has achieved economic dominance in a particular industry

On the other hand, businesses without a well-thought-out plan, despite possessing ample financial resources, are likely to experience losses or relinquish their market share In the example below, the term "lost" implies a setback or failure, aligning unfavorable economic outcomes with losses experienced in a war-like scenario This metaphorical framework reinforces the idea that economic activities can be metaphorically framed as strategic battles with outcomes resembling victories or defeats

(11) Expect to hear more about Microsoft trying to entice customers into its world—and startups complaining that the ex-evil empire is back to its old tricks (The Economist, 2020g)

(12) Marks & Spencer has taken a £145m hit on the unsold clothing piled up in its warehouses as the retailer said the huge financial toll of coronavirus would result in a “lost year” for the business (Wood, 2020c)

4.2.1.6 Military activities of parties in the war are activities of business organizations in the economy

The lexical items, such as beat, defense, attack, and fight, vividly describe activities associated with conflict, whether it be in a literal sense, such as in a battle or a war, or a metaphorical sense, such as in the competitive landscape of the economic domain These terms evoke images of conflict, competition, aggression, and destruction in a war-like environment The lessons learned from the experiences of war can be applied metaphorically to the field of economy That is to say, they can be used to

44 illustrate the steps or actions taken with the goal of gaining a competitive advantage over one's competitors

(13) Revenues and profits both beat analysts’ expectations in the October to

December period, allaying fears that Apple’s growth was under threat as consumers hold onto their smartphones for longer before upgrading (Ben Chapman, 2020)

(14) “Banks are the first line of defense with respect to preventing the facilitation of crime through the financial system,” Linda Lacewell, the superintendent of the DFS, said in a statement (Walters, 2020)

(15) Fixing these shortcomings is the company’s raison d’être It could prove lucrative But it invites attacks from rivals and critics (The Economist, 2020p)

(16) A powerful state-owned cigarette monopoly, China Tobacco, will not cede ground to a rival product without a fight (The Economist, 2020n)

4.2.1.7 The means to gain advantages in the economy are weapons in the war

Weapons serve as essential tools that significantly contribute to measuring military strength The possession of advanced weapons enhances the likelihood of victory in various battles A force with well-equipped weapons can effectively push back the threats to a country

Weapons in real war are projected onto the domain of the economy In this conceptualization, elements that can forge a competitive edge, such as economic policies, superior strategies, and first-hand information, are correlated to economic weapons or arms These economic tools become instrumental in navigating the competitive landscape, analogous to how weapons are pivotal in military endeavors

(17) Tencent’s gaming acquisitions overseas looked more like disparate bets than part of a strategic master-plan, which helped keep them under the radar (The

(18) Yet the streaming service’s subscriber gains have helped shield the firm’s share price (The Economist, 2020v)

(19) Mr Schneider, a straight-talking German with an American passport and a fondness for quips, is the perfect foil for bossy hedge funds (The Economist, 2020w)

These examples illustrate how certain terms such as "radar," "shield," and "foil" can be metaphorically associated with gaining an advantage in the economy, conceptualized from the strategic tools or weapons in the domain of war The phrase

"under the radar" suggests an obscure approach, whereas "shield" implies protection, and "foil" signifies a strategic complement or countermeasure against a competitive force

In short, the consistent use of the structural metaphor ECONOMY IS A WAR holds the potential to shape a cognitive model of competition in readers' minds, provoking emotional responses and directing heightened attention to economic development from a practical standpoint In line with Koller (2004), the persistent use of this metaphor is likely to become deeply ingrained in business discourse, influencing the conduct of business activities The source domain WAR can effectively bridge the abstract domain of ECONOMY to a more tangible reality by drawing parallels with the inherently human-oriented nature of wars

4.2.2 The mapping process in ECONOMY IS A BUILDING

The concepts of BUILDING serve as an accessible and relatable source domain that integrates with our subconscious This source domain effectively conveys the abstract concept of ECONOMY Through the mechanism of projection, specific characteristics of the source domain are associated with that of the target domain, yielding a deeper understanding of the abstract economic concepts The researcher outlines the mapping process of the structural metaphor ECONOMY IS A BUILDING, which is represented in the following diagram

Table 4.10 Metaphorical mapping process of ECONOMY IS A BUILDING

1 The structure of a building → The structure of economic system

2 The stability of a building → The stability of an economy

3 Actions to strengthen a building → Actions to strengthen an economy

4.2.2.1 The structure of the economic system is the structure of a building

Conclusion

This chapter presents the findings of a study analyzing the structural metaphors used in English business news articles to describe the economy The study identified seven dominant structural metaphors: (i) ECONOMY IS A WAR, (ii) ECONOMY IS

A BUILDING, (iii) ECONOMY IS A MACHINE, (iv) ECONOMY IS A JOURNEY,

(v) ECONOMY IS A PLANT, (vi) ECONOMY IS A GAME/SPORT, and (vii) ECONOMY IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON The ECONOMY IS A WAR metaphor was found to be the most common, accounting for 47.18% of the metaphors identified The study concludes that English writers use metaphors to convey various aspects of the economy through experientially concrete and familiar source domains, and that the choice of source domains follows certain patterns based on the way a specific culture perceives economic abstract concepts To elaborate, when exploring the underlying conceptual and cultural factors that contribute to the pervasive notion that "ECONOMY IS A WAR," it becomes evident that this theme prevailed in Western countries during the scientific and industrial revolutions Humans are believed to be inherently selfish, violent, and prone to war when competing for limited resources (Zhong, 2017) Therefore, journalists and reporters have developed their concept of war, using their own experiences to talk about the features of the economy

CONCLUSION

Summary of major findings

This study was designed to introduce the CMT and determine the use of structural metaphor in English business news articles The investigation found a total of 337 metaphorical expressions identified in the self-compiled corpus, which verifies the pervasiveness of structural metaphors in daily life, including economic discourses

The exploration study on structural metaphor has shown that most salient patterns are found: (i) ECONOMY IS A WAR, (ii) ECONOMY IS A BUILDING, (iii) ECONOMY IS A MACHINE, (iv) ECONOMY IS A JOURNEY, (v) ECONOMY IS

A PLANT, (vi) ECONOMY IS A GAME/SPORT, and (vii) ECONOMY IS A NATURAL PHENOMENON All structural metaphors used in economic news allow readers to map the source domain to the target domain to understand some abstract concepts

The occurrence of categories of structural metaphors varies from each other The data analysis reveals that the WAR metaphor is the most frequently encountered conceptual metaphor, with a 47.18% frequency rate This is followed by the BUILDING metaphor at 12.17%, the MACHINE metaphor at 9.79%, the JOURNEY metaphor at 9.20%, the PLANT metaphor at 8.31%, the GAME/SPORT metaphor at 7.12%, and the NATURAL PHENOMENON metaphor at 6.23%

These metaphors function as structural metaphors, which play a crucial role in facilitating the conceptual mapping process in readers' minds by providing them with a tangible structure for the target domain, which, in this case, is the economy The economic concepts journalists use to understand the world around us are largely based on our tangible, real-world experiences This is precisely why the metaphors they employ in economic news articles hold significant importance By elucidating economic notions in easily understandable terms, these metaphors facilitate our reasoning about complex economic issues Some of these metaphors have become so deeply ingrained in our thought process that they shape our approach to economic

62 activities Therefore, while these metaphors seem like simple literary devices, they are pivotal in our cognitive framework for comprehending the economy

Furthermore, the researcher has achieved the second objective of showcasing conceptual mapping in English business news articles from a metaphorical context After identifying seven distinct patterns of structural metaphors in the data, each was mapped to create seven metaphorical mappings These mappings allow us to apply inference patterns from the source domain to the target domain While metaphorical mappings are conceptual at an abstract level, they become linguistic when terms from the source domain are transferred to the target domain and acquire a stable sense In the economic context, some terms become firmly established and take on new meanings that may be completely unrelated to their original sense in the source domain These terms become specialized jargon that requires specialized knowledge for understanding Therefore, the study results are significant and contribute to the experience of the use of metaphors in business news articles.

Implications

Consequently, the translation training program can refer to these specific structural metaphors with their metaphorical mappings This approach ensures that students are well-equipped to understand the language use of native writers in translation practices They will be more aware that metaphors are culture-bound, and their effective translation requires understanding the source and target culture Teachers can suggest some CMs and their mapping to help students, who struggle with translating metaphorical expressions related to the economy This will help the students choose the most appropriate metaphorical expression in the target language

According to the findings of this thesis, the researcher propose some sample exercises for business translation courses as follows:

(1) Which metaphor, i.e which source domain and which target domain, can you recognize in the following linguistic expressions:

(a) economic growth; (b) a price war; (c) a trading floor; (d) bankruptcy wave

(a): ECONOMY (target) IS A PLANT(source)

(b): ECONOMY (target) IS A WAR (source)

(c): ECONOMY (target) IS A BUILDING (source)

(d) ECONOMY(target) IS A NATURAL PHENOMENA (source)

(2) What linguistic examples illustrate the conceptual metaphor

"ECONOMY IS A WAR," and what mappings define this metaphor? Lay out the set of correspondences between these elements of the source and those of the target domain?

Activities of warring parties in war

Invading new markets, conquering the market, beat the rival,…

Advertising campaign, strategic business plans,…

(3) Render the following metaphorical collocations into Vietnamese or English and identify the translation strategy procedure in operation in your proposal:

(a) “Việt Nam đón nhận làn sóng đầu tư không ngừng từ Châu Á”

(b) US dollar jumps rebound, gold is protected”

(c) “Chứng khoán châu Á lao dốc trầm trọng”

(d) Globally, productivity growth decelerated sharply in the 1970s from scorchingly high rates in the post-war decades

(a) “Vietnam receives an uninterrupted "investment wave" from Asia.” - Literal translation, in which the figurativeness of the primary metaphor is kept

(b) “Đồng USD tăng giá nhanh và giá vàng vẫn ổn định” - Translation of a metaphor with a neutral, non-metaphorical expression

(c) “The Asian stocks strongly fall down” - Replacement with the equivalent metaphor or the translation based on the similar image

(d) “Trên toàn cầu, tốc độ tăng trưởng năng suất đã giảm tốc vào những năm

1970 ở mức rất cao sau chiến tranh trong các thập kỷ sau.” - Replacement with the equivalent metaphor or the translation based on the similar image

Suggestion for further research

Expanding the scope of metaphor areas and search terms and incorporating a larger corpus of data would benefit any potential research endeavor in this domain Such an approach would facilitate a more comprehensive and profound comprehension of the functions and ramifications of using metaphors in business news articles The corresponding translation strategies for conceptual metaphors still need to be answered Therefore, the cognitive approach to translating conceptual metaphors within the economic domain must be investigated

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APPENDICES Appendix 1: Articles with marked metaphorical expressions in the analysis Article 3: Apple delivers record sales and rising profits as iPhone makes a comeback Source: The Independence

Ben Chapman - Wednesday 29 January 2020 19:40 GMT

Technology giant sells £43bn-worth of its latest smartphone, sending shares to new high

Apple posted record profits in the final three months of last year after a surge in demand for iPhones in the run-up to Christmas

Revenues and profits both beat analysts’ expectations in the October to December period, allaying fears that Apple’s growth was under threat as consumers hold onto their smartphones for longer before upgrading

IPhone sales grew for the first time in a year while the Apple Watch, which the company started selling nearly five years ago, gained new converts The latest version of Apple’s wireless earbuds AirPods sold well during the festive season

Shares in the company rose 1 per cent after the announcement Apple has more than doubled in value since a low last year, adding more than $725bn (£560bn) to its market capitalisation and cementing its position as America’s most valuable company

Apple sold $56bn-worth (£43bn) of iPhone 11s in the quarter, following the launch of the latest iteration of the firm’s flagship handset in September A cheaper version of the new phone also proved popular

Overall, sales in the last three months of 2019 rose 8 per cent year-on-year to $91.8bn (£75bn), while net profits jumped 11 per cent to reach $22.2bn (£17bn)

Wary that consumers’ appetite for constantly replacing their smartphones may soon reach its limit, Apple has focused on expanding its offering of services to sell to owners of the 1.5 billion of its devices already in use

The company has mounted a big push of its new Apple TV Plus video-streaming services, which launched in October to take on Netflix, offering US customers a free year’s subscription with every new iPhone

However, hardware still accounted for $79bn (£61bn) of quarterly revenues, dwarfing the $12.7bn (£9.8bn) generated by services

Article 20: Western firms have little to lose from a Middle Eastern war

With the exception of a few highly exposed companies in a handful of industries

The Middle East is not the world’s only powder keg But it vexes Western strategists more than other volatile places Western investors likewise pay it close attention The world’s stockmarkets shuddered on January 3rd, after an American missile killed

Qassem Suleimani, a top Iranian commander, in Iraq They wobbled again this week, after Iran first threatened and then carried out an attack on American bases on Iraqi soil

War anywhere is bad for business A flare-up in the long conflict between the world’s biggest economy and a proud power in a region whose deep reserves of oil grease the wheels of global commerce creates enough uncertainty to make bosses the world over uneasy The inevitable spike in the price of oil, which gained nearly 5% after the American strike, hurts companies like airlines which use a lot of the stuff Countries in and around the Persian Gulf are a market of 230m consumers Neighbouring Egypt and Turkey, often singed by regional conflagrations, add a further 181m

Yet for all its apparent geopolitical significance, the Middle East is an afterthought in many Western corner offices Save a few oases, notably in energy, aerospace and defence, the region looks like a multinational desert

Decades of American sanctions mean no America Inc presence in Iran Fearful of angering Washington, many European and Japanese firms have also steered clear France’s psa sold lots of Peugeots and Citroởns in Iran’s large market but pulled out of two joint ventures in 2018 to avoid American sanctions after President Donald Trump reimposed those lifted as part of a deal to curb Iran’s nuclear programme

Even beyond Iran, the region scarcely registers on multinationals’ profit-and-loss statements The Middle East and Africa accounted for 2.4% of listed American firms’ revenues in 2019, according to Morgan Stanley, a bank For European and Japanese companies it was 4.9% and 1.8%, respectively Middle Easterners still buy comparatively few of the world’s cars (2.3m out of 86m sold globally in 2018) Peddlers of luxury goods like Prada, an Italian fashion house, and L’Oréal, a French beauty

75 giant, book 3% of sales in the Middle East (not counting sheikhs’ shopping trips to Milan or Paris)

Appendix 2: The analysis in Microsoft Excel

Appendix 3: Originality Report from Turnitin

Appendix 4: Sources of 45 news articles