Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill

Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill Vietnamese EFL tertiary students’ self-assessment in writing skill

Research background

In the past few decades, Vietnam's educational system, especially in foreign language education, has undergone significant transformations English has emerged as the dominant foreign language in the country due to socio-economic development and educational policies It has become essential for international communication, trade, and attracting foreign investments English proficiency is now highly sought after for employment, research, and various purposes, such as travelling and studying abroad

Along with the national renovation policy, English as a foreign language (EFL) has been officially taught as a compulsory subject in the educational system since after the Sixth National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party in December 1986

Recently, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has introduced significant policy changes to prioritize learner-centered learning and foster self-study skills in higher education For instance, there have been a number of standard policies pertaining to tertiary education, including the implementation of a credit-based training system and a shift towards a combination of summative and formative assessments

(MOET Decision No 25/2006/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 26 th June 2006; MOET Decision No

43/2007/QĐ-BGD&ĐT, 15 th August 2007) These policy decisions have positively reflected a growing recognition of the importance of students' role in the learning process within educational contexts The shift towards learner-centered learning and the implementation of formative assessment practices represent important advancements in Vietnam's higher education system These changes not only empower students to take charge of their learning process but also promote a more holistic and effective approach to education that aligns with contemporary educational theories and best practices

The growing interest in formative assessment has positively impacted teaching and assessment practices, emphasizing the improvement of teaching quality and student learning Formative assessment empowers students to monitor their progress, take responsibility for their learning, and develop learner autonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010;

Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017) Students play a central role in the learning process, engaging in activities, and participating in classroom assessment through self-assessment, peer

2 assessment, and collaborative work (Andrade, 2019; Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Brown &

Harris, 2013; Nguyễn Hồ Hoàng Thuỷ & Trương Thị Anh, 2021) Self-assessment, in particular, promotes learner autonomy and enhances independent learning, aligning with the principles of formative assessment (Boud, 1995; Gardner, 2000).

Research rationale

In education literature, the shift towards learner-centered learning in higher education is a significant development in Vietnam's educational system This approach emphasizes student engagement, active learning, and the development of critical thinking skills (Brown & Harris, 2013; Butler, 2016; Smith, 2018) Higher education institutions prioritize learner-centered learning to empower students to take ownership of their learning process and develop the necessary skills for lifelong learning In addition, learner-centered learning is aligned with contemporary educational theories, such as constructivism and social constructivism, which emphasize the active role of learners in constructing their knowledge (Adam, 2017; Dewey, 1933; Johnson, 2015) It allows learners to actively engage with the language, practice communication skills, and develop a deeper understanding of the language's cultural and contextual aspects In writing classes, for instance, learner-centered learning encourages students to actively engage with the English language when developing their writing skill Instead of passively receiving knowledge, students are encouraged to participate in various writing activities, such as brainstorming, drafting, editing, and revising (Oshima & Hogue, 2006) Learners have more opportunities to practice writing in different genres, styles, and contexts, which allows them to explore and experiment with the language

Fostering learner autonomy in developing students' writing skill, students can explore their learning styles, set goals, and take responsibility for their language acquisition process

Remarkably, formative assessment is an integral component of student-centered learning and has gained increasing attention in educational development, especially in EFL contexts (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Andrade & Du, 2007; Brown & Harris, 2014)

Unlike summative assessment, which assesses learning outcomes at the end of a course or semester, formative assessment focuses on providing ongoing feedback to students during the learning process It is designed to monitor student progress, identify areas of improvement, and inform instructional decision-making (Butler, 2016; Lee, 2017; Race, 2020) In Vietnam’s higher education, formative assessment in English language education can take various forms, including self-assessment, peer assessment, teacher feedback, and collaborative activities According to Boud (2013), self-assessment encourages students to reflect on their language proficiency, set personal learning goals,

3 and evaluate their progress It empowers students to take charge of their own learning

Peer assessment enables students to provide constructive feedback to their peers, fostering a supportive and collaborative learning environment Teacher feedback and classroom assessment activities further contribute to the formative assessment process by offering timely guidance and facilitating students' language development

Besides, formative assessment aligns with the principles of learner-centered learning, as it empowers students to actively engage in the learning process, monitor their own learning, and take ownership of their progress (Andrade, 2010; Boud, 2013;

Lee & Mak, 2018) It promotes metacognitive skills, self-regulation, and critical thinking abilities, which are essential for students to become proficient and autonomous learners and contribute to their overall growth as effective communicators and critical thinkers in both academic and real-world contexts

Moreover, self-assessment plays a crucial role in the formative assessment process as provided by Andrade (2018) and Boud (1995) These researchers underscored that self-assessment has an important role in enhancing learners' understanding of the learning objectives and effectively monitoring their progress toward their goals

Andrade (2018) implied that self-assessment allows learners to actively engage with the learning process by evaluating their own work and progress It means that students can gain a clearer understanding of the intended learning outcomes when taking an active role in assessing their performance They become more aware of the specific criteria and standards against which their work is assessed, thus enhancing their overall perceptions of the learning objectives Additionally, self-assessment provides students with opportunities to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and set realistic goals Students can take ownership of their learning process and make informed decisions about their learning strategies and priorities by actively monitoring their own progress Likewise, Boud (1995) further supported the importance of self-assessment in student-centered learning by highlighting its role in promoting metacognitive awareness Learners develop a deeper understanding of their learning processes, including their learning styles, preferences, and strategies through self-assessment This heightened self-awareness enables students to make more informed choices about their learning methods, adapt their approaches as needed, and become more self-directed in their learning Therefore, it is possible to conclude that self-assessment is to optimize students’ learning and enhance student- centered learning in the classroom

However, the current understanding of teaching and learning writing as a skill of classroom practice through self-assessment in Vietnam at the tertiary level is somewhat

4 limited in the existing literature There is a lack of comprehensive insights into the perceptions, practices, and challenges that Vietnamese EFL students face when engaging in self-assessment in writing skill This current knowledge gap highlights the need for further research in this area In addition, the specific population gap of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students has been overlooked in many studies examining self- assessment in learning writing This gap emphasizes the importance of investigating the role of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level Thirdly, there is a practical knowledge gap concerning the implementation and application of self-assessment in teaching and learning writing as a classroom practice within a specific context of higher education in Vietnam While the theoretical underpinnings and potential benefits of self-assessment are acknowledged in the literature, there is a lack of practical guidance and evidence-based strategies for effectively integrating self-assessment practices into the writing curriculum Therefore, this research aims to address these gaps by conducting an in-depth investigation into the current state of teaching and learning writing, with a particular focus on self- assessment By doing so, this study intends to contribute to the existing knowledge by providing valuable insights and a deeper understanding of the use of self-assessment in the context of teaching and learning writing to Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

Aims and research questions

The primary focus of this study is to examine the perceptions, practices, and challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' self-assessment in writing skill Within the domain of students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill, the study aims to gain valuable insights into EFL students' perspectives and attitudes toward self-assessment in learning writing as a skill The research objective is firstly to understand the overall perceptions of EFL students' self-assessment in their writing skill In the same vein, the study seeks to investigate students' perceptions of self- efficacy and the perceived benefits of self-assessment in writing skill Meanwhile, the research also delves into students' self-assessment practices, exploring both reported practices and actual engagement of tertiary students’ self-assessment in learning writing The ultimate research objective is to explore the challenges encountered by EFL students' self-assessment while learning writing, with a particular focus on understanding their real engagement in the self-assessment process To achieve these aims, the study addresses three specific research questions:

1 What are Vietnamese EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill?

2 How do Vietnamese EFL students practice self-assessment when learning writing?

5 3 What are the challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL students in self-assessment in writing skill?

By investigating these research questions, the study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of how Vietnamese EFL tertiary students perceive, practice, and encounter self-assessment in learning writing as a skill The findings of this research can enrich the existing knowledge base and inform educational practices, curriculum development, and instructional strategies in the teaching and learning of writing as a productive skill for Vietnamese EFL students at the tertiary level.

Research scope

This study defines its scope as an investigation into the perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in the process of learning English writing among Vietnamese EFL tertiary students The research was conducted over a six-month period at two universities in the southern region of Vietnam The participants exclusively comprised second-year students majoring in English who volunteered to participate in this research

The research narrows its focus by employing cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognition theory, and reflection theory as the theoretical background for self- assessment, emphasizing autonomous and self-regulated learning in the context of writing Additionally, it utilizes a mixed-methods approach, integrating both quantitative and qualitative approaches in two stages In the first stage, the study administered a questionnaire to a large number of EFL students and conducted eight focus-group interviews During the empirical stage, an 8-week project was conducted with a group of second-year students who were enrolled in an online writing course designed to enhance their writing skill These students were assigned tasks that included writing essays, using self-assessment checklist to self-assess their papers and revising them, and finally completing a questionnaire and reflective journals

The study specifically aimed to gain insights into Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' perceptions, practices, and challenges associated with self-assessment in the context of learning writing.

Significance of the research

This research bears notable significance in the field of English language education within higher education in Vietnam, particularly regarding students’ perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning English writing The findings of this study can provide insights into the current state of English writing instruction at Vietnamese universities, which can further inform higher education strategies for

6 English language teaching, program development, teaching methodologies, and related conditions pertinent to English writing instruction

Firstly, investigating the perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning writing among Vietnamese EFL students helps bridge gaps in the existing literature, such as knowledge, population, empirical, and methodology gaps In the specific context of higher education and writing skill, there has been limited attention given to self-assessment within Vietnamese university settings Therefore, this study can add to the body of knowledge by shedding light on this crucial aspect of learning writing as a skill through self-assessment

Secondly, the study's methodology, derived from a combination of cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognitive theory, and reflection theories, along with the integration of quantitative and qualitative methods, contributes to the advancement of research methodologies in the field Additionally, the use of multiple data collection tools (questionnaires, interviews, self-assessment checklists, reflective journals, and students' papers) enables the gathering of diverse data types, fostering a comprehensive and detailed understanding of self-assessment in learning writing among Vietnamese EFL students This methodological contribution can inspire future research endeavours and serve as a reference for other researchers investigating similar topics

The findings of this research carry practical implications for English writing lecturers, curriculum developers, and policymakers By gaining insight into how EFL students perceive and engage in self-assessment in English writing, educators can tailor more effective instructional strategies and assessment practices to improve students' writing skill Regarding students' actual perceptions of self-assessment, English writing instructors can guide students' understanding in the correct direction while also refining their own teaching approaches Besides, in terms of students' reflective practices of self- assessment in writing skill, both English lecturers and students at Vietnamese universities can recognize these practices as relevant issues requiring scientific solutions to enhance the effectiveness of writing instruction

Finally, concerning the research results on students’ challenges of self-assessment in English writing skill, writing lecturers responsible for English teaching at Vietnamese universities can classify these challenges into at least two groups: negative challenges that need to be overcome and positive ones that require redirection or improvement in better ways By examining the challenges faced by Vietnamese EFL students in the self-assessment process, lecturers can inform support mechanisms and interventions to address these issues Students can benefit from a better understanding of the challenges of self-assessment, enabling them to become more self-directed

7 learners and take ownership of their writing development.

Organization of the study

Chapter 1 provides an overview of the current study, including the research background, research rationale, research questions, research aims, scope, and significance of the study It sets the stage for the entire research project and outlines the key aspects that will be explored

Chapter 2 presents a critical thematic review of relevant literature It examines theoretical background of self-assessment in learning writing and explores theories of assessment related to self-assessment This chapter also identifies research gaps in previous studies on self-assessment issues, highlighting the need for further investigation

Chapter 3 focuses on the research methodologies employed in this study It discusses the research approaches and research design used to gather data and address the research questions The chapter describes the research contexts, sites, participants, and the role of the researcher Moreover, it presents the instruments for data collection and data analysis, while addressing ethical considerations, reliability, and validity issues

Chapter 4 reports and discusses the findings of the study It presents the results of the data collected on students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning writing The chapter provides an analysis of the data and engages in a thorough discussion of the findings, highlighting key patterns, themes, and implications

Chapter 5 summarizes the key findings of the study and provides implications for the field of self-assessment in English language education It highlights the contributions of the research and discusses potential directions for future research in this area The chapter concludes the study by bringing together the main insights and offering a closing reflection on the overall research endeavor

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundations and relevant concepts related to self-assessment It begins by examining theories of cognition and constructivism, metacognition, and reflection, highlighting their significance in understanding the self-assessment process The discussion then centers around the purposes and key characteristics of self-assessment, particularly about different types of assessment commonly used in educational contexts To contextualize the current research, previous studies in the field are thoroughly examined, identifying gaps in the existing literature that this study aims to address Building upon the insights from prior research, this chapter sets the foundation for the subsequent investigation into Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing skill.

Theoretical background

Cognitive and constructivist theories

Cognitive and constructivist theories have significantly influenced the educational field, shedding light on how learners construct knowledge These theories highlight the crucial roles of both the writing process and self-assessment, emphasizing learners' active engagement in knowledge construction and the importance of comprehending and building knowledge in these processes

Cognitive theory, a fundamental concept in understanding learning processes, plays a pivotal role in the writing process According to Piaget (1985), learners actively construct knowledge through their experiences, necessitating their active involvement in the development of understanding This principle extends to the process of writing, where students must draw upon their existing knowledge, skills, and experiences, actively engaging in the construction of their written work

Likewise, this active knowledge construction is evident in Flower and Hayes'

9 (1981, p.370) writing process model, where cognitive theory underpins specific components: the planning process, the translating component, and the review element

In the planning stage, writers engage in mental activities, organizing ideas, and setting goals Here, the writers actively structure their thoughts and plan the composition, reflecting cognitive theory's emphasis on individual knowledge construction Writers utilize cognitive strategies, leveraging their existing knowledge to arrange ideas coherently In the process of translating component, cognitive theory highlights that mental representations are translated the ideas into various forms in written language In this stage, the writers transform their organized thoughts into written words such as selecting appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and composition This process mirrors cognitive theory's focus on the transformation of mental constructs into external expressions, highlighting the cognitive processes inherent in written expression

Finally, within the context of the writing process, cognitive theory emphasizes the importance of reviewing and revising written work It suggests that writers engage in metacognitive processes, such as self-assessment and error detection, to refine their writing In other words, the writers self-assess their drafts, identify areas for improvement, and make revisions based on reflections

In another view on the process of the review element, cognitive theory places significant emphasis on metacognition, which involves thinking about one's thinking processes (Dewey,1933) This principle finds resonance in the review element of Flower and Hayes' writing model, which encompasses reviewing, evaluating, and revising written work Writers engage in metacognitive processes by critically evaluating their work, identifying errors, and making revisions Through this process, students can understand the benefits of each step in the process of review element in their work This aligns seamlessly with cognitive theory's emphasis on metacognition and self-assessment Writers actively monitor and adjust their cognitive processes, contemplating their writing strategies and applying revisions based on their evaluation

Besides, self-assessment in learning writing closely aligns with Piaget's (1985) view, allowing students to take an active role in evaluating their progress and constructing their understanding of their writing skill Through self-assessment, students engage in critical reflection, identifying strengths and weaknesses in writing and making informed decisions for improvement Thus, self-assessment becomes a potent tool for students to construct knowledge actively and deepen their comprehension of writing skill

In addition to the theory of cognition, constructivist theory significantly influences the writing process and self-assessment by emphasizing active knowledge construction and personal meaning-making As highlighted by Dewey (1933) and Vygotsky (1978), constructivist theory posits that learners construct knowledge through social interactions and meaningful experiences within their learning environment In the writing process,

10 learners actively construct meaning as they make informed decisions, establish connections between ideas, and create a coherent composition This dynamic process mirrors the active knowledge construction central to constructivist theory Furthermore, Piaget (1985) emphasized that learners create personal meaning by integrating new information with their existing knowledge Students draw upon their prior knowledge and experiences to comprehend the writing task, infusing their compositions with individual perspectives This approach aligns with constructivist principles, emphasizing the significance of individual meaning-making

Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) underscored the effectiveness of learning within a learner's ZPD In the writing process, teachers can facilitate learning by providing scaffolding, such as self-assessment checklists, to help students enhance their writing skill and self-assessment ability This is optimized when individuals are actively engaged in tasks just beyond their current capabilities

Self-assessment is integral to the writing process, prompting writers to reflect on their choices and improve their communication skills Through self-assessment, writers construct their understanding of their work, exploring both their strengths and weaknesses Vygotsky's (1978) ideas support the integration of self-assessment in writing education, emphasizing its pivotal role in fostering independent learning

Additionally, constructivism advocates for student autonomy, encouraging individual expression and creativity, thereby enhancing students' writing skills (Mahmud, 2013)

Mahmud's work highlights the significance of integrating learners’ prior knowledge with new information to enrich their learning outcomes

However, it is important to note that cognitive and constructivist theories may have limitations in understanding writing self-assessment, especially within specific contexts like Vietnam's higher education Socio-cultural and contextual factors, which may extend beyond individual cognitive processes, influence self-assessment practices

The practical implementation of self-assessment strategies can be intricate, demanding careful scaffolding and guidance from instructors Addressing these limitations is crucial in both research and instructional design, particularly in a specific educational context such as Vietnam.

Metacognition theory

Metacognition theory, extensively explored in psychological and educational literature, refers to learners' ability to monitor, assess, and regulate cognitive strategies to improve their performance (Flavell, 1979; Lee & Mak, 2018) These strategies involve conscious control over cognitive processes, including self-assessing comprehension, estimating self-efficacy, organizing tasks, managing time, and transitioning between

11 learning activities (McMillan & Hearn, 2008) In the context of EFL writing, these processes are essential for students to engage in self-assessment This includes monitoring their understanding of writing prompts, estimating task comprehension, setting writing objectives, and managing the various phases of the writing process (e.g., planning, drafting, revising, and editing) Consciously controlling these cognitive processes empowers students to actively self-assess their writing, identify specific strengths and weaknesses, and enhance their work, thus taking ownership of their learning

Metacognition theory carries profound implications for education, particularly in students' self-assessment It underscores the importance of teaching students to reflect on their thinking and develop metacognitive strategies for learning (Flavell, 1979; Lee

& Mak, 2018) Encouraging students to engage in self-assessment and reflect on their thinking aligns with metacognition's principles of monitoring and regulating cognitive processes Self-assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning, define their learning goals, and monitor their progress toward those objectives, aligning with metacognition's emphasis on self-regulated learning and activities such as planning, monitoring, and self-assessment

Remarkably, metacognitive knowledge pertains to learners' cognitive processes and factors influencing learning, including motivation, beliefs, and self-efficacy (Flavell, 1979; Schunk, 2012; Wenden, 1998) Among these factors, self-efficacy significantly influences students' perceptions of self-assessment It encompasses their beliefs regarding their overall capacity, knowledge, and ability to accurately assess their skills For instance, students might express their confidence by saying, "I assume that I can " or "I think I can do well in ” or “I think my strengths are "

On the other hand, metacognitive strategies refer to students' abilities to regulate cognitive processes, including monitoring, adjusting, reflecting, and contemplating the self-assessment process (Zhang, 2010) Essentially, students use metacognitive strategies to monitor and self-assess their learning objectives They focus on their learning goals and develop strategies relevant to their self-assessment activities (Suskie, 2018) By engaging in these practices, students gain a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and values of self-assessment For example, they might express, "I find that learning with self-assessment allows me to " or "I realize that self-assessment encourages me to " Consequently, metacognitive strategies play a critical role in helping learners comprehend the advantages and significance of learning through self- assessment, as they utilize their strategic knowledge to attain cognitive objectives in their learning activities

Moreover, metacognition can help students become effective problem-solvers through a self-assessment process (Lee & Mak, 2018; Schunk, 2012) Self-assessment

12 encourages students to identify their ability, analyze their learning strategies, and make necessary adjustments This enhances their understanding of the subject matter and equips them with skills to address complex problems and adapt their learning approaches Fostering metacognitive strategies through self-assessment prepares students for lifelong learning

In conclusion, metacognition significantly contributes to learners' understanding of the benefits, values, and self-efficacy associated with self-assessment Metacognitive strategies empower students to think about their learning processes, make informed assessments, and enhance their writing skill By being metacognitively aware, students can become more skillful writers and actively contribute to their learning and development.

Reflection theory

In learning writing, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' self- assessment Engaging in reflective practices, students can deepen their understanding, develop critical thinking skills, and improve their writing abilities

Reflection theory, as emphasized by Dewey’s (1933) work, underscores the significance of thoughtful consideration, problem-solving, and the development of one's thinking Dewey's perspective on reflection theory aligns seamlessly with the process of self-assessment in learning writing This implies that students engage in thoughtful consideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their work and make informed decisions about their writing strategies through reflection For instance, when focusing on problem-solving, students are able to identify specific challenges they encounter during the writing process and develop strategies to address them Moreover, reflection theory emphasizes the growth of learners’ thinking, encouraging students to self-assess their writing from multiple perspectives and consider alternative approaches This reflective practice not only enhances students' writing skill but also cultivates their ability to engage in metacognition, enabling them to monitor, self-assess, and adjust their writing strategies based on their self- assessment Overall, reflection theory plays a fundamental role in students' self- assessment in learning writing, empowering them to become active participants in their learning process

Emphasizing the role of self-assessment in the writing classroom, Dewey (1933) argued that reflection cultivates students' perception of the value of interpersonal communication in the learning process Through self-assessment, for example, students engage in critical thinking about their writing, considering feedback from peers and teachers This active engagement with others fosters collaboration, peer learning, and the exchange of ideas Students develop an understanding that their writing skills can be

13 enriched through diverse perspectives and constructive dialogue

Moreover, reflecting on their essays and the works of others, students develop an appreciation for the social nature of learning, recognizing that knowledge is co- constructed through interactions with peers and teachers In addition to promoting social interactions, self-assessment in the writing classroom also nurtures students' sense of responsibility for their own learning Through reflection, students take ownership of their writing process, as they self-assess their strengths and areas for improvement Self-assessment prompts students to set specific goals, monitor their progress, and make adjustments accordingly Actively engaging in self-assessment, students become aware of their own learning needs and take responsibility for seeking appropriate strategies to enhance their writing skills This sense of ownership fosters intrinsic motivation, self-directed learning, and a growth mindset

In short, reflection theory plays a significant role in students' self-assessment in learning writing Rooted in Dewey's perspective, reflection theory encourages students to engage in thoughtful consideration of their writing practices, enabling them to critically analyze their writing work and make informed decisions about their writing strategies

Through reflection, students can identify specific challenges, seek alternative approaches, and monitor their progress, ultimately fostering critical thinking skills, metacognition, and intrinsic motivation in the writing classroom Moreover, self-assessment promotes collaboration, peer learning, and a sense of responsibility for one's own learning process, emphasizing the social nature of knowledge construction and empowering students to become active participants in their learning process.

Self-assessment in autonomous and self-regulated learning

On defining self-assessment, Andrade (2019) pointed out that it was surprisingly difficult to clearly define “self-assessment” because self-assessment involves various activities, like predicting students’ test results, using a rubric or checklist to diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses, writing reflective journals, and more Each of those tasks has a unique sort of assessment and function; therefore, they may lead to confusion between these forms and the concept of self-assessment In addition, numerous terms have been used interchangeably to describe the process of students’ assessment and reflection on their own learning, including notable terms such as “self- assessment”, “self-reflection”, “self-monitoring”, and “self-evaluation” Significantly, a process of students’ self-rating, self-grading, self-testing, and self-judging can be seen as forms of self-assessment These terms can occasionally create ambiguity when it comes to self-assessment

Harris and McCann (1994) highlighted that self-assessment is the way students

14 self-assess their learning process and problems and then look for ways of changing, adapting, and improving This perspective emphasizes the idea of individualism in a process of learning that students themselves self-judge their learning progress and improve in isolation In contrast to Harris and McCann (1994), Boud (1991) argued that self-assessment is not just an individualistic activity or a learning process of a learner, but involves many learners Boud (1991, p.12) defined self-assessment as “the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgments about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards.” In other words, Boud (1991) believed the conceptualization of self- assessment involves learners collaborating in assessing their work during the process of learning This collaborative approach aligns with the notion of autonomous learning, where students take ownership of their learning process and engage in self-assessment within a social context such as seeking feedback or information from a variety of sources on a regular basis

From another perspective, Gregory et al (2011) emphasized the importance of reflection on performance in self-assessment processes Their definition underscores students' reflection on the quality of their work and their assessment of its reflectivity against explicitly stated goals or criteria This reflective aspect is fundamental to self- regulated learning, as it enables students to monitor their progress, identify areas for improvement, and revise their work accordingly

Brown and Harris (2013, p.3) defined self-assessment as "a process of the evaluative and descriptive act carried out by students regarding their tasks and abilities." This aligns with Brown's (2003) view of self-assessment as a process of self-assessment, wherein students evaluate and monitor their performance against identified criteria Zimmerman (2000) described self-assessment as a process of self-observation and self-judgment, involving tracking specific aspects of performance, conditions, and effects, and judging performance against criteria or standards These definitions highlight the importance of reflection, evaluation, and judgment in self-assessment processes

Notably, Andrade and Du (2007, p.3) defined self-assessment as

"a process of formative assessment during which students reflect on and evaluate the quality of their work and their learning, judge the degree to which they reflect explicitly stated goals or criteria, identify strengths and weakness in their work, and revise."

This definition is in line with the principles of learner-centered education

According to Andrade and Du's definition, self-assessment embodies the learner- centered approach by placing the learner at the center of the formative assessment process It empowers students to reflect on the quality of their work, assess their

15 progress, and identify areas for improvement based on their own understanding of the goals and criteria Students become active participants in their own learning, fostering a sense of autonomy, self-perception, and metacognitive skills when engaging in self- assessment This supports the development of lifelong learners who can self-regulate, adapt, and continuously improve their knowledge and skills

In summary, the aforementioned definitions and concepts of self-assessment underscored the significance of autonomous and self-regulated learning The statements provided by different authors emphasized the involvement of reflection, evaluation, judgment, and goal-oriented assessment within self-assessment processes Engaging in self-assessment, students become active participants in their learning process, seeking feedback, and making adjustments to improve their learning

The concept of autonomous learning, emphasizing self-directed learning, has gained significant attention in educational contexts Scholars have stressed the pivotal role of self-assessment in fostering autonomous learning among students According to Benson (2009), Gardner (2000), and Smith (2018), learner-centered education equips students with essential skills such as self-assessment, decision-making, and problem- solving, empowering them to take control of their learning Self-assessment promotes autonomous learning, enabling students to actively assess their progress, reflect on their strengths and areas for improvement, and make informed decisions about their learning strategies This process cultivates a sense of ownership and independence, allowing students to tailor their learning experiences to their unique needs and goals Through self-assessment, learners develop metacognitive awareness, enhancing their ability to monitor their progress and make necessary adjustments

The relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy has been additionally emphasized by Gardner (2000) and Holec (1981) Autonomous learners, as Gardner argued, are responsible for monitoring their progress, with self-assessment playing a pivotal role in reflection and progress monitoring Holec similarly highlighted that self-assessment is crucial for learners to reflect on their progress and monitor their development Both perspectives underscore that self-assessment empowers students to critically assess their performance, identify areas for improvement, and make necessary adjustments, fostering self-awareness, metacognitive skills, and a deeper understanding of the learning process

Additionally, Gholami (2016) further delved into the advantages of self- assessment for independent learners, considering it a self-monitoring tool providing instant feedback on language proficiency and learning strategy effectiveness Gardner (2010) supported this perspective, stating that self-assessment enables learners to

16 personalize their learning, reflect on strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress, and engage in metacognitive processes These insights highlight the benefits of self- assessment in promoting learner autonomy by enabling personalized learning and metacognitive engagement

Overall, the close relationship between self-assessment and learner autonomy is evident in their shared focus on learner-centeredness and independent learning Benson (2009) and Gardner (2000) emphasized the learner-centered nature of both concepts, highlighting the active role of students in their learning process This learner-centered approach contributes to the development of lifelong learning skills as learners become more independent and self-directed in their educational journey

Pintrich (2000) defined self-regulated learning as the process where students establish objectives for their learning and actively monitor, adjust, and manage their thoughts, motivation, and actions to achieve these objectives Pintrich’s definition is strongly supported by contemporary educational psychology and empirical research, particularly within cognitive theory and social constructivism Self-regulated learning underscores the active involvement of learners in their educational process, which includes goal setting, metacognition, motivation, and adaptable strategies Research, including studies by Panadero et al (2016) and Zimmerman and Schunk (2011), consistently reveals a positive correlation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement In essence, Pintrich's definition encapsulates the core elements of self- regulated learning, highlighting the pivotal role of active engagement and goal-oriented metacognition in shaping learning outcomes

Significant conceptual and practical overlap exists between self-assessment and self-regulated learning within educational literature Boud (2013) emphasized that both self-assessment and self-regulated learning revolve around how students perceive the quality of their work during the learning process Brown (2003) further solidified the alignment by underlining their shared goal of encouraging students to critically assess their progress Essentially, these perspectives underscore that both self-assessment and self-regulated learning foster metacognitive skills, enabling students to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses This interconnection highlights their collective focus on student engagement, reflection, and assessment of the learning process

Assessment in foreign language education

Formative assessment

Teacher assessment or feedback plays a critical role in formative assessment practices, where the focus is on improving students' learning process The significance of teacher feedback in classroom assessments highlights its value in providing informative insights, enhancing student learning, promoting learner autonomy, and developing students’ self-assessment skills

In contrast to the traditional approach that primarily relies on using grades as feedback indicators of students’ achievement, a significant shift has focussed towards process-related assessment, which involves providing direct feedback to students for self-correction This change recognizes the importance of ongoing assessment and feedback in supporting student learning In this context, the role of teacher feedback has become vital (Andrade, 2013; Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017) Providing constructive feedback, teachers act as constructivists, igniting students' active engagement in the learning process and unlocking the full potential of assessments to improve students’ learning Teacher feedback in formative assessment aligns with research that highlighted the valuable role of constructive feedback in promoting students’ growth and development (Lee, 2017) It empowers teachers to guide students effectively, providing them with specific guidance and actionable suggestions for improvement Ultimately, the integration of formative feedback maximizes the potential of assessments to foster continuous learning and drive positive educational development

Teacher feedback holds significant value as it serves as an information-seeking process that enhances students' learning opportunities (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Lee, 2017)

Teachers often create a learning environment where students can actively engage with their learning by offering constructive feedback and guidance This feedback-oriented approach allows students to receive specific insights into their learning process, enabling them to make necessary adjustments and improvements It means that these valuable learning opportunities support students' overall growth and development The value of teacher

20 feedback in enhancing students' learning opportunities lies in its ability to provide targeted guidance and promote continuous improvement, fostering a more effective and meaningful learning experience

Moreover, teacher assessment plays a central role in formative assessment, serving the dual purpose of facilitating learning improvement and fostering learner autonomy (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Harlen & Gardner, 2010; Lee, 2017) Through the provision of feedback, teachers can provide valuable insights and guidance to their students, enabling them to identify areas for improvement and make necessary adjustments in their learning process This feedback-oriented approach not only promotes learning improvement but also empowers students to take ownership of their learning process In such a dynamic environment, students often develop metacognitive skills, reflect on their learning strategies, and become more self-regulated learners Teacher feedback thus acts as a catalyst for both learning improvement and the development of learner autonomy, allowing students to take an active role in their education and become more independent and self-directed in their learning

Finally, teacher assessment plays an important role in equipping students with self-assessment skills and empowering them to become self-regulated learners As Andrade and Cizek (2010) pointed out that teacher feedback promotes students' active engagement in the learning process and maximizes the potential of assessment for improving learning This perspective highlights the potential value of teacher feedback in promoting student involvement and enhancing learning Teachers guide their students toward achieving their learning goals by providing targeted feedback This aligns with Lee's (2017) view that teacher feedback is an information-seeking process that optimizes students' learning opportunities The act of receiving feedback from teachers enables students to reflect on their own performance, identify areas of improvement, and develop self-assessment skills It is through this iterative process of feedback and reflection that students become more self-regulated in their learning Lee (2017) and Brown (2003) further emphasized the transformative power of teacher feedback, stating that it empowers students to become autonomous learners

Internalizing the feedback received, students become more self-directed and take responsibility for their own learning process The values of teacher assessment, therefore, extend beyond academic achievement and contribute to the holistic development of students as self-regulated learners capable of lifelong learning

2.2.1.2 Self-assessment as a key strategy of formative assessment

In recent years, a significant shift has occurred in classroom assessment practices within higher education, placing a growing emphasis on formative assessment Formative assessment is globally recognized as a potent method for evaluating the effectiveness of

21 teaching and learning (Andrade & Cizek, 2010; Brookhart, 2011; Lee, 2017) Within the framework of formative assessment, self-assessment assumes a crucial role in promoting student engagement, metacognition, and self-regulated learning

Andrade and Brown (2016), along with Brown and Harris (2013), emphasized the importance of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it empowers students to actively monitor and reflect on their own learning progress This recognition underscores the empowering nature of self-assessment, allowing students to exercise greater control over their learning and take responsibility for their academic growth As a result, students develop a deeper self-perception of their strengths and weaknesses, thereby facilitating purposeful and personalized learning experiences Similarly, Bennett (2011) and Brookhart (2011) acknowledged the significance of self-assessment within formative assessment, affirming that it cultivates metacognitive abilities and enhances students' perceptions of their own learning process This perspective aligns with the idea that self-assessment fosters metacognition, enabling students to reflect on their learning approaches, identify areas requiring enhancement, and make appropriate adaptations Engaging in the self-assessment process nurtures students' self-perception and instills a sense of responsibility for their learning trajectory

Butler (2016) and Race (2020) also underscored the role of self-assessment in formative assessment, asserting that it nurtures students' autonomy and accountability for their learning This perspective highlights the transformative impact of self- assessment, empowering students to become self-regulated learners Self-assessment empowers students to assume control of their learning by setting goals, monitoring progress, and making informed decisions to enhance their learning outcomes

Moreover, the role of self-assessment in formative assessment finds further support from Irons (2008) and Parr and Timperley (2010), who suggested that self-assessment maximizes the potential of classroom assessment to enhance students' learning Self- assessment activities encourage students to actively engage with content, reflect on their learning, and develop a deeper understanding of their capabilities and growth areas This process contributes to a more student-centered and learner-driven educational approach

In short, the integration of formative assessment practices in higher education highlights the crucial role of self-assessment in promoting student engagement, metacognition, and self-regulated learning Studies by Andrade, Brookhart, and Butler collectively emphasize that self-assessment empowers students to monitor progress, reflect on learning, and take ownership of their academic journey, fostering metacognitive abilities and autonomy This enhances students' perceptions of their learning process and supports a more student-centered educational paradigm

Peer assessment has emerged as a valuable strategy within formative assessment, providing students with feedback and promoting active engagement in the learning process Also known as peer feedback, peer evaluation, or peer editing, it holds immense value and plays a pivotal role in enhancing students' learning and self- assessment skills

Peer assessment is widely acknowledged as a potent source for enriching students' learning experiences and fostering autonomy and self-regulation This perspective is substantiated by prominent researchers in the field (Boud, 2013; Brown, 2003; Lee, 2017; Race, 2011; Topping, 2013) who have explored the impact of peer assessment on student development Through peer assessment, students actively participate in the evaluation and feedback process, leading to a deeper grasp of the subject matter

Assessing their peers' work, students are exposed to diverse perspectives and alternative approaches, which broadens their knowledge base and hones their critical thinking skills Moreover, peer assessment empowers students to take charge of their learning by encouraging them to be active contributors to the assessment process Providing constructive feedback to their peers enhances students' ability to self-assess their own work and identify areas for improvement This self-assessment process contributes to their growth as independent learners, as they become proficient in setting goals, monitoring their progress, and assuming responsibility for their learning process

Ultimately, peer assessment emerges as a potent tool that enhances students' learning processes while nurturing autonomy and self-regulation skills

Participation in peer assessment offers compelling justifications for its value in educational settings Firstly, it refines students' judgment and self-assessment skills, as emphasized by Topping (2013) Critically assessing their peers' work deepens students' understanding of assessment criteria and standards, refining their ability to make informed judgments about their own work's quality and effectiveness This assessment process encourages self-perception and reflection, enabling students to more accurately pinpoint their strengths and areas for improvement Secondly, engaging in peer assessment motivates students to take an active role in the group work process This approach encourages them to participate actively in the learning community, contributing to a collective understanding of the subject matter This collaborative approach fosters meaningful interactions and discussions among peers, resulting in heightened comprehension and the exchange of diverse perspectives Lastly, peer assessment promotes students' responsibility for their own learning The assessment process, combined with providing feedback to peers, encourages students to assume ownership over their progress and growth They develop a sense of accountability for their learning journey and take on the task of monitoring and enhancing their own work

Self-assessment for summative purposes

Summative assessment, a traditional method of evaluating students' learning outcomes, has long been a fundamental element of educational systems worldwide (Brown & Harris, 2013; Earl, 2003) One significant criticism of summative assessment is its focus on end results rather than the learning process itself Placing excessive importance on final grades or scores, summative assessment often fails to capture the complete picture of a student's learning progression It overlooks the progress students make throughout their learning journey and neglects to provide meaningful feedback for enhancement This narrow focus on outcomes can foster a fixed mindset and diminish students' intrinsic motivation to learn For instance, in writing assignments, the main attention is often directed towards written outputs, tests, and feedback based on scores, both for educators and students (Brookhart, 2013; Harris & McCann, 1994;

Weigle, 2009) The test results serve as proof of passing a test, semester, or course, and meeting other requirements in various contexts This approach might lead to a situation where students are more concerned about whether they "passed" or "failed" an exam, rather than identifying their strengths and weaknesses When writing assessments are conducted in this manner, students may miss out on reflecting on their learning process and assessing the quality of their work, as identifying limitations for improvement becomes too late, preventing them from gaining valuable experience for future writing endeavors

Moreover, delayed feedback from summative assessments has been identified as a significant impediment to students' ability to enhance their work promptly Hattie and Timperley (2007) argued that feedback is most effective when provided during the learning process rather than after its completion Timely feedback enables students to engage in reflection, identify areas for enhancement, and make progress Without prompt feedback, students might struggle to learn from their mistakes and effectively develop their skills The significance of timely feedback lies in its role in facilitating reflection, enabling students to identify errors and misconceptions, maintaining motivation and engagement, and fostering an iterative process of improvement When feedback is delayed, students miss out on these opportunities, which compromises their learning and growth Therefore, the provision of timely feedback is crucial for empowering students to reflect on their performance, make necessary adjustments, and enrich their overall learning experience

25 Self-assessment, as a measurement technique, assumes a substantial role in the learning process for evaluating students' comprehension of their knowledge (Bhatti &

Nimehchisalem, 2020; Butler & Lee, 2010) It is worth noting that self-assessment can also function as a form of summative assessment, involving the use of scores, such as students' self-assigned grades or comparing their self-evaluations to their teachers' assessments (Andrade, 2019; Ashton, 2014; Babaii et al., 2016; Belachew et al., 2015)

Previous studies primarily focused on comparing scores provided by students and teachers using rubrics or checklists Nevertheless, these studies have indicated that students tend to either overestimate or underestimate their scores in comparison to their instructors' evaluations (Butler & Lee, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018; Sahragard &

Mallahi, 2014; Yilmaz, 2017) Despite occasional disparities between teachers' and students' grades, most studies reported that students maintain a positive view of self- assessment (Javaherbakhsh, 2010; Ratminingsih et al., 2018), acknowledge improvements in writing quality (Johnson & ShellyGelfand, 2013), and recognize its role in cultivating lifelong language learning skills, responsibility, and autonomy in writing (Oscarson, 2009).

Writing academic English and self-assessment in EFL writing

Writing academic English

In the domain of learning to write in academic English, the skill of effective academic writing holds paramount importance Proficiency in academic writing extends beyond mere expression of ideas; it demands a profound comprehension of the specific conventions, structures, and language nuances that characterize academic discourse

Students who master this skill gain a competitive advantage in their studies and future careers Moreover, learners recognize the significance of honing their expertise in academic writing and underscore key elements such as essay coherence, logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy Additionally, the emphasis here is to delineate the stages of the writing process, encompassing prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing, which is indispensable for students to refine their written work and generate high-caliber academic texts

In academic writing, students need to delve deep into the specific conventions, structures, and language intricacies that define academic discourse Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) along with Oshima and Hogue (2006) underscored the significance of grasping the distinct attributes and anticipations of academic writing Oshima and Hogue proposed that academic writing entails its own set of conventions, such as a formal tone, objective language, and the utilization of citations, which students must adeptly wield to proficiently convey their ideas in an academic milieu The adept use of

26 precise language, appropriate vocabulary, and the skill to present arguments in a coherent and logical manner stand as pivotal competencies in academic writing (Davis

& Liss, 2006; Hamp-Lyons, 2003; Hedge, 2005) These invaluable components empower students to craft written pieces that adhere to the benchmarks and expectations of academic discourse

The acquisition of proficiency in academic writing is widely recognized by learners as a pivotal facet in the writing learning process They appreciate the importance of mastering key elements that contribute to effective academic writing, including essay coherence, logical organization, unity, paragraph and essay structure, paragraph development, and sentence-level accuracy These writing attributes are buttressed by research findings and academic experts Highlighting the importance of essay organization, scholars such as Hamp-Lyons (2003), Oshima and Hogue (2006), and Weigle (2009) argued that a well-structured essay demonstrates coherence and unity In such essays, every sentence and paragraph collaboratively contributes to the overall development of ideas Moreover, Davis and Liss (2006) underscored the crucial nature of sentence-level accuracy, highlighting that precise sentence-level construction is pivotal for lucidly and effectively conveying ideas in academic writing These perspectives underscore learners' recognition and emphasis on the pivotal elements requisite for adept academic writing

Lastly, outlining the phases of the writing process - prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing - is pivotal for students to refine their written compositions and create high- caliber academic texts These phases proffer a systematic approach to writing, enabling students to nurture their ideas, structure their thoughts, and enhance the lucidity and coherence of their writing Researchers and educators alike acknowledge the significance of these phases within the writing process Underscoring the import of prewriting, Oshima and Hogue (2006) and Weigle (2009) asserted that prewriting aids students in idea generation, thought organization, and establishing a clear trajectory for their writing Similarly, Hamp-Lyons and Heasley (2006) accentuated the value of revision, noting that revision constitutes the keystone for transforming a draft into a polished and cohesive written piece These elements underscore the indispensable role of the writing process phases in guiding students to refine their written work and fabricate top-tier academic compositions.

Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms

Self-assessment holds a valuable role in EFL writing classes, providing notable benefits and values to students' learning and writing skill development This section will particularly emphasize the role, benefits and values of self-assessment in EFL writing within higher education, highlighting its impact on writing skill and its ability to

27 empower students in terms of autonomy, responsibility, and reflection

2.3.2.1 Self-assessment in writing skill

In the realm of EFL classrooms, self-assessment stands as a cornerstone for refining writing skill It empowers students in multifaceted ways: firstly, by leveraging their existing knowledge, encompassing their understanding of writing techniques, grammar rules, and vocabulary This involves harnessing their prior learning to enhance their writing prowess Secondly, it cultivates the ability to apply effective writing strategies - methods tried and tested Through self-assessment, students discern which strategies suit them best, enabling them to adeptly apply these techniques in their writing tasks Thirdly, self-assessment prompts students to meticulously analyze their writing, identifying specific areas such as sentence structure, coherence, or vocabulary usage that require enhancement This critical evaluation directs their focus to precise areas demanding more practice and attention Lastly, self-assessment entails active monitoring of one's learning journey Students continuously evaluate their progress, celebrating their improvements and recognizing setbacks This ongoing assessment equips them to make well-informed decisions about their learning strategies, pinpointing areas necessitating extra effort Crucially, this reflective process endows students with ownership of their writing abilities and engages them in metacognitive reflection By delving into their writing processes, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and consistently monitoring progress, students gain profound insights This introspection fosters a detailed comprehension of their writing capacities, allowing for targeted growth As emphasized by scholars like Andrade (2010) and Butler (2018), self-assessment activities in writing are not mere exercises; they are dynamic processes wherein students actively participate, reflecting deeply on their writing skill, identifying their areas of mastery, and vigilantly tracking their learning process toward proficiency

The act of self-assessment always activates students' prior knowledge, enabling them to draw upon their existing understanding and skills while engaging in the writing process By reflecting on their strengths and weaknesses, students gain insights into their writing abilities and identify areas for further development, especially in increasing students' perception of their self-efficacy of their writing skill Earl (2003) also supported that self-assessment allows students to identify what they do well and what they need to work on This self-perception drives students to employ appropriate writing strategies that align with their individual needs, fostering more effective and targeted writing practices

Furthermore, self-assessment facilitates ongoing monitoring of the learning process, enabling students to track their progress and make necessary adjustments Weigle (2009) highlighted the importance of self-assessment in writing as it helps students monitor and

28 self-assess their performance, allowing them to see where they are in terms of meeting their goals This monitoring process encourages students to take an active role in their learning, adapt their strategies, and continuously improve their writing skill

In summary, self-assessment in writing skill empowers students to activate their prior knowledge, employ effective writing strategies, reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, and monitor their learning process Through self-assessment, students become more self-aware, adaptive, and engaged in their own writing development As Birjandi et al (2010) and Xu (2019) affirmed, self-assessment activities in writing are instrumental in helping students deepen their understanding of the writing process and enhance their writing proficiency

2.3.2.2 Benefits of self-assessment in EFL writing

In the context of this study, the term "benefit" carries a distinct connotation

Specifically related to the positive aspects of self-assessment in writing skill It encompasses practical advantages EFL learners can attain These benefits include improvements in writing proficiency, heightened recognition of specific strengths and weaknesses, increased motivation for learning, and the cultivation of critical thinking and reflective skills Benefits primarily refer to tangible processes or noticeable transformations that directly impact an individual's writing abilities (Gholami, 2016;

Self-assessment in EFL writing provides a wide range of advantages that positively influence students' learning encounters One notable benefit is the cultivation of learner autonomy, where students assume an active role in their learning process and take charge of their own advancement Gardner (2000) and Gholami (2016) underscored the role of self-assessment in fostering autonomy by enabling students to independently monitor their progress in learning This sense of ownership and independence serves as a driving force for students to delve deeper into their writing, ultimately enhancing their engagement and motivation Furthermore, the profound benefits of self-assessment in EFL writing classes extend beyond immediate advantages It empowers students to take authority over their learning process, fostering their evolution as autonomous learners (Ferry, 2020; Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Xu, 2019) This implies that the benefits derived from self-assessment play a pivotal role in promoting the development of essential skills and thoughts Through reflection, taking responsibility for their work, and acknowledging the value of their efforts, self- assessment becomes a catalyst for students' growth and improvement The value lies not only in the direct advantages it offers but also in its transformative impact on students' skills and self-awareness, nurturing a holistic and self-driven approach to learning

29 Self-assessment is closely aligned with the principles of self-regulated learning, a beneficial approach that enables students to set goals, make informed decisions, and monitor their progress This approach fosters a deeper level of engagement and metacognitive awareness among students According to Andrade (2010) and Zimmerman (2000), self-assessment strategies play a crucial role in self-regulated learning as they involve students in clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning objectives, while also promoting a sense of ownership over their learning process This engagement in the self-assessment process enhances students' ability to effectively manage their own learning In other words, self-assessment fosters metacognitive awareness as students reflect on their writing process and make adjustments based on their self-assessment Through self-regulation, students become active agents in their learning, assuming ownership of their writing development and continuously striving for progress Zimmerman (2013) also highlighted that self-assessment is instrumental in self-regulated learning, involving students in monitoring and controlling their cognitive processes This involvement empowers students to make informed decisions about their writing strategies, seek relevant resources and support, and adapt their approach as necessary

In addition, the concept of a growth mindset in learning, according to Dweck (2006), allows students to persist and adopt a positive attitude towards their writing development This underscores the significant benefits of self-assessment, empowering students to become flexible and motivated learners who eagerly refine their skills and strive for continuous improvement Within EFL writing classes, the incorporation of self-assessment actively cultivates a growth mindset, serving as a catalyst for students to continuously enhance their writing skill Consequently, students can perceive mistakes and challenges as valuable opportunities for growth rather than hindrances

Through self-assessment, they wholeheartedly embrace feedback and constructive criticism, recognizing the immense value these elements hold in enhancing their writing abilities

Self-assessment in EFL writing classrooms brings forth a multitude of benefits for students, particularly in fostering learner autonomy and self-regulated learning By assuming responsibility for their learning and actively monitoring their progress, students become more motivated, engaged, and accomplished in their writing endeavors Researchers such as Ferry (2020), Javaherbakhsh (2010), Wang (2017), and Xu (2019) emphasized that self-assessment is a catalyst for empowering students to become autonomous learners who take control of their own writing development

The importance of self-assessment in EFL writing classes is of utmost importance when it comes to cultivating students' ability to learn independently in the future and promoting their autonomy in the process of learning writing Through self-reflection

30 and self-evaluation, students develop vital competencies and characteristics that are fundamental for their long-term academic achievements It means that students can gain a deeper understanding of their writing strengths and weaknesses because students are empowered to take targeted actions to enhance their skills According to Hattie and Timperley (2007), self-assessment is a highly influential tool for promoting student autonomy and self-regulation It enables students to assume responsibility for their learning, leading to a sense of ownership and control over their writing development

Moreover, self-assessment plays a pivotal role in cultivating students' autonomy in learning writing by facilitating self-directed learning When students actively assess their own work, they become proactive in seeking out resources, exploring diverse writing strategies, and setting personal improvement goals This process empowers students to take charge of their learning journey and make informed decisions regarding their writing practice According to Gardner and Miller (1999), self-assessment encourages students to take responsibility for their own progress and allows teachers to focus on facilitating rather than directing learning Promoting autonomy, self- assessment enables students to become independent learners who can establish their learning objectives, monitor their progress, and adapt their strategies as necessary.

Self-assessment instruments in EFL writing classes

2.3.3.1 Self-assessment checklists in learning writing

The use of self-assessment checklists in EFL writing has garnered significant attention in the literature on formative assessment For instance, Oshima and Hogue (2006, p 139) provided a framework for the self-editing checklist, with items such as

'My paragraph begins with a topic sentence that has both a topic and a controlling idea' for self-assessing the writing organization and 'I check my essay for verb tense errors' for self-assessing grammar Similarly, checklists from Davis and Liss (2006, p

144) include items like 'Did each body paragraph explain a different category?' and 'Did you use connectors that show contrast or addition?' These checklists serve as valuable tools to assist students in self-assessing and improving their writing Items in these checklists offer specific criteria and standards that enable students to identify their strengths and weaknesses, helping them enhance their writing skills based on predetermined assessment criteria (Bowman, 2017; Ferry, 2020) Previous studies have highlighted the advantages of self-assessment checklists as both evaluative and instructive instruments, emphasizing their construction using existing assessment scales and standards (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Wang, 2017)

Additionally, during the self-assessment process, the specific criteria outlined in the checklists act as valuable reminders, prompting students to reflect on their writing

Considering criteria is essential in helping students recognize the benefits of items in

31 the self-assessment checklist, as it provides a comprehensive roadmap for independently analyzing, self-assessing, and improving their writing products Andrade and Boulay (2003) recommended the use of checklists as evaluative tools to enhance teachers' grading effectiveness, enabling students to justify their performance scores In recent studies, specific criteria in the checklist have been combined with other tools such as reflective journals and portfolios (Obeid, 2017; Panadero et al., 2016; Xu, 2019) The benefits outlined above suggest that self-assessment checklists also serve as teaching tools, facilitating student self-assessment and promoting a deeper understanding of their writing strengths as well as areas that need improvement

The self-assessment checklist framework in this study adopted from Oshima and Hogue's work (2006), focuses on fundamental writing aspects such as mechanics, content, organization, grammar, and sentence structure, covering elements like spelling, vocabulary, punctuation, verb tense, unity, and coherence This adaptation is crucial for several reasons Firstly, focusing on these foundational aspects aligns with the starting point for many developing student writers, offering a robust starting point for enhancing their writing skill (Elgadal, 2017; Liu & Brantmeier, 2019) Secondly, mastering these basics is vital before students can effectively progress to advanced writing skill

Without a solid understanding of spelling, grammar, and sentence structure, conveying complex ideas and constructing persuasive arguments become challenging (Ferry, 2020; Wang 2017) Thirdly, a structured focus on these fundamentals enables gradual, systematic writing development through self-assessment This approach supports students in building competence step by step, enhancing their skills, and instilling confidence as they observe tangible improvements (Fahimi & Rahimi, 2015)

Additionally, the self-assessment checklist aligns with cognitive and constructivist theories by engaging students in active thinking and analysis When students use checklists to self-assess their writing, they are actively processing information, comparing it with their existing knowledge, and constructing a deeper understanding of their skills This aligns with the constructivist approach of learners actively constructing knowledge based on their experiences (Piaget, 1985) Furthermore, reflection theory also emphasizes the importance of introspection and contemplation for learning and personal development (Dewey, 1933) Self-assessment checklists serve as tools for structured reflection When students use these checklists, they engage in reflective practices as they assess their own work The checklist prompts guide them to think deeply about their writing choices, encouraging a reflective mindset This reflective process helps students internalize their learning, leading to more meaningful insights and improvements in their writing skill

In the field of language teaching and learning, various terms such as "reflective journal," "journal," "log," and "diary" are used interchangeably to describe a process where students record their thoughts and experiences in the context of learning writing and self-assessment Reflective journal writing has gained significant attention in language teaching and research as an instructional and learning instrument Scholars recognized the value of journal writing in enhancing students' writing skill, promoting autonomy, and fostering metacognitive processes in learning writing (Ahmed, 2019;

Mlynarczyk, 2013) Reflective activities in the learning process help students achieve self-assessment by developing their personal concepts and engaging in reflective experiences and reflections on learning, which are essential skills for the learning and decision-making process (Ahmed, 2020; Bell et al., 2011)

Within the writing classroom, reflective journals serve as valuable tools for individual growth and reflection on experiences and knowledge during the writing process and assessment The theoretical foundations of cognition and reflection underpin the use of reflective journals As a result, journaling has the potential to enhance learners' critical self-reflection regarding their perceptions, practices, and challenges in the process of self-assessing their writing It is important to note that different individuals express their thoughts and reflections differently through journaling, providing instructors with valuable insights into students' learning experiences during the self-assessment process

Moreover, maintaining journals during a writing course offers several potential benefits for students Reflective journaling is a powerful learning tool that helps students develop independent thinking, the ability to examine their knowledge, enhance self-expression, and solve problems encountered in the self-assessment process (Hiemstra, 2001) Reflective thinking enables students to deepen their understanding and analyze ideas based on their experiences and knowledge gained throughout the writing process (Weigle, 2009)

In short, reflective journals play a significant role in students' self-assessment of their writing skill They provide a platform for students to reflect on their thoughts and experiences, fostering metacognitive processes, promoting individual growth, and enhancing critical self-reflection Reflective journaling facilitates deep understanding, problem-solving, and independent thinking, making it a valuable tool in the writing classroom The utilization of reflective journals empowers students to take ownership of their learning and actively engage in the self-assessment process, contributing to their overall development as writers

Previous studies and research gaps

Students’ perceptions of self-assessment

The recognition of the potential benefits of self-assessment has gained considerable traction within the field of education worldwide However, there remains a notable dearth of research on students' perceptions of self-assessment, particularly in the context of EFL writing at the tertiary level in Vietnam Among the existing empirical studies, along with 15 studies found in Andrade's (2019) work have highlighted specifically investigating students' perceptions of self-assessment These previous findings help to identify research gaps that can be addressed in the current study

Previous studies encompassed a diverse range of subjects and participants from various educational settings around the world The findings of these studies revealed a

34 debate regarding the perceptions of self-assessment, particularly among younger and adult student groups

In the case of younger students, the attitudes towards self-assessment tended to be negative, particularly in relation to summative forms (Harris & Brown, 2013; Bourke, 2016) Harris and Brown (2013) observed that primary students failed to recognize the improvement purpose of self-assessment, struggled to identify their weaknesses, felt their honesty was compromised, and perceived self-assessment as a tool primarily for the teacher's benefits Similarly, Bourke (2016) noted that many young students possessed a vague understanding of the purpose of self-assessment Evidently, high school students only concentrated on standards to improve their grades and credits for external assessments Furthermore, self-assessment was extremely time-consuming (Tulgar, 2017) and confined to secondary students (Liu & Brantmeire, 2019; Samaie et al., 2018)

Conversely, previous studies conducted within higher education settings suggested the benefits of self-assessment Students demonstrated a strong perception of its advantages, even self-assessment in summative or formative forms University students could recognize the responsibility for their own learning when engaged in self- assessment throughout their courses (Lopez & Kossack, 2007) Self-assessment contributed to their self-confidence, enhanced their perception of self-assessment rubrics as facilitators, and promoted their active involvement in the assessment process (Huang & Gui, 2015)

Besides, metacognition plays a significant role in fostering independent thinking and encouraging students to assume responsibility for their educational process Self- assessment, as a component of metacognitive strategies, enhances students with the ability to think critically and deeply, apply newly acquired skills, and cultivate essential skills for future independent learning (Oscarson, 2009; Suzuki, 2009; Xu, 2019) This process of self-assessment empowers students to set educational goals, strategize their learning approaches, monitor their academic progress, and engage in reflective practices, ultimately enhancing their capacity for self-regulated learning (Panadero &

Alonso-Tapia, 2013; Papanthymou & Darra, 2018; Wang, 2017)

Prior studies have indicated that university students possess a partial understanding of the purpose and process of self-assessment Students recognized its value in guiding evaluation and revision, promoting self-regulated learning, and enhancing their understanding of how to take responsibility for their own learning (Lopez & Kossack, 2007; Micán & Medina, 2017; Ratminingsih et al., 2018) This understanding enables students to effectively utilize self-assessment as a tool for improvement and development

35 Notably, debates exist among students regarding their perceptions of self- assessment in learning writing Much research has emphasized the positive impact of self-assessment on writing quality and performance Students have demonstrated a clear comprehension of how self-assessment can be utilized to improve their writing skills, facilitate revisions, and maximize their overall writing improvements (Birjandi & Hadidi, 2012; Graham et al., 2015; Honsa, 2013) Self-assessment is associated with positive effects on students' writing performance, enhancing their ability to produce high-quality written work (Butler & Lee, 2010; Huang & Gui, 2015) However, some researchers have stated that university students were not confident in how they perceived errors in their writing and often misinterpreted the functions of self-assessment activities in class (Purwanti, 2015) In a similar vein, Belachew et al (2015) asserted that despite instructors' familiarity with the theoretical components of self-assessment, both teachers and students struggled throughout the self-assessment process A minority of students felt that self-assessment was difficult and considered it a waste of time

In Vietnam, numerous earlier studies concentrated on various aspects of self- assessment For instance, Hồ Sĩ Thắng Kiệt (2017) conducted a case study for a tertiary-level translation course, in which the association between three types of assessment – self-, peer, and teacher assessment – was investigated The findings showed that peer and instructor assessments in EFL classrooms received more attention than self-assessment More recently, Phan Thị Thanh Thảo (2021) has done a qualitative research on the role of self-assessment in developing learner autonomy in higher education In this study, interviews and observations were done at random with a listening-speaking class of 38 second-year non-English majors The results indicated that self-assessment promotes the initiative of foreign language learners to reflect on their learning achievement, progress, and assessment experience In a related study, Phan Xuân Thanh and Phương Hoàng Yến (2017) investigated EFL students' perceptions and challenges in using analytic rubrics for speaking self-assessment The result showed that the students had positive perceptions toward the use of the Analytic Rubric for their self-assessment However, students lacked a clear understanding of the potential drawbacks associated with the rubric

Previous studies conducted both globally and in Vietnam have offered valuable insights into various aspects of students' perceptions of self-assessment These aspects include understanding the benefits of self-assessment, fostering independent learning abilities, enhancing writing quality and performance, and promoting self-regulated learning However, there remain unexplored facets of students' perceptions of self- assessment that have recently garnered attention within the academic community

Specifically, in the context of Vietnam's tertiary education, certain unstudied aspects of students' perceptions of self-assessment in learning writing as a skill appear to be

36 significant and warrant investigation As mentioned earlier, this study initially identified the following gaps in prior research

One primary knowledge gap is the limited understanding of Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions of self-assessment specifically related to their writing skill

Although the advantages of self-assessment have been recognized globally, there is a lack of in-depth knowledge regarding how Vietnamese EFL tertiary students perceive self-assessment, particularly in the context of writing skill This knowledge gap hinders the development of targeted strategies and interventions aimed at improving Vietnamese EFL students' self-assessment practices and enhancing their writing skill

For instance, while Birjandi and Hadidi (2012) examined the impact of self-assessment on the writing skills of EFL students, it did not specifically delve into the perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in learning writing

Additionally, previous research conducted by Hồ Sĩ Thắng Kiệt (2017) and Phan Thị

Thanh Thảo (2021) explored the role of self-assessment in EFL classrooms in Vietnam

Notably, Phan Xuân Thanh and Phương Hoàng Yến (2017) investigated Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions of self-assessment, but the research focused on using analytic rubrics for speaking skills However, these studies either encompassed multiple types of assessments or investigated self-assessment within a broader scope of learner autonomy, thus lacking a focus on Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions of self- assessment in writing skill

Furthermore, there is a noticeable population gap in the existing literature regarding Vietnamese EFL students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill

Although certain population groups have been extensively studied worldwide, such as EFL/ESL young learners and EFL/ESL adult learners in diverse learning contexts, sub- populations within the Vietnamese tertiary context have not been thoroughly examined

Previous research (e.g., Baxa, 2015; Bourke, 2016; Oscarson, 2009; Peyton, 2017;

Tejeiro et al., 2012) primarily focused on these specific population groups, making it challenging to generalize their findings to all EFL learners globally

Last but not least, debates persist regarding students' perceptions of self- assessment that remain unresolved from prior studies One key contention is its impact on students' perceptions of the overall learning experience While some studies indicate that self-assessment enhances autonomy and responsibility in learning (Panadero &

Alonso-Tapia, 2013; Papanthymou & Darra, 2018), others argue it may burden students, causing stress (Belachew et al., 2015; Purwanti, 2015) Consequently, these debates call for a study to understand how self-assessment is perceived by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students

To sum up, this section has provided an overview of students' perceptions of self-

37 assessment in EFL writing education While acknowledging its potential benefits, gaps and debates persist Previous studies highlight varying perceptions among different student groups, with younger learners often exhibiting negativity, while university-level students generally view self-assessment positively However, specific perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students remain understudied, with limited research focusing on this population These gaps underscore the need for further empirical research to understand Vietnamese EFL tertiary students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill and its implications for EFL education in Vietnam.

Students’ practices of self-assessment

Recent experimental studies have revealed inconsistencies in students' self- assessment practices, as indicated in the extensive literature on assessment Studies on classroom-based self-assessment have delved into various aspects of self-assessment practices, including self-assessment for formative or summative purposes, the relationship between self-assessment and self-regulated learning, as well as other forms of assessment These discrepancies can partly undermine the reliability of self- assessment implementations

The extended experimental research on self-assessment in education has produced noteworthy findings Prior studies have highlighted that self-assessment can function as a form of summative assessment, involving students' self-grades or self-tests compared with teachers' grades (Ashton, 2014; Babaii et al., 2016; Belachew et al., 2015; Brown and Harris, 2013; Engelhardt & Pfingsthorn, 2012) However, the results indicate that students tend to either overestimate or underestimate their scores compared to their instructors' marks (Andrade & Valtcheva, 2009; Butler & Lee, 2010) These findings demonstrate that summative self-assessment exhibits inconsistencies when compared to external judgments (Admiraal et al., 2015; Baxter & Norman, 2011; De Grez et al., 2012), with males more likely to overrate and females more likely to underrate their performance (Marks et al., 2018; Nowell & Alston, 2007) For instance, Tejeiro et al

(2012) conducted a study in Spain to assess the accuracy and validity of self-assessment for two groups of first-year students 122 participants self-assigned a final grade at the end of the course and compared it to their teachers' grades The results indicated that students tend to overestimate their ability, particularly those with poorer results It showed that there was no correlation between teacher and self-assessment Likewise, the discrepancy between teachers' scores and students' grades can be observed in the studies conducted by Ashton (2014) and Belachew et al (2015)

Nevertheless, studies on formative self-assessment suggest that enhancing the level of consistency is possible by adopting similar instructional approaches used for teaching and supporting other different skills (Lopez & Kossack, 2007; Panadero &

38 Romero, 2014) Self-assessment has been shown to improve with increased experience in developing students' capacity for self-assessment (Nagel & Lindsey, 2018; Yilmaz, 2017), the utilization of guidelines (Bol et al., 2012), the provision of feedback (Thawabieh, 2017), and the establishment of standards, potentially in the form of rubrics or checklists (Panadero & Romero, 2014) Furthermore, empirical studies have provided evidence that the use of various tools in self-assessment practices can yield positive outcomes, particularly in formative forms Self-assessment has been shown to assist students in focusing on specific aspects of their writing performance such as grammar, organization, coherence, and vocabulary usage (Elgadal, 2017; Nielsen, 2011), leading to improvements in their writing abilities (Javaherbakhsh, 2010)

Additionally, feedback plays a dynamic role in the accurate self-assessment of students (Mazloomi & Khabiri, 2016) Creating an encouraging and supportive classroom environment has been highlighted as a factor that increases the effectiveness of self- assessment on students' writing performance (Ferry, 2020)

Empirical research in the field of self-assessment for learning writing has increasingly focused on the use of checklists Studies have shown that utilizing these checklists leads to a gradual improvement in EFL students' writing skills (Fahimi &

Rahimi, 2015; Ferry, 2020) and enhances their confidence in self-assessment, resulting in greater progress in post-tests (Xu, 2019) Moreover, research suggests that employing self-assessment checklists not only instills a sense of responsibility but also reduces anxiety among students during the writing process (Elgadal, 2017;

Javaherbakhsh, 2010; Liu & Brantmeier, 2019; Mazloomi & Khabiri, 2016; Wang, 2017) These checklists enable students to identify their strengths and weaknesses in writing, fostering independence and promoting awareness of self-regulated learning strategies (Johnson & ShellyGelfand, 2013; Ratminingsih et al., 2018)

Additionally, the implementation of self-assessment checklists in writing education contributes to students' clear understanding of the self-assessment process (Liu & Brantmeier, 2019) Similarly, the use of rubrics or checklists enhances writing quality by defining specific concepts clearly in learners' writing, influencing their writing development positively (Ferry, 2020; Weiss, 2018; Xu, 2019) Notably, the utilization of checklists has the potential to enhance students' self-efficacy (Andrade &

Boulay, 2003; Quinlan, 2006) In a study conducted in China, Wang (2017) investigated the use of rubrics in self-assessment among university students The study, which involved self, peer, and teacher assessments in a 32-week writing course, demonstrated that rubrics were effective in promoting self-regulated learning in areas such as goal-setting, planning, self-monitoring, and self-reflection

While self-assessment has been extensively explored in various classroom practices, it is crucial to acknowledge its inherent limitations Several researchers have

39 determined that self-assessment often shows a limited correlation with summative forms of assessment (Admiraal et al., 2015; Babaii et al., 2016; Baxter & Norman, 2011; De Grez et al., 2012) Despite learners finding checklists, scales, and rubrics less stressful and easier to navigate than teacher assessments, some studies suggest that the use of rubrics might not consistently enhance the quality of students' writing (Fahimi &

Rahimi, 2015; Ferry, 2020; Weiss, 2018; Xu, 2019) For instance, Wang (2017) and Xu (2019) observed that self-assessment checklists or rubrics could clarify specific writing aspects and influence writing development by helping students identify strengths and weaknesses in their writing, thus facilitating the strategies of self-regulated learning

However, Liu and Brantmeier (2019) and Purwanti (2015) argued that the effectiveness of self-assessment checklists was limited, as students still encountered challenges related to structural and grammatical issues, word choice, mechanics, and proper use of pronouns and verb agreement Similarly, studies by Belachew et al (2015) and Javaherbakhsh (2010) found that the use of self-assessment checklists did not significantly improve students' writing scores between pre-tests and post-tests, raising questions about their ability to lead to improved performance in experimental settings

These limitations highlight the gaps in the current understanding of self-assessment practices and underscore the importance of addressing them in the context of learning writing at higher education in Vietnam

Students’ challenges of self-assessment

Previous studies have consistently highlighted the challenges that students face during the process of self-assessment These challenges encompass various aspects and are indicative of the broader difficulties encountered by students However, it is noteworthy that recent studies have provided a general overview of the challenges faced by students during the self-assessment process, without delving into the specific difficulties encountered Although these studies acknowledged the presence of challenges, they did not provide an understanding of the specific obstacles students encounter For instance, empirical studies have consistently reported on the common challenges encountered by students in the self-assessment process These challenges include a tendency to either overestimate or underestimate their abilities (Ashton, 2014;

Belachew et al., 2015; Boud, 2013; Engelhardt & Pfingsthorn, 2012; Tejeiro et al., 2012), a lack of confidence in evaluating their writing tasks and identifying errors

41 (Purwanti, 2015; Tejeiro et al., 2012; Yilmaz, 2017), and perceiving self-assessment as a difficult and time-consuming task, often viewing it as futile (Micán & Medina, 2017;

Xu, 2019) Furthermore, students demonstrate a misunderstanding of the purpose of self-assessment (Belachew et al., 2015), an inability to recognize all errors in their writing (Belachew et al., 2015; Purwanti, 2015), and a reliance on teacher assistance during the self-assessment process (Xu, 2009) These findings collectively shed light on the general challenges experienced by students in self-assessment and emphasize the need for further investigation in this area

In conclusion, previous studies have consistently highlighted various challenges encountered by students during the self-assessment process These challenges include tendencies to overestimate or underestimate abilities, lack of confidence in evaluating writing tasks, perception of self-assessment as difficult and time-consuming, and misunderstanding of its purpose Notably, students may struggle to recognize errors in their writing and rely heavily on teacher assistance While recent studies have provided a general overview of these challenges, further research is needed to delve into the specific difficulties faced by students in self-assessment, emphasizing the importance of addressing these obstacles to enhance the effectiveness of self-assessment practices.

Chapter summary

This chapter delved into theoretical frameworks and assessment practices within EFL writing classrooms Cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognition theory, and reflection theory were reviewed to lay the groundwork for understanding self- assessment in autonomous learning The chapter also examined formative assessment methods, including teacher, self, and peer assessment, and highlighted the significance of self-assessment in summative evaluations Furthermore, the benefits of self- assessment in EFL writing were emphasized, along with the utilization of instruments like checklists and reflective journals Identified research gaps point to the need for further investigation into students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self- assessment, presenting opportunities for empirical research to enrich EFL writing education

This chapter provides a rationale for the chosen methodology in the current study It outlines the research approach and design selected for data collection procedures The chapter further encompasses an elucidation of the research settings, encompassing research sites, student participants, and the researcher's role A comprehensive examination of the instruments employed for data collection is presented, including questionnaires, interviews, reflective journals, students' written papers, and self- assessment checklists Lastly, the chapter addresses ethical considerations and the study's reliability and validity aspects.

Research approach and research design

Research approach

The adoption of a mixed-methods approach in this study was grounded in the thoughtful consideration of various critical factors, with a primary emphasis on the significant influence of the research problem's nature, philosophical worldview assumptions, and the overarching purpose of the study (Creswell, 2014; Creswell &

Plano Clark, 2011; Hesse-Biber, 2010; McKim, 2017) Each of these components possesses unique intricacies and objectives, demanding a tailor-made approach for effective investigation

Firstly, the nature of the research problem refers to the inherent characteristics and complexities inherent in the issue under investigation As mentioned in the previous chapter, there is a methodological gap Within the context of educational research, particularly concerning the self-assessment among tertiary EFL students in learning writing as a productive skill, a single approach is often insufficient to capture the intricacies involved (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Hesse-Biber, 2010) Quantitative methods, rooted in numerical data, may offer statistical trends but could miss the depth of personal experiences and contexts Conversely, qualitative methods delve deep into individual narratives but might lack generalizability Recognizing this complexity, a mixed-methods approach was deemed essential to comprehensively address the diverse aspects of the research problem

In addition to the nature of the research problem, philosophical worldview assumptions serve as a guiding compass in research design Different philosophical paradigms, such as positivism, interpretivism, and pragmatism, advocate for distinct methodological approaches (Creswell, 2014; Hesse-Biber, 2010) For instance, a positivist perspective, rooted in objectivity and quantifiable observations, often leans towards the employment of quantitative methods Conversely, an interpretivist

43 worldview, which values subjective understanding and contextualization, aligns with qualitative techniques The alignment between these philosophical underpinnings and the chosen mixed-methods approach was essential to ensure a coherent and robust research design, thereby enhancing the credibility and trustworthiness of the study

Furthermore, the study's purpose, encapsulating its objectives, research questions, and intended outcomes, significantly influences the selection of a research approach in this study Different research purposes, such as exploration, description, explanation, and prediction, necessitate specific methodologies to effectively achieve the intended goals (Creswell, 2014; McKim, 2017; Morse & Chung, 2003) Clearly defining the study's purpose not only justified the choice of a mixed-methods approach but also ensured that it was harmoniously aligned with the research questions and objectives, promising a rigorous examination of the research

Acknowledging that each research method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, the decision to employ a mixed-methods approach gained further validation through the insights of researchers such as Creswell, Creswell & Plano Clark, Hesse-Biber, and McKim Creswell's assertion regarding the superior reliability and validity of mixed-methods approaches, combined with the careful consideration of the research problem, philosophical assumptions, and study purpose, fortified the rationale behind this choice In essence, the choice to employ a mixed-methods approach in this study, combining quantitative and qualitative phases, aims to provide an understanding of EFL students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self- assessment in learning writing within their learning context The utilization of various data sources further enhances the credibility and trustworthiness of the research findings.

Research design

This study aims to investigate the second-year EFL students’ self-assessment in learning writing at two universities in southern Vietnam The purpose is to gain an in-depth understanding of how these students perceive and practice self-assessment in their writing learning process Simultaneously, the study also focuses on identifying the challenges EFL students encounter when engaging in self-assessment To achieve a understanding, a mixed-methods research design has been adopted from Hesse-Biber's (2010, p.69) framework (see Figure 3.1) to explore three specific research questions

This mixed-methods design is advantageous as it allows for the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data, providing a more balanced perspective and enhancing the breadth, depth, and richness of the research (Morse &

Chung, 2003; Schulze, 2003, as cited in McKim, 2017) Some modifications were made to adapt the original framework to this study while maintaining the overall structure

44 As illustrated in Figure 3.2, the mixed-methods design used in this study encompasses quantitative and qualitative approaches, conducted in two separate stages within the same research project, with qualitative components playing a more dominant role (Creswell, 2014; Hesse-Biber, 2010) Specifically, the questionnaire data in phase one collected in the study serve as a backdrop for the development of qualitative The questionnaire aims to gather data from a large number of student participants, allowing for broader insights and statistical analysis It serves the purpose of identifying specific aspects that require further investigation in the qualitative phase By examining the quantitative data, the researcher can pinpoint areas of interest or potential themes that can be explored in more depth through qualitative methods

On the other hand, the qualitative elements are given more prominence, meaning they play a more central role in the research process This decision may be based on the aim of gaining an in-depth understanding of students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in learning writing Qualitative methods, such as interviews, essay drafts, open-ended checklist items, and reflective journals, are particularly effective in exploring the complexities and nuances of the participants' experiences and perceptions Therefore, the decision to give more prominence to qualitative elements and use questionnaire data as a foundation aligns with the research goal of achieving an understanding of students' self-assessment in learning writing It allows for a balance between exploring individual experiences in detail and identifying broader trends or patterns in the data, contributing to a more holistic analysis (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Clark, 2011)

QUALITATIVE o Data collection o Data analysis

QUANTITATIVE o Data collection o Data analysis

Figure 3.1 Mixed methods design Adapted from Hesse-Biber (2010, p.69)

QUALITATIVE RESULTS o Content & thematic analysis (clusters, themes, and sub-themes) o Identify results

QUALITATIVE STRAND o Collect data on research questions 2 and 3 (students’ practices & challenges) o Tools: students’ writing drafts, open- ended checklist items, and students’ reflective journals

QUANTITATIVE STRAND o Collect data on students’ practices and challenges o Tools: close-ended items on a questionnaire & checklist (Yes/No)

QUANTITATIVE RESULTS o Descriptive statistical analysis using SPSS (20.0 version) and Excel o Identify results

QUANTITATIVE STRAND o Collect data on three research questions (students’ perceptions, practices, and challenges) o Tool: close-ended questionnaire items

QUANTITATIVE RESULTS o Descriptive statistical analysis using SPSS (20.0 version) o Identify results for follow-up

QUALITATIVE STRAND o Collect open-ended interview data on three research questions o Tools: a combination of in-depth and retrospective interviews

QUALITATIVE RESULTS o Content & thematic analysis (clusters, themes, and sub-themes) o Identify results

RESEARCH QUESTIONS o Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill o Students’ practices of self-assessment when learning writing o Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

INTERPRETING THE RESULTS o Interpretation: based on comparison of the quantitative and the qualitative results o Discussion: quantitative results and qualitative results

Figure 3.2: Mixed methods sequential exploratory design for the present study

46 Finally, the data obtained from multiple sources in two phases were analyzed, compared, interpreted, and triangulated Triangulation allows for the integration of findings from various data sources, enhancing the validity of the results regarding students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in writing.

Research context

This study focuses on the courses of writing skills in the training programs for English majors at two distinct universities in southern Vietnam (see Appendices M & N)

These training programs are notably tailored to enhance writing skills, with a specific focus on equipping tertiary students with a solid foundation in academic writing The primary objective of selecting these universities was to investigate second-year students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in writing

In the non-public university, the curriculum consisted of four courses in writing skills, starting with fundamental sentence structures and advancing to research writing through Writing 1 to Writing 4 The writing curriculum unfolds progressively over four semesters Starting with Writing 1, EFL students learn about sentence structures and paragraph types, guided by the coursebook "Effective Academic Writing 1: The Paragraph" by Savage and Shafiei (2007) Writing 2 delves into short essay composition using the textbook "Effective Academic Writing 2: The Short Essay" by Savage and Mayer (2005) In Writing 3, students further refine their writing skills with the assistance of the textbook "Effective Academic Writing 3: The Essay" by Davis and Liss (2006) Finally, in Writing 4, which focuses on academic writing Significantly, students at this university finish Writing 4 by the end of their second year, thereby gaining a thorough foundational understanding of diverse academic writing genres

On the other hand, the public university offers writing courses in five semesters, including Writing 1, 2, 3, 4 (Advanced Writing), and 5 (Research Writing) All EFL students are required to cultivate their writing skill using the textbook "Writing Academic English" by Oshima and Hogue (2006), commencing with Writing 1, 2, and 3, starting in their first year Students progress to Advanced Writing in their fourth semester, which emphasizes academic writing In essence, though the two universities implement different contents for their training programs, both prioritize the development of EFL students' writing skill, encompassing a spectrum from fundamental writing to academic composition

Despite the differences in writing syllabus design, both universities prioritize the process approach in teaching and learning writing, regularly encouraging students to practice writing through pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing activities This approach aims to foster students' self-regulated skills in learning writing, in line with the principles of social constructivism Similarly, collaborative writing and scaffolded

47 instruction methods are also utilized to facilitate peer interaction and provide explicit guidance, such as actively encouraging peer interaction, brainstorming, idea-sharing, and feedback exchange among students Furthermore, both universities employ scaffolded instruction methods, with writing instructors offering explicit guidance on grammar, vocabulary, sentence structure, and paragraph organization In essence, both universities integrate self-, peer-, and teacher-based activities, along with scaffolded instruction, into their writing classes Finally, these institutions adhere to a shared standard for English majors' bachelor's degree programs Graduates are expected to reach level 5 proficiency, as per the Vietnamese Standardized Test of English Proficiency, enabling them to fulfill job-related requirements.

Research setting

Research sites

As mentioned in Section 3.2, the choice of these universities in southern Vietnam as study sites has been meticulously made for the purpose of this research One of these institutions is a prominent public university, while the other holds a distinguished reputation as a non-public institution This selection of specific study sites is grounded in several reasons that significantly contribute to the comprehensive and relevant nature of this study

The primary objective of this selection is to delve into a wider array of perspectives and experiences within the “target audience” of second-year English majors (Creswell, 2014, p 107) This strategic selection enables an exploration of the phenomenon under investigation, particularly in regard to the participants' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in the context of learning writing skill

First and foremost, the researcher plays the role of an English lecturer at both of these institutions This dual role not only facilitates direct engagement with students for data collection but also fosters enduring relationships that can be leveraged for future data gathering Furthermore, the geographical proximity of these two sites proves advantageous, allowing the researcher to effectively manage and schedule data collection across different classes

In order to uphold ethical considerations and safeguard participant confidentiality, the identities of the respective universities have been deliberately kept anonymous throughout the entire research process This precautionary measure has been undertaken to ensure the privacy of participants and to preserve the integrity of the research

In short, selecting two universities in southern Vietnam for this study was strategic, aimed at capturing diverse perspectives among second-year English majors

As the researcher is also an English lecturer at both institutions, direct engagement with

48 students is facilitated, and enduring relationships are built for future data collection

The geographical proximity of the sites enables efficient management of data collection across different classes.

Participants

This section offers a comprehensive overview of the research participants, encompassing their sample sizes, demographic characteristics, and the criteria used for their selection The participant selection strategy employed in this study adhered to a purposive sampling approach, as endorsed by Creswell (2014) and Onwuegbuzie and Collins (2007) The target demographic comprised second-year students hailing from two universities situated in southern Vietnam The age range of the participants ranged from 19 to 24 years This selection process was motivated by the intention to garner a spectrum of insights from this specific pertaining to their perceptions, practices, and challenges in the domain of self-assessment regarding writing skill

Table 3.1 The sample sizes of the present study

Instruments Participants in two universities Gender Age

230 Ss /state university 220 Ss /private university

16 Ss /state university 16 Ss /private university

8 Ss/ state university 10 Ss/ private university

In alignment with this methodology, a total of 450 second-year students willingly engaged in the research, actively participating by completing the questionnaire survey as summarized in Table 3.1 Among these participants, 230 were enrolled in a state university, while 220 hailed from a non-public university

To delve deeper into the participants' lived experiences, a total of 32 students were purposefully selected to engage in in-depth interviews, aligning with the qualitative methodology advocated by Hsieh and Shannon (2005) as well as Vaismoradi et al

(2016) Within this group, 16 students from each university volunteered to participate in the interviews, enabling a thorough exploration of individual perspectives and a comprehensive understanding of their self-assessment practices within the context of

Furthermore, an additional subset of 18 voluntary students was from a specialized experimental classroom, in accordance with the principles of triangulation endorsed by Creswell (2014) Among these, 8 students originated from a state university, while the remaining 10 hailed from the other institution This subgroup contributed unique insights into the practical application of self-assessment strategies within a controlled learning environment, thereby enhancing the overall robustness of the research outcomes

In conclusion, through the judicious amalgamation of these distinct participant categories, the study seamlessly incorporated both quantitative and qualitative dimensions, aligning with the guidance offered by Creswell (2014), Hsieh and Shannon (2005), and Vaismoradi et al (2016) This strategic sampling approach facilitated a comprehensive, multi-perspective exploration of students' self-assessment practices, ultimately bolstering the credibility and depth of the research findings.

Role of the researcher

In conducting this study, the researcher's active involvement played a pivotal role in data collection, analysis, and interpretation, underscoring the significance of a thoughtful, explicit, and transparent research process (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011;

Mills et al., 2006) However, this level of involvement might introduce certain potential biases and limitations that need careful consideration and mitigation Acknowledging this, the researcher must be acutely aware of his role's impact on the research process

This recognition allows for the identification and reduction of potential biases during the study's implementation

In addition, given the researcher's position as a lecturer at these campuses and the established positive relationship with the study's student participants, the intention was to foster an environment that would enhance the trustworthiness and depth of the collected data However, it is important to acknowledge that this rapport-building process might have introduced the possibility of participants tailoring their responses to align with the researcher's expectations, potentially impacting the authenticity of their answers To mitigate this concern, the researcher promoted genuine and unbiased participant responses by creating a non-judgmental atmosphere, ensuring confidentiality, and employing a mixed-methods approach This multifaceted strategy enhances openness, honesty, and overall response accuracy

In the questionnaire stage, the researcher's direct engagement in data collection within each class was an advantage in clarifying the study's objectives to participants and building rapport However, this involvement could have inadvertently influenced participants' responses, as the researcher's presence might have led to a response bias

50 towards socially desirable answers To address these biases, participants were encouraged to provide genuine responses to the questionnaire Assurance of anonymity bolstered participant confidence Finally, the researcher's awareness of his influence led him to adopt an impartial and non-directive approach, avoiding personal judgments during interactions

During the qualitative phase, the researcher assumed the dual role of an interviewer and a direct instructor in an online writing course This approach facilitated the extraction of in-depth insights into participants' perspectives and practices to help the researcher maintain a vigilant approach by regularly monitoring and reviewing the data This was done to identify any potential inconsistencies and to ensure the accurate implementation of data collection methods, thereby maintaining standardization and objectivity However, it is crucial to acknowledge that during face-to-face interviews, the researcher's presence could have introduced response bias, with participants potentially offering answers they believed the researcher expects or desires, instead of their true opinions or experiences Additionally, the researcher's direct involvement in guiding participants throughout the empirical class might inadvertently have influenced their responses in their reflective journals To minimize interview biases, the researcher utilized open-ended questions and created a non-judgmental atmosphere during interviews This approach encouraged participants to provide detailed responses while avoiding leading queries and emphasizing the absence of right or wrong answers

Additionally, to minimize the influence of the researcher's direct involvement in the empirical class, a non-directive approach was adopted for participants' reflective journals Clear guidelines and boundaries were established, and the researcher refrained from expressing personal opinions or preferences in the reflective journals

As mentioned above, to mitigate potential biases and limitations due to the researcher's involvement, several strategies were employed The research process was transparent and aligned with established methodologies (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011;

Mills et al., 2006), with clear communication of objectives to participants to minimize response ambiguity Participants were assured that candid feedback, positive or negative, was essential Anonymous data collection and self-administered questionnaires were used to minimize response alteration Furthermore, to counter familiarity bias, participant anonymity was strictly maintained, and data analysis remained blind to specific identities Triangulation of data sources through diverse participant groups and methods enhanced study validity and reliability, offsetting potential bias from repeated interactions with certain participants.

Analytical framework of the study

In the current study, a modified version of Zimmerman's (2000) self-regulated

51 learning framework was used, with the main components remaining the same as the original model (see Figure 3.3) However, some sub-elements were adjusted to suit the research context As an empirical stage of the study, self-assessment checklists were employed in a writing course to gain insights into students' self-assessment practices and challenges in learning writing The modified model accommodated the use of these checklists within the self-assessment process

Referring to Figure 3.3, the teacher guided students in the forethought stage, using self-assessment checklists to set goals and develop strategic plans for their writing

Students established their personal goals and strategic plans, including pre-writing strategies, before starting their first drafts In the performance stage, students self- observed their habits and monitored their writing process, encompassing first drafting, assessing, re-drafting, revising, and final drafting Mistakes made in each draft were documented for future reference During this stage, students employed various strategies to seek feedback related to their learning goals and success criteria In the self-reflection stage, the self-assessment checklists facilitated students' reflection on their strengths and weaknesses in relation to their progress toward their goals Students

- Students write a first draft and self-assessment - Students seek feedback from peers

- Students revise the first draft and produce a second draft

- Students self-assess the second draft, revise, and write a final draft

- Students’ self-reflection on strengths and weaknesses - Students self-evaluate goals and set new goals for further development

- Teacher share learning goals, criteria of self-assessment checklists

- Students set personal goals - Students’ strategic planning

(engaging pre-writing activities) - Students keep reflective journals

Figure 3.3 The analytical framework of the study Adapted from Zimmerman

52 identified their weaknesses and sought further feedback to address these gaps in their writing Reflective journals were consulted at each stage to guide students in their self- regulated learning process

In short, the modified framework in the current study integrated self-assessment checklists into Zimmerman's (2000) self-regulated learning model, enabling students to actively engage in self-assessment practices and enhance their writing skill.

Data collection

Data collection instruments

As mentioned in Section 3.1.2, the data collection instruments employed in this study consisted of two phases

Table 3.2 Summary of data collection instruments

Research questions Research objectives Research instruments

1 What are Vietnamese EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill?

To explore EFL students’ perceptions of general self- assessment in writing skill, self-efficacy in writing, and the benefits of self-assessment in writing skill

2 How do Vietnamese EFL students practice self-assessment when learning writing?

To explore EFL students’ reported self-assessment practices in the writing process and writing strategy self-assessment

To examine EFL students’ actual practices of self- assessment and their reflections on the role of self- assessment checklists in learning writing

- Questionnaire - In-depth interviews - Questionnaire - Self-assessment checklists - Students’ written papers - Students’ reflective journals

3 What are the challenges encountered by Vietnamese EFL students in self- assessment in writing skill?

To investigate EFL students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

- Questionnaire - In-depth interviews - Self-assessment checklists - Students’ reflective journals

A combination of the questionnaire and interview was utilized to gather information on students' self-assessment in learning writing The questionnaire aimed to obtain quantitative data regarding students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in learning writing The focus-group interview, on the other hand, provided

53 a platform for in-depth exploration of participants' experiences and perspectives relating to three research questions Furthermore, an empirical study involved the use of self- assessment checklists, students' writing papers, reflective journals, and a questionnaire

These instruments facilitated a more comprehensive assessment of students' self- assessment practices and challenges and allowed for the examination of their progress and development throughout the writing process As summarized in Table 3.2, this study aimed to obtain a rich and multifaceted understanding of students' self-assessment in learning writing and its impact on writing performance

Questionnaires have several benefits that make them a valuable tool for data collection in this study They allow the researcher to gather a large amount of data efficiently from a sizable number of participants As McMillan and Schumacher (1993, p.240) noted, questionnaires provide “the ability to collect a great number of responses” within a short timeframe This advantage is particularly relevant in the current study that aimed to gather data from a large group of student participants

Additionally, questionnaires are cost-effective and practical compared to other methods like interviews or observations It means that questionnaires can be administered through various means, such as email, mail, telephone, or in-person, making them adaptable to different contexts and allowing researchers to reach a wider range of participants (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011; Mackey & Gass, 2005) Moreover, in the current study, the questionnaire format chosen is close-ended, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, enabling the collection of numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical SPSS software This approach enhances the reliability and rigor of the quantitative analysis process, as suggested by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011)

Although questionnaires may not capture the full complexities of individual contexts in this study, they still provide valuable insights That is, the questionnaire serves as an effective means of collecting quantitative data in large numbers while also offering valuable qualitative insights, particularly in guiding the formulation of questions for more in-depth interviews This combination of data types aligns with the recommendation of Mackey and Gass (2005), who suggested that questionnaires can provide an understanding of the research topic Furthermore, to guarantee the effectiveness of the questionnaire items, the researcher adhered to guidelines for formulating clear and unbiased questions in the participants' native language, following the recommendations of McMillan and Schumacher (1993) These guidelines help strengthen the validity of the questionnaire data and enable this study to effectively address its research objectives These strengths of this questionnaire render it a suitable

54 choice for collecting data on students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment This enhances the reliability and validity of the study's findings

According to Glover (2011), the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) serves as a crucial tool for self-assessment in learning writing One of its primary utilities lies in the provision of standardized written language proficiency levels, ranging from beginner to proficient These standardized levels enable learners to gauge their language proficiency and take ownership of their learning progress

Learners can track their language learning process by periodically evaluating their skills against the CEFR standards Moreover, the CEFR offers a self-assessment grid for each proficiency level in writing, allowing students to self-assess their abilities and set personalized, achievable learning goals that align with their needs and aspirations

Consequently, the CEFR provides learners with a clear and structured framework for self-assessment, playing a pivotal role in promoting learner-centered learning, where students actively engage in their language acquisition journey (Alderson, 2005; Glover, 2011; Little, 2005) Drawing upon these relationships, an approriate questionnaire has been developed to effectively gather data on students' self-assessment in learning writing

For the current study, an adjusted questionnaire was developed by amalgamating elements from the CEFR by the Council of Europe (2001) and adapting Flower and Hayes' (1981, p.370) writing process model: the planning process, the translating component, and the review element Additionally, assessment criteria for writing skills were extracted from academic writing textbooks (Davis & Liss, 2006; Oshima &

Hogue, 2006; Savage & Mayer, 2005) and served as important references The questionnaire framework was modified to incorporate the CEFR as a point of reference for self-assessment in writing This adaptation facilitated structured data collection on participants' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment of their writing skills The questionnaire was structured to address three research questions as outlined in Appendix A

In order to investigate EFL students' perceptions of self-assessment in the context of learning writing as a skill, a questionnaire comprising 33 close-ended items was developed and organized into four distinct clusters These clusters encompass the participants’ overall perceptions of self-assessment (items 1-6), perception of self- efficacy (items 7-17), perception of benefits (items 18-24), and the values of self- assessment (items 25-33) Through the exploration of these clusters, the study yields valuable insights into EFL students' perspectives and attitudes towards self-assessment in learning writing as a skill

55 In addition to exploring students' perceptions, this study delved into students' practices of self-assessment in learning writing through two distinct questionnaires administered to EFL tertiary students: one focusing on students' reported self- assessment practices and the other on their actual self-assessment practices The first questionnaire was carefully structured into two clusters, consisting of 22 closed items (items 34-55), aiming to understand students' reported self-assessment practices in both their writing skill (items 34-45) and writing process (items 46-55) Meanwhile, the second questionnaire, implemented in an experimental class setting, aimed to investigate students' real engagement in self-assessment This questionnaire comprised 11 closed-ended items (items 1-11) designed to gather specific information about students' reflections on the role and use of self-assessment checklists

The ultimate objective of this study was to scrutinize the challenges encountered by EFL students’ self-assessment when learning writing, encompassing 13 items

Precisely, items 56-68 in the questionnaire were crafted as closed-ended questions to explore the challenges reported by EFL students in their writing self-assessment practices These items were designed to shed light on the particular difficulties encountered by students during the self-assessment process

In summary, the questionnaire comprised 68 carefully arranged items, as outlined in Appendix A To ensure its reliability and internal consistency within each category, the questionnaire underwent a pilot testing phase to guarantee its effectiveness and accuracy in gathering valuable data, as detailed in Section 3.5.2 The finalized questionnaire consisted of 63 items, as presented in Appendix B

Empirical study

As part of this research, the empirical study aimed to gather additional information about self-assessment practices and challenges among EFL students in learning writing The online writing course involved 18 second-year students from two universities in southern Vietnam These students voluntarily participated in various writing activities, including essay writing, self-assessment using checklists, revision, and editing They also willingly maintained reflective journals to document their writing experiences and self-assessment practices

During the eight-week online writing course, conducted twice weekly via the Microsoft Teams app (see Appendix I), students were exposed to various essay types, such as argumentative, cause and effect, descriptive, and classification essays The first three weeks were dedicated to reviewing writing techniques, following the guidelines outlined in the books "Effective Academic Writing 3" by Davis and Liss (2006) and

"Writing Academic English" by Oshima and Hogue (2006), aligning closely with the students' curriculum Over the next five weeks, participants completed one writing topic each week, which included drafting the essay, self-assessment, editing, and revision

After the students completed each writing topic, the instructor provided the students with a self-assessment checklist (see Appendix F) Using this checklist, the students were instructed to self assess their essays by following items in the checklist and subsequently revise their work to produce a revised version The submission folder sent to the instructor included the first essay draft, the completed self-assessment checklist, and the revised essays Ultimately, this research project gathered 90 folders from 18 participants over the course of eight weeks

Furthermore, at the end of the writing course, the researcher allocated 10 minutes for the 18 EFL students to complete a questionnaire (see Appendix E) Subsequently, the students were given approximately 90 minutes to individually compose their reflective journals, capturing their personal reflections and insights during the writing course (see Appendix G) Both the completed questionnaires and reflective journals were then submitted to the researcher

Piloting study

The purpose of this pilot stage was to ensure the simplicity and efficacy of the research instruments and eliminate any ambiguity before conducting a large-scale study (Griffee, 2012; Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007) In this research, both a questionnaire and an interview were piloted to refine the items and their order, aiming for high reliability To assess the internal consistency of the piloted questionnaire, Cronbach's Alpha (α), a highly reliable measure, was used to indicate the degree of interrelatedness among the items (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011) Meanwhile, the piloting the interview was to refine the interview questions, test interview procedures, evaluate the level of interviewee comfort and rapport, and check the quality of interview data This stage is crucial before the main data collection; hence, a pilot project was conducted in a writing class, specifically Writing IV

As stated in Section 3.5.1.1, the questionnaire items were developed in Vietnamese and utilized a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5 (see Appendix A)

The 68-item questionnaire consisted of positive statements organized into clusters

There were 33 items related to students' perceptions, 22 items concerning students' practices, and 13 items addressing students' challenges of self-assessment in writing skill, with sub-clusters within the main clusters The next step involved data collection, where the questionnaires were distributed to 37 EFL second-year students in a writing class, and 30 completed questionnaires were returned

Table 3.3: Summary of Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients

No of Items 1 Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing perception of general self-assessment in writing skill 0.825 6 perception of self-efficacy in writing skill 0.732 11 perception of benefits of self-assessment in writing skill 0.756 7 perception of values of self-assessment in writing 0.784 9

2 Students’ practices of self-assessment in writing practices of self-assessment in learning writing 0.812 12 practices of self-assessment in writing processes 0.836 10

3 Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing 0.811 13

After gathering raw data and inputting the questionnaire data on the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) - version 20.0, which was used for data analysis and Cronbach's Alpha was employed to assess reliability As illustrated in Table 3.3, the coefficients for students' perceptions of self-assessment ranged from α = 0.732 to α 61 0.825, encompassing their perception of general self-assessment (α = 0.825), values of self- assessment (α = 0.784), benefits of self-assessment (α = 0.756), and self-efficacy in writing skill (α = 0.732) respectively Regarding students' practices, the coefficients ranged from α

= 0.812 to α = 0.836, including practices of self-assessment in the writing process (α 0.812) and practices of self-assessment in writing strategies (α = 0.836) Lastly, the coefficients for students' challenges were α = 0.811

To enhance the objectivity of the questionnaire items, the researcher sought input from two experienced English-writing lecturers and consulted with two supervisors

These lecturers provided valuable feedback on the clarity of each item in the pilot questionnaire, resulting in the deletion of several items and the modification of several others to avoid ambiguity and repetition Concerning students' perception of self- efficacy, two items (16 and 17) in this category were found to be unclear in conveying the purpose of assessing students' self-efficacy Consequently, the researcher replaced these items with a new one, encompassing seven sub-items that focus on evaluating students' abilities in writing In the other two categories, students' perceptions of the benefits and values of self-assessment in learning writing, several items did not show a significant difference between the two terms As a result, the researcher decided to combine these categories into a single one - students' perceptions of the benefits of self- assessment The overlapping items (26, 27, and 30) were then removed Furthermore, item 45 in the category of students' reported practice was removed due to an unclear purpose, as it did not effectively convey the intended focus or objective of the assessment's practice Finally, the final version of the official questionnaire consisted of 63 items, which were translated into English to ensure clarity and comprehensibility (see Appendix B)

One week later, a pilot interview was conducted with four students who voluntarily participated out of a total of 30 questionnaire respondents Fourteen interview questions, based on the three clusters and sub-clusters of the pilot questionnaire, included both closed-ended and open-ended questions (see Appendix C)

MP-3 recordings and notes were utilized during the interviews It was observed that most participants provided general information about their perceptions, practices, and challenges in self-assessment in learning writing However, a challenge encountered during the face-to-face interviews was that individuals often felt nervous and lacked confidence, resulting in soft-spoken or hesitant responses This means that the participants may not provide complete or accurate information due to their discomfort and lack of confidence, potentially affecting the reliability and validity of the interview data Another limitation was the interview data quality Several interview questions did not elicit meaningful and detailed responses that aligned with the research objectives such as questions 1, 3, 4, 5, and 8 This means that the data obtained from those

62 questions may be insufficient or lack the depth required to address the research objectives effectively The limitation impacts the overall quality and usefulness of the interview data, potentially affecting the validity and reliability of the findings and limiting the insights and understanding gained from the study

Based on the findings of the pilot interview, several changes and modifications were made to the main interview (see Appendix D) This official interview was condensed to 12 open-ended questions, with additional questions added, specifically numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, and 12 Some questions were redesigned to allow for the collection of more in-depth information regarding students' perceptions, practices, and challenges in self-assessment Furthermore, focus-group interviews were organized to stimulate group discussions and capture diverse perspectives on the topic Finally, the interviews were conducted in the participants' first language to enhance their comfort and facilitate better communication.

Data collection procedures

Data collection plays a pivotal role in ensuring the highest level of reliability, a critical element for facilitating data analysis within this study To guarantee the acquisition of high-quality information, the researcher meticulously planned strategies for each instrument utilized in the data collection process The following provides a detailed account of the data collection procedures employed for each instrument

The process of collecting questionnaires for this study encompassed two universities with a significant population of second-year English majors Initially, the researcher secured permissions from university authorities and obtained class schedules Upon arriving at each class, the researcher personally distributed the questionnaires to willing participants After a 15-minute interval, the researcher collected the completed questionnaires from the students Concurrently, a list was compiled of students who expressed interest in participating in interviews and an empirical writing course with self-assessment

Following meticulous examination of the questionnaire responses and the input data into SPSS, the interview stage commenced two weeks later To ensure accuracy and randomness, the researcher randomly selected one or two students from each class, representing a diverse pool of volunteers for the interviews To accommodate participants from both universities, a total of thirty-two students willingly participated, forming eight interview groups, with four groups per university Convenient time slots and dates were scheduled to accommodate the participants at various locations through Zalo groups, facilitating discussions All interviewees had previously completed the questionnaire to maintain consistency and coherence in data collection Focus-group interviews took place immediately after classes in designated classrooms, with each session lasting

63 approximately 40 to 50 minutes Both MP3 recordings (2 MP3 files) and note-taking were employed during the interviews to ensure comprehensive documentation

As mentioned in Section 3.5.2, the empirical stage spanned an eight-week writing course, during which data on students' utilization of self-assessment checklists, writing papers, reflective journals, and a questionnaire were collected These data collection processes were carried out online, ensuring convenience and accessibility for all participants

Initially, data on students' self-assessment checklists and writing papers were collected weekly over five weeks This involved gathering students' initial drafts of their essay topics, their self-assessment checklists (including Yes/No responses and open-ended items), and their revised versions Additionally, students' reflective journals and a questionnaire were collected at the end of the empirical project Participants completed the questionnaire within 10 minutes and their reflective journals within 90 minutes

The data collection methods employed in this study have significantly enriched its foundation, enabling an exploration of students' self-assessment practices in the context of learning writing and their subsequent learning experiences The study systematically gathered diverse data from a substantial sample of 450 participants through a detailed questionnaire and conducted 8 focused interview sessions with 32 participants

Meanwhile, throughout the empirical study, data were collected from 18 participants through a reflective questionnaire, 18 reflective journals, and an extensive repository of 90 self-assessment checklists, covering both initial drafts and their revised versions

These robust data sources have played a pivotal role in shaping the study's insights, providing a comprehensive understanding of students' self-assessment in writing skill.

Data analysis

Analysis of the quantitative data

Upon completing the questionnaire-based data collection for the three research questions, the collected raw data underwent several quality-check steps Firstly, the researcher manually checked the validity of the responses to identify adequately completed questionnaires This stage involved reviewing each questionnaire to

64 eliminate unqualified responses, such as those with incomplete answers or fewer than three-quarters of the questionnaire boxes ticked Subsequently, the data was validated, resulting in a selection of 450 valid samples that constituted the final quantitative dataset To organize and analyze the questionnaire data, the researcher utilized the SPSS software program (version 20.0), which facilitated data sorting and storage in a dedicated database This process once more entailed cleansing the raw data to remove errors, inconsistencies, and outliers, ensuring that the data were accurate and reliable for analysis The resulting quantitative database was saved and securely stored as a dataset for subsequent analysis and interpretation

The three research questions concerning EFL tertiary students' perceptions, practices, and challenges of self-assessment in their writing was firstly analyzed using descriptive statistics on the quantitative data This analysis entailed measuring the Mean (M) and Standard Deviations (SD) for each item Satisfaction levels were assessed based on a five-point Likert scale format, specifically categorized into ranges for each factor

Furthermore, the analysis of the data involved evaluating responses from the self- assessment checklist, which utilized a Yes/No scale The collected data was processed using Excel, enabling the calculation of percentages for each item Excel's functionality allowed for efficient computation, aiding in understanding the distribution and patterns within the self-assessment responses This method facilitated a detailed examination of participants' self-assessment practices, providing valuable insights into their perceptions and behaviors related to writing skills Overall, employing Excel to analyze the self- assessment checklist data contributed to the study's rigorous and systematic approach, enhancing the depth of understanding regarding students' self-assessment practices in learning writing.

Analysis of the qualitative data

The qualitative data in this study were collected from various sources Their analysis was conducted using qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis methods (Creswell, 2014; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Vaismoradi et al., 2016)

Qualitative content analysis was applied to data obtained from focus-group interviews, open-ended questions in self-assessment checklists, reflective journals, and students' essay drafts This research approach involves systematically coding and identifying themes within textual data, allowing for the interpretation of content (Ezzy, 2002; Hsieh

& Shannon, 2005; Vaismoradi et al., 2016) The data collected through these sources were extensive and rich in information, necessitating careful examination and selection by the researcher The purpose of using qualitative data sources was to provide a detailed and contextually grounded description and interpretation of students' self-

65 assessment practices in learning writing at the tertiary level The subsequent sections will outline the specific steps involved in the qualitative analysis process

As illustrated in Appendix H, the analysis of the interview data involved three distinct phases, namely initialization, coding and organization, and theme development

In the initialization phase, the researcher transcribed the verbatim audio recordings of the eight focus-group interviews The entire transcripts were carefully reviewed, and key ideas and significant issues within the data were identified and listed Moving on to the coding process and organization stage, the researcher compared and classified the codes, considering their similarities and differences This facilitated the identification and grouping of codes that corresponded to the quantitative clusters associated with the three research questions Additionally, the researcher organized the codes into clusters and translated them from Vietnamese to English, as the interviews were conducted in Vietnamese Finally, in the theme development phase, the content of the themes derived from the interview data was analyzed, establishing connections between these themes and the quantitative phase of the study's research questions

Similarly, the analysis of reflective journal data followed a process akin to that of interview data analysis The researcher thoroughly reviewed the entire contents of the reflective journals to identify meaningful units, which were then highlighted (see Appendix K) Codes were subsequently assigned to these units and organized accordingly Comparisons were made, and the codes were sorted into clusters, after which they were translated into English It is worth noting that, unlike the interview data, the reflective journals were in written form and were sent to the researcher via email The analysis of the reflective journal data served as an additional means to compare and contrast the data pertaining to students' practices and challenges in self-assessment

Ultimately, the analysis of students' initial and final essay drafts was conducted to gain valuable insights into their actual self-assessment practices in learning writing As previously described, the process of using a self-assessment checklist was outlined in earlier sections To analyze the data derived from students' writing outputs, the researcher carefully examined and compared the data sources encompassing the initial drafts, the self-assessment checklist, and the final essay drafts (see Appendix J) The criteria outlined in the self-assessment checklist served as a pivotal tool for gauging students' self-assessment levels throughout both the initial and final essay drafts By comparing the outcomes of self-assessment between the initial and final essays, the researcher gained an understanding of the challenges encountered by students during the self-assessment process

In conclusion, data analysis developed the arguments for the final themes, which were ready for the report of the findings The analysis of each theme from the interview

66 and journal data was put in the context of triangulation It could provide meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information gleaned from the review of theories and previous studies in the literature.

Research reliability and validity

Reliability

In this study, the concept of reliability encompasses both internal and external aspects (Dornyei, 2007; LeCompte & Goetz, 1982; Zohrabi, 2013) Internal reliability refers to the researcher's ability to establish a correlation between previously established constructs and the collected data, ensuring comparability with the original researchers On the other hand, external reliability pertains to the likelihood of different researchers finding similar phenomena or producing consistent structures in similar study settings

To ensure reliability, it is crucial for the researcher to carefully collect and analyze data while maintaining transparency throughout the process (Nunan, 1992) By adhering to these principles, the researcher can assert the trustworthiness of his work

That is, a reasonable standard of reliability in this research was achieved, meeting the following criteria

To capture a comprehensive understanding of students' self-assessment in learning writing, a mixed-methods approach was employed, utilizing various data collection techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, students' writing products, self- assessment checklists, and reflective journals The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS, a reliable statistical analysis program To establish the reliability of the main questionnaire, Cronbach Alpha was conducted during the pilot study, ensuring high reliability for all items within each cluster In terms of qualitative interviews, the questions were refined into open-ended format after the pilot study, and interviews were recorded using MP3 devices and supported by detailed note-taking

Reflective journals, widely recognized as a valuable learning tool, were also employed in this study to provide high-quality data These journals allowed students to reflect on their learning experiences while engaging in the actual practice of self- assessment in a writing course By focusing on individuals' thoughts and perceptions within real-world contexts, reflective journals yielded reliable and insightful data

Throughout the study, a detailed description of student participants, the researcher's role, social contexts, and the methods employed for data collection and

67 analysis were provided These considerations were in line with the principles of external reliability (Dornyei, 2007; Zohrabi, 2013), ensuring the robustness and credibility of the research

In short, this study demonstrated an approach to ensure reliability by combining quantitative and qualitative methods, employing reliable analysis tools, refining data collection instruments through pilot studies, and leveraging the strengths of reflective journals The transparent and detailed presentation of the research process further bolstered the reliability of the study's findings.

Validity

Reliability, which is a crucial aspect of measurement validity (Brown, 2003;

LeCompte & Goetz, 1982; Nunan, 1992; Zohrabi, 2013), holds significance for this study In order to contribute valuable knowledge to this research, validity was assessed based on specific criteria The validity of the study was evaluated using the following criteria

Firstly, content validity pertains to the research instruments and data employed

To ensure validity, the questionnaire and interview underwent a pilot study, ensuring the appropriateness of the instruments and yielding valid results Secondly, internal validity in this study refers to the extent to which the observed results accurately represent the participants' provided information in the questionnaires, interviews, students’ checklists, students’ writing papers, and reflective journals The analysis of data from multiple sources, both quantitative and qualitative, contributed to strengthening the internal validity of the data and findings

Furthermore, utility validity and external validity were addressed by logically comparing, interpreting, and triangulating the findings with results from previous studies The findings in this study were situated within a broader context, aligning them with existing knowledge and ensuring their utility and external validity

In this study, the interpretation approach was employed to establish quantitative and qualitative validity for each database By combining both types of data, a comprehensive understanding of students' perceptions, practices, and challenges regarding self-assessment in writing was obtained The data derived from students' learning logs played a crucial role in validating and cross-checking the findings related to their self-assessment practices and challenges The researcher took measures to mitigate potential threats to validity associated with the interpretation approach by addressing factors such as sample sites, sample sizes, study planning, implementation strategy, data collection, and data analysis It is important to note that when different concepts or variables are used in the quantitative and qualitative aspects, merging and comparing the findings may become challenging

Ethical considerations

Ethical considerations were also taken into account throughout the research process Mixed methods research, which integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, presents specific ethical dilemmas (Creswell, 2014; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011; Hesse-Biber, 2010) To mitigate unexpected problems, the researcher adhered to moral principles and remained vigilant in ensuring ethical standards at every stage of the investigation

To uphold the validity and accuracy of the current study, the researcher ensured the anonymity of university names and used identification numbers to represent student participants in questionnaires, interviews, and journal writings during the data analysis process The researcher was conscientious about ethical considerations, aiming to avoid any controversies or breaches involving respondents' information Confidential and personal data, such as information regarding schools, participants' privacy, and students' responses to questionnaires and interviews, were treated as confidential information and handled with care.

Summary

In this chapter, the research methodology used in the study is outlined It covers the research approach, design, context, setting, analytical framework, data collection methods, analysis procedures, reliability, validity, and ethical considerations The chapter serves as a guide to how the study was conducted, ensuring transparency and integrity in the research process

CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the findings and discussion regarding EFL tertiary students' self- assessment in learning writing are presented The initial stage of data analysis involved a combination of a questionnaire and interviews to explore students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in writing skill In the empirical study, further analysis was conducted on students' practices and challenges, utilizing data from a questionnaire, reflective journals, self-assessment checklists, as well as their initial and revised drafts The chapter concludes by discussing, interpreting, and triangulating these findings within the context of EFL writing education.

EFL students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill

Overview of students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill

Figure 4.1 displays the summary statistics for the mean scores of three main clusters pertaining to EFL students' perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill

The mean values for each cluster were computed using a five-point Likert scale,

70 providing an overview of the questionnaire data regarding students' perceptions of self- assessment in learning writing The results depicted in the graph indicate that the mean scores for the three clusters ranged from M=3.61 to M=3.95 These findings suggest that the majority of students at both campuses exhibited a high level of agreement and positive perceptions towards self-assessment in learning writing Especially, the figure highlights the highest rate of students' perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill (M=3.95) Meanwhile, the mean scores for students' perceptions of the benefits of self-assessment in writing skill (M=3.72) slightly surpassed their perceptions of self- efficacy in their writing skill (M=3.61) In the subsequent sections, the questionnaire and interview data will undergo a combined analysis into three clusters.

Students’ perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill

Table 4.1 depicted in the first cluster provides a comprehensive breakdown of tertiary students' perceptions regarding the general self-assessment in writing skill The questionnaire consisted of six items that measured the participants' responses on their perceptions, with mean scores ranging from M=3.02 to M=4.41

Table 4.1 Students' perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill

No Items: (I think…) Min Max Mean S.D

1 Self-assessment is important to improve my overall writing skill 2 5 4.40 629

2 In writing skill, self-assessment helps me develop a range of vocabulary 2 5 4.41 617

3 Self-assessment in writing skill helps me choose appropriate sentence structures 2 5 3.92 812

4 Self-assessment supports my ability to self- reflect on and learn from my writing experiences 2 5 4.25 651

5 Self-assessment helps develop my editing skills in writing 2 5 3.02 876

6 I am satisfied with the final draft that I have self- assessed 1 5 3.70 1.069

Notably, a significant majority of participants strongly believed that self- assessment facilitated the development of their vocabulary range in writing (M=4.41, SD=.617) Moreover, they expressed the importance of self-assessment in improving their overall writing skill (M=4.40, SD=.629) and acknowledged its role in self- reflection and learning from writing experiences (M=4.25, SD=.651) Additionally, participants recognized the value of self-assessment in understanding appropriate sentence structures (M=3.92, SD=.812) and expressed satisfaction with their self-

71 assessed final drafts (M=3.70, SD=1.069) However, a smaller proportion of students perceived self-assessment as contributing to the development of their editing skills in writing (M=3.02, SD=.876) These findings will be further explored and elaborated upon in subsequent interviews, providing a more in-depth understanding of the students' perceptions

Table 4.1 presents the standard deviation (SD) value of 776, serving as the overall measure of response dispersion for six statements (items 1 to 6) assessing students' perceptions of general self-assessment in writing skill A low SD indicates tight clustering around the total mean (M=3.95), reflecting consensus among students regarding self-assessment's importance in improving writing skill, enhancing vocabulary, selecting appropriate sentence structures, and facilitating self-reflection

However, the highest SD in statement 6 (SD=1.069) reveals substantial variation in students' satisfaction with their self-assessed final drafts, highlighting diverse opinions and experiences

In the interviews, the first question centered on eliciting students' perceptions of their overall self-assessment in writing skill The majority of the interview respondents expressed the view that self-assessment plays a pivotal role in their development as student writers Several interviewees articulated their perspectives, with statements such as, " I believe self-assessment in the context of learning writing involves a comprehensive consideration of various writing aspects, including clarity, coherence, organization, grammar, vocabulary usage, and the overall message conveyed in my writing." (Int-1 Ss.1 & 4) These responses highlight the participants' clear understanding of crucial elements in writing Moreover, several participants emphasized that self-assessment serves as a reflective tool, enabling them to self-assess their writing, identify strengths, pinpoint specific areas for improvement, and establish targeted goals for their development For example, one interviewee said, " I find that self-assessment allows me to discern my weaknesses in areas such as grammar, coherence, organization, and vocabulary usage within my writing." (Int-8.S.32) These insights underscore the participants' awareness of the multifaceted nature of writing and their ability to self-reflect critically These responses may indicate a profound understanding of the self-assessment process in the context of learning writing

Moreover, the majority of interviewees emphasized the critical role of ideation, explanation, and idea development in writing and self-assessment For instance, these students expressed, “…I believe self-assessment of ideation and explanation is crucial in writing as it helps me articulate intricate details in my writing.”(Int-8 S32).“…I consider the selection and development of ideas paramount in writing because they

72 make my writing more captivating.” (Int-4 S.16) Notably, Participant 32 underscored the significance of self-assessment concerning ideation and explanation skills, acknowledging their role in effectively conveying detailed information in her writing

Meanwhile, Participant 16 emphasized their ability to select appropriate ideas, as it enhances the appeal and engagement of their writing These findings imply that their perceptions of the role of self-assessment in ideation, explanation, and idea development in writing are pivotal in producing compelling and engaging written work

Another remarkable finding is that a significant number of the participants responses provided valuable insights into their perceptions of self-assessment in relation to their general writing skill The interviewees consistently highlighted the positive impact of self-assessment on various aspects of their writing process and outcomes They said,

“…Thanks to self-assessment, I know how to select appropriate information, (Int-2 S.7), … narrow it down from a broad context, and develop my vocabulary in my writing (Int-5 Ss.18 & 19), …It [self- assessment in writing] helps me organize and develop ideas better.” (Int-8

“…I think that self-assessment helps me broaden my vocabulary and improve spelling in my writing.” (Int-4 Ss.14 & 16)

It is notable that these interviewees perceived self-assessment in writing enabled them to select appropriate information This indicates that through self-assessment, students became more discerning in choosing relevant content for their writing tasks

By critically self-assessing their own writing, they could identify the most relevant and meaningful information to include, leading to improved content quality and focus

Additionally, the interviewees emphasized the role of self-assessment in narrowing down information from a broad context in their writing This suggests that self- assessment helped students refine their ideas and identify the key points to be communicated in their writing By engaging in self-reflection and evaluation, students became more skilled at identifying and prioritizing essential information, resulting in more concise and coherent writing Especially, the interviewees highlighted that self- assessment in writing contributes to the development of their vocabulary Through self- assessment, students became more aware of their vocabulary choices and identified areas for improvement Self-assessing their own language usage, they helped expand their vocabulary repertoire, enhance precision in word selection, and ultimately enrich their writing Lastly, the interviewees supposed that self-assessment aided in organizing and developing ideas Reviewing their work, students gained insights into the logical

73 structure of their writing and made necessary revisions to improve the overall organization and flow Self-assessment prompted EFL students to reflect on the coherence and cohesion of their ideas, leading to more effective communication and better-developed arguments

Furthermore, the interviewees' acknowledgment of self-assessment's role in improving grammar control highlights the significance of self-assessment as a valuable tool for enhancing language proficiency and ensuring grammatical accuracy in written expression They said, “I think self-assessment helps me to control grammar better in writing…” (Int-8.Ss.30 & 32) Their acknowledgment highlights the pivotal role of self-assessment in refining grammar Through self-assessment, students identified and rectified grammatical errors and inconsistencies, deepening their understanding of grammar rules The participants believed that self-assessment empowered them to monitor and correct grammar errors, fostering a comprehensive grasp of grammar rules and promoting effective written communication Importantly, their perception aligns with self-assessment's benefits as a learning strategy, enabling students to actively participate in their language proficiency development Recognizing its importance, students are likely to integrate self-assessment into their writing process, facilitating continuous improvement in grammatical accuracy

Nonetheless, a notable disparity emerged in students' perceptions regarding the role of self-assessment in enhancing their editing skills in writing Despite being rated lowest in the questionnaire, the majority of interviewees expressed confidence in the efficacy of self-assessment to improve their editing abilities in writing A sizable group of participants recognized the beneficial influence of self-assessment on their editing skills, encompassing components in writing such as capitalization, spelling, punctuation, tenses, and grammatical structures This underscores the significance of self-assessment as a valuable instrument for personal growth and the enhancement of writing proficiency For instance, several interviewees said, “ I think I am confident in editing capitalization, spelling,… (Int-4 S.14), …and punctuation in my writing will improve through self-assessment” (Int-6 Ss.22 & 24) “…Thanks to self-assessment, I feel more confident to self-correct tenses and grammatical structures in my writing”

Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill

Table 4.2 and Figure 4.2 below present the findings from the questionnaire data on students’ perceptions of self-efficacy of their writing skill Subsequently, these quantitative data were analyzed in combination with interview data Table 4.2 presents the results of EFL students' perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill, indicated by the total mean and standard deviation (M=3.61 & SD=.837)

Table 4.2 Students' perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill

No Items: (I think… ) Min Max M S.D

7 I can effectively write a long essay without any assistance 1.0 5.0 2.98 1.002

8 I can write a good introduction for an essay 3.0 5.0 3.01 860

9 I can write a clear thesis statement that identifies an essay’s topic and controlling idea 2.0 5.0 3.11 751

10 I can write a clear topic sentence that identifies the topic and controlling idea in a body paragraph 3.0 5.0 3.94 810

11 I can logically support and develop my main point when writing a paragraph 1.0 5.0 3.49 1.001

12 I can use a logical arrangement of paragraphs to support and develop my thesis statement 3.0 5.0 3.98 710

13 I can logically organize my ideas when I write an essay 2.0 5.0 3.71 840

14 I can identify problems in my writing and see what should be improved 2.0 5.0 3.90 820

15 I am sure that I have a good ability to learn writing 2.0 5.0 4.34 740

Notably, the highest rating in this table is attributed to students' belief in their overall writing ability (M=4.34, SD=.740) Additionally, most participants expressed strong confidence in their capacity to employ logical paragraph arrangement to support their thesis statement (M=3.98, SD=.710) and write clear topic sentences that convey the main idea of a body paragraph (M=3.94, SD=.810) They also believed in their ability to identify and address writing problems through revision (M=3.90, SD=.820) and organize their ideas logically to compose an essay (M=3.71, SD=.840) However, a minority of participants showed lower agreement regarding certain aspects of their writing skill Specifically, they expressed lower confidence in logically supporting and

75 developing main points within paragraphs (M=3.49, SD=1.001), writing a clear thesis statement that captures the essay's topic and controlling idea (M=3.11, SD=.751), and crafting a strong essay introduction (M=3.01, SD=.860) Notably, the fewest participants agreed that they could effectively write longer essays (M=2.98, SD=1.002)

The data presented in Table 4.2 pertains to students' perceptions of their self- efficacy in learning writing, including the corresponding total mean values (M = 3.61) and standard deviation values (SD = 837) These values indicate variability in respondents' confidence and proficiency across the assessed writing skill, with SD values offering insights into the diversity of responses from the participants Notably, items 7 and 11 exhibit SD values > 1 (1.002 and 1.001, respectively), indicating greater diversity in opinions and proficiency regarding the ability to write a long essay without assistance and to logically support the main points in a paragraph Conversely, items 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 display SD values < 1 (ranging from 751 to 860), suggesting more consistent responses concerning skills such as writing clear thesis statements, using logically arranged paragraphs, organizing ideas, and identifying writing problems

Besides data from the questionnaire, the interview question inquired about the students' overall perception of self-efficacy in their writing skill The majority of participants expressed a generally positive outlook A large number of the respondents exhibited confidence in their ability to write essays, organize paragraphs, and effectively express their thoughts Nevertheless, a few participants expressed doubts regarding the efficacy of writing long essays For example, several individuals said,

“I think that I completely feel confident when I write an essay” (Int-2

S.6), “…I often write a long essay but I am not sure about its effectiveness (Int-8 S.30)”,

“I assume that I know how to write an essay and organize paragraphs… (Int-2.S.6), I often write down of what I thought I do not worry about grammar or vocabulary.” (Int-8.S.30 & 31)

It can see that the first statement reflects the interviewee's strong confidence in their essay writing, indicating that they felt completely confident when writing an essay However, they expressed some uncertainty about the effectiveness of their longer essays, suggesting that they might have concerns about maintaining coherence and impact in their extended writing Moreover, another finding reveals a sense of assurance in essay writing and paragraph organization The interviewees stated that they were comfortable expressing their thoughts and were not worried about grammar or vocabulary This indicates a level of confidence in their ability to communicate their

76 ideas effectively, prioritizing content and organization over linguistic accuracy

Upon further exploration of the reasons behind their uncertainty about their essays, several interviewees highlighted their concerns related to grammar, vocabulary, and coherence Student 6, for instance, expressed apprehension about his grammar and acknowledged the limitations of his vocabulary, stating, " I'm really worried about my grammar and otherwise my vocabulary is not very rich." This response indicates that these individuals perceived their shortcomings in these language aspects as potential obstacles to producing effective and cohesive essays Their perceptions of these areas of improvement underscores the importance of addressing grammar and vocabulary development to enhance their overall writing proficiency

Remarkably, many of the interviewees expressed confidence in their ability to use a logical order in each paragraph, write a clear thesis statement for introduction, and create clear topic sentences for each body paragraph For example, Student 32 said, " I think I can use a logical order in each paragraph…", indicating their belief in their capability to organize their ideas effectively within each paragraph Similarly, multiple interviewees mentioned their confidence in writing a clear thesis statement for introduction and topic sentence for body paragraphs For instance, Students 1 and 4 stated, " I suppose I can write a clear thesis statement for an introduction and clear topic sentence for each body paragraph", highlighting their perceived competence in these areas Additionally, Students 29 and 32 mentioned their proficiency in

“paraphrasing in the introductory paragraph”, suggesting their ability to rephrase and express ideas effectively These responses demonstrate the interviewees' self-assurance in specific aspects of essay writing, such as paragraph organization, thesis statement construction, topic sentence clarity, and introductory paraphrasing Their confidence in these areas suggests that they possess skills and knowledge necessary for producing well-structured and coherent essays

However, during the interviews, several interviewees expressed their concerns about their writing skill They specifically mentioned feeling unsure about providing enough details, using appropriate phrases, eliminating unnecessary information, and identifying and correcting grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, and spelling errors For example, Student 10 admitted, "I think I'm not really confident with the grammar, spelling, and content of my writing." This statement reflects a lack of self-assurance in these specific areas in their writing skill Similarly, Student 16 mentioned, "I think I'm not really good at writing sometimes when I look back at my writing I feel like I'm still confused." This finding indicates a sense of uncertainty and confusion when reviewing their own written work Furthermore, Students 21 and 24 both expressed their belief

77 that their writing ability was weak because they struggled to remove redundant ideas and develop their concepts effectively within their essays These responses highlight the interviewees' perceived weaknesses in different aspects of writing, including language mechanics, clarity of expression, and overall organization It is evident that further support and development are needed to address these concerns and improve their writing skill in an experimental stage in this study

In addition to the questionnaire data, item 16 of the questionnaire includes 7 sub- items that explore the participants' perception of their specific elements of their writing ability This data is further examined how confident students feel about their writing skill

The findings from Figure 4.2 indicate that out of the 450 participants, there was a range of perceptions regarding their self-efficacy in specific aspects of their writing skill The mean values of their perceived strengths in writing skill varied from M=3.0 to M=4.17, highlighting different levels of proficiency Remarkably, participants expressed a higher level of confidence in punctuation (M=4.17) and paragraphing (M=3.96) as specific elements in their writing skill On the other hand, a majority of the participants identified Vocabulary (M=3.53), Spelling (M=3.51), Grammar (M=3.39), Sentence Structure (M=3.25), and Content (M=3.00) as areas where their strengths were relatively weaker These results suggest that students were aware of their limitations in Grammar, Sentence Structure, and Content when assessing their writing abilities

When questioned about students’ self-perceived proficiency in specific aspects of

78 English writing, the majority of participants expressed consensus in their ability to identify their strengths and weaknesses However, there were diverse opinions among the participants regarding their strengths in English writing skill A substantial number of the respondents believed that they typically made minimal errors in Grammar and Sentence Structure when producing written work Furthermore, many participants attributed their competence in grammar to the strong foundation acquired during their high school education For example, several interviewees said,

“I think I do not worry about grammar mistakes in my writing because I had a good grammar foundation when I was in high school.” (Int-6.Ss.21

“In my writing, I suppose that I usually have few mistakes in grammar (Int-1.Ss.1 & 4) and sentence structures (Int-5.S.19) Actually, grammar and sentence structure were well trained in high school.” (Int-8.S.30)

It can be observed that several participants expressed confidence in their grammar due to having a solid foundation from their high school education As Participants 21 and 24, both stated that they did not worry about grammar mistakes in their writing because they received good grammar training during their high school years Similarly, Participants 1, 4, 19, and 30 mentioned that they believed they had few grammar and sentence structure mistakes in their writing These findings indicate that a small number of participants had a positive perception of their grammar, linking it to their previous education Their belief in having a solid grammar foundation suggests a level of confidence in their ability to produce grammatically correct sentences and structures in their writing

Similarly, only one interviewee displayed belief in her writing prowess and expressed a sense of assurance regarding her ability in this domain She said,

Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in learning writing

Table 4.3 indicates significant insights into the benefits of self-assessment in writing skill The data illustrates an overall mean score of 3.72 and a standard deviation of 907, indicating a moderate level of variability in respondents' perceptions of the

80 benefits of self-assessment in learning writing The mean scores range from M=3.0 to M=4.17, indicating a spectrum of perceptions among participants In general, the participants expressed agreement regarding the benefits of self-assessment

Table 4.3 Students’ perceptions of benefits of self-assessment in writing

No Items: (I think … ) Min Max Mean S.D

17 Self-assessment in writing promotes a sense of responsibility for my own learning 2 5 3.39 940

18 Self-assessment encourages me to set specific goals for my writing development 2 5 3.53 872

19 Learning with self-assessment allows me to find errors in my own writing works and to self-correct them independently

20 Self-assessment promotes self-reflection on my writing strengths and weaknesses 1 5 3.51 970

21 Self-assessment in learning writing helps me develop a deeper understanding of my writing process and improve my overall writing skill

22 The use of self-assessment in writing provides me with opportunities to monitor and understand my own learning process during the course

23 Self-assessment allows me to use appropriate strategies to fix problems with my writing 3 5 4.17 720 24

Self-assessment helps me develop a better understanding of my writing strengths and weaknesses

25 Self-assessment encourages me to have more confidence in learning writing 2 5 3.57 910

26 Self-assessment empowers me to take ownership of my learning process and become an active participant in my writing development

27 Self-assessment helps me develop self-regulation skills in learning writing 1 5 3.88 978

28 Self-assessment helps me develop my future independent learning skills 3 5 4.14 853

29 Self-assessment promotes a growth mindset, inspiring me to continuously improve my writing skill

Remarkably, a significant number of participants perceived self-assessment as a valuable tool to employ effective strategies in addressing writing issues, with a mean score of 4.17 and SD = 720 Similarly, a majority of participants strongly agreed that self-assessment contributes to the development of their future independent learning

81 skills (M=4.14, SD = 853) and fosters a growth mindset, motivating continuous improvement in their writing skills (M=4.07, SD=.769)

Moreover, participants believed that self-assessment facilitates the identification and independent correction of mistakes in their writing (M = 3.96, SD=.990) The analysis further indicates that self-assessment plays a crucial role in enabling students to take ownership of their learning process and actively participate in their writing development (M=3.94, SD=.945) The EFL students also expressed the belief that self- assessment helps them identify their writing strengths and weaknesses (M=3.90, SD=.981) Meanwhile, a minority of participants realized that self-assessment enhances their motivation to engage in the learning process (M=3.88, SD= 978) and contributes to increased confidence in learning writing (M=3.57, SD=.910)

Additionally, the findings highlight the positive influence of self-assessment on goal-setting for writing development (M = 3.53, SD=.872) and the promotion of effective self-reflection on writing strengths and weaknesses (M = 3.51, SD=.970)

However, a minority of participants reported that self-assessment in learning writing promotes a sense of responsibility for their own learning (M = 3.39, SD=.940), facilitates the development of a deep understanding of their writing process (M = 3.25, SD=.920), and provides opportunities to monitor and comprehend their learning progress during the writing course (M = 3.00, SD=.950)

The standard deviation (SD) values in Table 4.3 offer insights into the variability or dispersion of responses among students regarding their perceptions of the benefits of self-assessment in writing The overall total SD of 907 (ranging from 720 to 990) suggests a moderate level of variability in students' views across all statements related to the advantages of self-assessment in learning writing When examining individual statements, those with lower SD values (e.g., items 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27, 28, and 29) indicate a higher level of agreement among students regarding the benefits associated with these aspects of self-assessment This suggests a more consistent perspective among respondents on these specific elements Conversely, statements with higher SD values (e.g., items 17, 19, 22, and 24) indicate more diverse opinions or experiences among students concerning the specified benefits Higher SD values in these cases suggest a broader range of views on these particular aspects of self-assessment This nuanced analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the spectrum of student perceptions regarding the benefits of self-assessment in writing

In the interviews, when questioned about the interviewees’ perception of the benefits of self-assessment in learning writing A significant number of the participants expressed their belief that self-assessment plays a crucial role in identifying mistakes and

82 addressing weaknesses in their own writing As said by the participants, “I find that it [self- assessment] helps me find more mistakes and address the weaknesses in my writings e.g., errors on word usage, grammar, and idea, etc.,” (Int-8 Ss 31 & 32) This finding emphasizes the participants’ perception of how self-assessment enables them to identify and rectify specific areas of improvement in their writing

Similarly, many students viewed self-assessment as a tool for personal growth, seeing it as an opportunity to continuously improve their writing ability They recognized that self-assessment allowed them to identify areas for development and actively work towards enhancing their skills For example, Student 12 said, “ self-assessment gives me the chance to identify the errors in my writing to self-improving them.” Additionally, the participants highlighted the benefits of self-assessment in guiding their writing improvement They mentioned that self-assessment helped them find the best ways to enhance their writing, indicating an active and intentional approach towards self- improvement They said, “ it [self-assessment] helps me find the best ways to improve my writing.” (Int-7.S.26) and “…self-assessment helps me to self-edit and self-improve my writing.”( Int-8.S.30) These results illustrate the participant’s recognition of the benefits of self-assessment They acknowledged that self-assessment allowed them to identify mistakes, address weaknesses, and discover effective strategies for improving their writing

Moreover, most of the interviewees expressed the belief that self-assessment plays a significant role in enhancing their engagement and activity in the process of learning writing They said, “ In fact, I realize that self-assessment helps me become more active in learning writing” (Int-5 Ss.17 & 19) This highlights the participants’ recognition of the positive aspects of self-assessment in their learning experience Students may become more involved and proactive in their learning process by actively assessing their own writing

This finding suggests that self-assessment empowers them to take ownership of their learning process and actively participate in improving their writing skill

Further noticeable findings on goal setting revealed that a significant majority of participants emphasized the importance of acquiring goal-setting abilities and accomplishing learning objectives as crucial tools for enhancing their future career prospects For example, some interviewees said,

“ I realize that setting goal for learning writing is very important because self-assessment allows me to set specific goals such as completed an introductory paragraph or body paragraphs and in conclosion praragraph of an eaasy.” (Int-6.S24)

“In my view, self-assessment encourage me ability to develop goal-setting and achieve learning goals at school I perceive that those are valuable

83 experiences for me to develop in the future.” (Int-3.S.11)

These findings shed light on the students' perceptions of the benefits of self- assessment in learning writing, as a life-long learning skill One key benefit that emerges is the recognition of the importance of setting goals The interviewees acknowledged that self-assessment allowed them to set specific goals for their writing, such as completing different sections of an essay This indicates that goal-setting is seen as a valuable aspect of self-assessment, enabling students to have a clear focus and direction for their writing improvement Another important point, the students perceived self-assessment as an encouragement to develop goal-setting abilities and achieve learning objectives They viewed these experiences as valuable benefits, as they contributed to their growth and development in the future This highlights the broader advantages of self-assessment in fostering goal-oriented learning and enabling students to take control of their writing progress

The study further delved into profound investigations arising from insights into the benefits of self-assessment in writing skill It encompasses the subjective acknowledgment and significance attributed to self-assessment in the broader context of learning and skill development, relating to the underlying principles, beliefs, or ideals that learners find significant When asked about the merits of self-assessment in the context of learning writing, a majority of the interviewees expressed the belief that it contributed to the cultivation of their future independent learning skills and empowered them to take charge of their own learning process For instance, interviewees mentioned,

“ It [Self-assessment] is like the way of a student’s self-learning I find it more interesting to learn writing by taking control of my own learning.”

“I think that any student is already well aware of their own self-learning method I realize that it is a good way to succeed…” (Int-4.S.15)

Discussion of the findings

This study undertakes an exploratory journey into self-assessment, focusing specifically on the domain of writing skill, as perceived by Vietnamese EFL tertiary students It uncovers the students’ perceptions about different different facets of self-

85 assessment Central to this inquiry is the pivotal research question: What do these students perceive self-assessment concerning their overall writing proficiency, self- efficacy in writing, and the inherent benefits and values of self-assessment within the context of learning writing? These findings will be thoroughly discussed, compared, and interpreted in the subsequent sections

4.1.5.1 Students’ perceptions of overall self-assessment in writing skill

As analyzed in Section 4.1.2, the findings from both the questionnaire and interviews underscore the positive perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in learning writing as a skill These findings reveal perspectives on self-assessment, highlighting its role in enhancing various aspects of writing skill The results suggest that Vietnamese EFL students hold favorable perceptions and express strong beliefs in the benefits of self-assessment for improving their writing skill These results align with the conclusions drawn in previous studies by Andrade (2019), Bourke (2016), Elgadal (2017), Harris and Brown (2013), Huang and Gui (2015), Oscarson (2009), Papanthymou and Darra (2018), Ratminingsih et al

(2018), Wang (2017), and Xu (2019) These scholars emphasized that students' favorable views on self-assessment are often cultivated through active engagement in formative assessment activities, such as the development of assessment criteria through self-assessment checklists or the utilization of rating rubrics to assess and revise their written works Nonetheless, this study yields superior findings in comparison to the previously discussed research, as outlined below

One of the most prominent findings is the significant majority of participants who strongly believed in self-assessment's positive effects on their writing skill The questionnaire responses, with high mean values ranging from M=3.02 to M=4.41, demonstrate a consensus among students regarding the importance of self-assessment in improving their overall elements of writing skill, self-reflection, and learning from writing experiences This suggests that students value self-assessment as a tool for enhancing their writing proficiency, vocabulary range, and reflective abilities The interviews further elucidate this perspective by highlighting students' understanding of self-assessment's role in their development as student writers

Significant findings from interviews suggest that self-assessment serves a dual purpose for Vietnamese EFL tertiary students Beyond being a method for assessing students' writing, it emerges as a reflective tool empowering them to self-assess, identify strengths, pinpoint areas for improvement, and set specific goals Students recognized self-assessment as a comprehensive process involving various writing aspects, such as clarity, coherence, organization, grammar, vocabulary usage, and the

86 overall message conveyed in their writing These insights indicate that Vietnamese EFL tertiary students perceived self-assessment not only as an assessment measure but also as a valuable tool for comprehensive self-reflection, facilitating the enhancement of their writing proficiency

Furthermore, the findings strongly suggest that self-assessment plays a pivotal role in the processes of ideation, explanation, and idea development in students' writing

Students perceived self-assessment as instrumental in articulating intricate details, selecting appropriate information, narrowing down content, developing vocabulary, and enhancing overall idea organization These results underscore that, through self- assessment, students become more discerning in selecting relevant content and more adept at identifying key points to convey in their writing This iterative process not only enhances the quality of content but also results in more concise and coherent writing

Additionally, another notable finding highlights that the majority of participants acknowledged self-assessment as a tool to improve their command of grammar in writing Vietnamese EFL students perceived self-assessment as empowering, enabling them to identify and rectify grammatical errors and inconsistencies, thereby contributing to enhanced language proficiency and grammatical accuracy Insights from the interviews make it evident that students view self-assessment as an active process that facilitates monitoring and correction of grammar mistakes in their writing, leading to a deeper understanding of grammar rules

In a final noteworthy finding, despite a lower rating for a specific item in the questionnaire, several interviewees conveyed confidence in the ability of self- assessment to enhance their editing skills in learning writing They believed that self- assessment could effectively aid them in addressing issues related to capitalization, spelling, punctuation, tenses, and grammatical structures This confidence suggests that students view self-assessment as a valuable tool for personal growth, enabling them to improve both their writing proficiency and editing abilities This perception is crucial concerning their self-efficacy in writing

In short, the findings from both the questionnaire and interviews highlight the overwhelmingly positive perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in learning writing These results demonstrate students' strong beliefs in the benefits of self-assessment for improving various aspects of writing proficiency, vocabulary range, and reflective abilities The study reveals that students perceive self- assessment not only as a method for assessing their writing but also as a valuable tool for comprehensive self-reflection and idea development Moreover, students acknowledge self-assessment's role in enhancing grammar proficiency and editing

87 skills, contributing to their overall confidence in learning writing These insights underscore the significance of self-assessment in empowering students to take ownership of their learning and improve their writing skill effectively

4.1.5.2 Students’ perceptions of self-efficacy in their writing skill

The results from the questionnaire and interview data indicate that Vietnamese tertiary students generally displayed a positive perception of self-efficacy in their writing skill Notably, the findings revealed that a majority of students demonstrated confidence in various aspects of their writing skill, including their overall writing ability, logical paragraph arrangement, clear topic sentences, revision, and essay organization However, several participants expressed lower agreement in these areas

Specifically, some students exhibited less confidence in logically supporting and developing main points within paragraphs, crafting a clear thesis statement, and creating a strong essay introduction Additionally, a few participants expressed uncertainty and doubts regarding their ability to effectively write longer essays These differences in perception emphasize the individual variations in students' self- assessment in their writing skill While some students felt more assured and competent in certain aspects, others acknowledged areas of weakness or uncertainty Language proficiency is identified as a potential contributing factor to these differences, aligning with previous studies by Belachew et al (2015), Graham et al (2015), Honsa (2013), Purwanti (2015), Ratminingsih et al (2018), and Wang (2017) These studies concluded that English proficiency significantly influences students' writing ability and self- assessment

One notable strength of this study lies in its alignment with positive perceptions, as supported by Flavell's (1979) cognitive theory According to Flavell, individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in behaviors that lead to success, such as effective writing skill This theoretical framework provides valuable insight into the observed positive trends in students' confidence levels Furthermore, uncertainties and doubts expressed by some participants regarding the effective writing of longer essays point to the potential benefits of metacognitive strategies The theory of metacognition, supported by Flavell (1979), Schunk (2012), and Wenden (1998), suggests that individuals who are aware of their cognitive processes and capabilities can actively monitor and regulate their learning In the context of writing, EFL students expressing uncertainty about longer essays may benefit from targeted metacognitive interventions to enhance their planning and execution strategies In short, the results underscore the interplay of individual differences, language proficiency, and cognitive processes in shaping Vietnamese tertiary students' self-efficacy in writing The

88 alignment with positive perceptions and the potential role of metacognitive strategies contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the findings

Summary the findings for RQ1

The findings from both the questionnaire and interviews underscore the overwhelmingly positive perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in learning writing Students exhibited strong beliefs in the benefits of self-assessment for improving various aspects of writing proficiency, including vocabulary range and reflective abilities They viewed self-assessment not only as a method for assessing their writing but also as a valuable tool for comprehensive self- reflection and idea development Moreover, students recognized self-assessment's role in enhancing grammar proficiency and editing skills, contributing to their overall confidence in learning writing However, the study also identifies areas of doubt among some students, particularly in aspects such as supporting main points and crafting thesis statements, which may stem from individual variations and language proficiency These findings align with Flavell's cognitive theory, suggesting that higher self-efficacy leads to greater engagement in successful behaviors, such as effective writing Furthermore, insights into grammar proficiency reveal both positive perceptions and challenges,

93 emphasizing the importance of targeted metacognitive strategies Overall, the study highlights the complex interplay of individual differences, language proficiency, and cognitive processes in shaping students' self-efficacy in writing, while emphasizing the empowering role of self-assessment in fostering personal growth, goal-setting, and a growth-oriented mindset essential for lifelong learning.

Students’ practices of self-assessment in writing skill

General quantitative results of students’ practices of self-assessment

Figure 4.3 illustrates the overall questionnaire findings on students' practices of self-assessment in learning writing across three main clusters

The results indicate that the mean scores for each cluster range from M=3.42 to M=4.33, reflecting the level of agreement among the students Notably, the data in this

94 figure reveal that the participants strongly agreed with the cluster of reflection on self- assessment checklists in learning writing, as indicated by the highest mean score of M=4.33 Following this, the cluster pertaining to students' practices of self-assessment in writing strategies (M=3.63) is slightly higher than their practices of self-assessment in the writing prosesses (M=3.42) More detailed information on the participants' self- assessment practices will be presented and discussed in the subsequent sections, incorporating data from interviews, reflective journals, and student essays.

Students’ reported self-assessment practices in writing

Table 4.4 presents an overview of the self-assessment practices of 450 participants in their writing The overall mean score of M=3.63 and standard deviation of SD=.993 indicate a moderate level of students' self-assessment practices in writing processes

The table highlights twelve questionnaire items categorized into three themes: self- assessment before, during, and after writing activities

In terms of self-assessment before writing activities, the majority of participants strongly agreed that they reviewed class notes, handouts, and assignment requirements (M=3.92, SD=.981), assessed the clarity and specificity of their writing goals (M=3.76, SD=.963), and reviewed the overall ideas from the writing outline to organize their first draft (M=3.71, SD=.997) Moving on to self-assessment during writing activities, most participants completely agreed that they reviewed their use of appropriate language and vocabulary choices (M=4.14, SD=.766) and edited the content of their writing while composing (M=4.08, SD=.853) Additionally, participants considered maintaining coherence and logic of ideas (M=3.72, SD=1.024), editing the organization of their writing (M=3.68, SD=1.046), and using appropriate transitions and cohesive devices (M=3.21, SD=1.067) Regarding self-assessment after writing activities, a significant number of participants reported going back to their essays to edit the content and organization of ideas for clarity (M=3.58, SD=.986), as well as editing grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure (M=3.54, SD=.869) However, the participants showed lower agreement on two items related to reviewing the overall improvement and quality of their first writing draft for the revision process (M=3.40, SD=1.052) and reviewing their first draft to edit the overall coherence and clarity of their writing after completion (M=2.78, SD=1.019)

Furthermore, the overall Standard Deviation value of 970 reflects a moderate level of variability in students’ reported self-assessment practices in writing strategies

Notably, items 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, 39, and 40 exhibit SD values ranging from 766 to .997, indicating relatively consistent practices among students in reviewing their language choices and editing grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure during the

95 writing process This suggests more uniform approaches among students regarding the editing of organization, transitions, coherence, and clarity in their writing On the contrary, items 33, 35, 36, 38, and 41 exhibit higher standard deviation values, ranging from 1.024 to 1.067 These SD values suggest a slightly broader range of practices in reviewing overall ideas, checking for relevant information, editing content, and assessing the quality of the initial writing draft during the revision process

Table 4.4 Students’ reported self-assessment practices in learning writing

No Items Min Max Mean S.D

30 I assess the clarity and specificity of my writing goals in the pre-writing stage 1.0 5.0 3.76 963

31 I review the overall ideas from the writing outline to organize my writing before starting the first draft

32 I check relevant information from my class notes, handouts, and assignment requirements before beginning to write

33 I edit the organization of my writing while I am writing 1.0 5.0 3.68 1.046

34 I edit the content of my writing work while I am writing 2.0 5.0 4.08 853

35 I edit the use of appropriate transitions and cohesive devices while writing 2.0 5.0 3.21 1.067

36 I consider maintaining the coherence and logic of ideas in my writing 1.0 5.0 3.72 1.024

37 I review my use of appropriate language and vocabulary choices during the writing process 2.0 5.0 4.14 766 38

I review my first draft to edit the overall coherence and clarity of my writing after completing

39 I go back to my writing to edit the content and organization the ideas to make my writing clearer 2.0 5.0 3.58 986

40 I go back to my writing to edit grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure 2.0 5.0 3.54 869

41 I review the overall improvement and quality of my first writing draft for the revision process 2.0 5.0 3.40 1.052

Data from retrospective and focus-group interviews provided insightful information about EFL students’ self-assessment activities in writing strategies, specifically regarding their reported self-assessment of writing strategies The interview data provides insights into the students’ practices of self-assessment, particularly in relation to assessing their writing before the writing process The findings highlight

96 Vietnamese students’ proactive engagement in self-assessment practices before the writing process They showed a conscious effort to self-assess their writing from both linguistic and structural perspectives, enabling them to set goals and plan their writing effectively For example, interviewees said,

“ Checking the specific goals that helped me motivate with my effort in learning writing” (Int-1.S4) …considering a clear outline helps me write better and quicker.” (Int-8.Ss.29 & 31)

“ I know what I have to do and how to achieve the goals I have set before writing … I always check and try to achieve the goals such as writing a clear introduction and body paragraph before writing.” (Int-2.Ss.6 & 8)

“I always review a clear objective for my writing such as I try to correct verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, and the passive voice …I often set short and long term goals during a writing course.” (Int-6 Ss.21 & 24)

As pointed out in the interviews, one common practice of self-assessment mentioned by the students is the consideration of specific goals before starting the writing process They emphasized the importance of having clear objectives, such as correcting verb tenses, subject-verb agreement, or the passive voice This indicates that they actively self-assessed their writing from a linguistic perspective, identifying areas for improvement and setting targets to address them Moreover, the interviewees also highlighted the significance of a clear outline in their self-assessment process They recognized that having a structured plan or outline helps them write better and quicker

By self-assessing the organization and structure of their writing beforehand, they ensure that their ideas flow logically and coherently Furthermore, the students also demonstrated their strong perception of the need to review and assess their writing goals before initiating the writing process They recognized that setting goals, such as writing a clear introduction and body paragraphs, is crucial in guiding their writing and ensuring they met their intended objectives

Notably, the analysis of the interview data provides valuable insights into the students’ self-assessment practices before the writing process The participants shared their strategies and approaches in assessing their writing prior to starting writing

Considering their responses, the researcher can gain a deeper understanding of the actions they take to prepare themselves and ensure the effectiveness of their writing

“I always spend time reading the teacher’s notes and other sources before I write I check them to choose suitable information for my own writing.”

“…reading all assignment requirements and handouts will help me understand the topic and narrow down what I will write” (Int-2.Ss.5 & 7)

…I often check back vocabulary and structure before writing …I always determine for what I will write.” (Int-5 S.19)

The provided interview data highlighted the students’ self-assessment practices before the writing process The interviewees consistently mentioned the importance of reading and reviewing the teacher’s notes, assignment requirements, and handouts as a preparatory step This demonstrates their understanding of the significance of understanding the topic and narrowing down their writing focus The purpose of checking back on vocabulary and structure, the students can ensure the appropriateness and coherence of their writing Additionally, the emphasis on determining the purpose of their writing showcases their intentionality and goal-oriented approach Overall, these findings indicate that the students recognized the benefits and values of self- assessment in terms of gathering relevant information, organizing their thoughts, and setting clear objectives before engaging in the actual writing process

The analysis continues to focus on the practices of self-assessment during the writing process, as revealed through interviews with EFL students The interviews provided valuable insights into how students engage in self-assessment while writing their essays Specifically, the data shed light on students’ strategies such as checking vocabulary, grammar, and transitions, continuously monitoring language usage, referring to language resources for improvement, and making in-process edits For example, several interviewees said,

“During writing I always check the approriate vocabulary, grammar, and add suitable trainsitions.” (Int-6.Ss.22 & 24)

“…While writing, I will continuously monitor my use of vocabulary and grammar, making sure that I am using appropriate and accurate language to convey my ideas in my writing.” (Int-3.S.11)

“ I always refer to grammar guides or language resources to check for any potential areas of improvement.” (Int-5.S.19)

“… I sometimes edit my writing while writing because I want to focuss on my writing.” (Int-2.S.5 )

Based on provided information, it can be found that Students 22 and 24 mentioned in the interviews about their regularly check to ensure the appropriate usage of vocabulary, grammar, and transitions This finding indicates that self-assessment allows students to maintain accuracy and coherence in their writing Furthermore, Student 11 also emphasized the continuous monitoring of vocabulary and grammar

98 usage while writing They aimed to ensure the accuracy and appropriateness of language in expressing their ideas In addition, Student 19 revealed the utilization of grammar guides or language resources to identify areas of improvement This finding reflects a proactive approach to self-assessment, as the student seeks external references to enhance their writing skill It means that students actively engage in self- assessment to address any identified weaknesses and improve their writing Lastly, Student 5 mentioned the occasional editing of his writing while in the writing process

When asked students’ engagement in self-assessment of their writing after finishing, most interviewees showcased their diligence in achieving higher writing standards and fostering continuous growth in their language skills For instance, many of the interviewees said, “…after writing, I carefully reread my whole essay to identify what needs improvement in my writing such as edit punctuation, spelling, grammar, and run-on sentences, as well as other mistakes I find…” (Int-2.Ss.7 & 8) Evidently, interviewees 7 and 8 emphasized the practice of carefully rereading their essays after completion as part of their self-assessment process They highlighted the importance of conducting a thorough review of the entire essay with the specific aim of identifying areas in need of improvement This comprehensive review encompasses various aspects of writing, such as punctuation, spelling, grammar, run-on sentences, and other potential mistakes These EFL students knew how to use self-assessment strategy to enhance their writing is evident through their proactive approach Rereading their essays, students are able to identify and rectify punctuation and grammar errors, address spelling mistakes, and tackle issues related to run-on sentences, all of which contribute to improving the coherence and clarity of their writing This finding not only demonstrates their dedication to self-improvement but also showcases their meticulous attention to detail and their aspiration to produce polished and refined written work

Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process

According to the data presented in Table 4.5, the findings from the questionnaire regarding students’ reported practices of self-assessment in writing process indicate a moderate level with a total mean score (M=3.42) and standard deviation (SD=.964)

These results suggest that EFL students rated their self-assessment practices in the writing process relatively low Evidently, analyzing the mean scores of individual items, participants’ agreement levels ranged from M=2.80 to M=3.90 regarding self- assessment of writing activities

Table 4.5 Students’ reported practices of self-assessment in the writing process

No Items Min Max Mean S.D

42 Selecting the ideas from a brainstorming stage carefully before writing 2.0 5.0 3.90 967

43 I check the logical organization and ideas of the outline of my own writing before starting to write 2.0 5.0 3.20 815

44 I check the clarity and specificity of my writing goals during the pre-writing stage 1.0 5.0 3.03 1.032

45 I use a dictionary to check the vocabulary I am not sure about before I write 1.0 5.0 3.68 985

46 I use a grammar book to check grammatical points/structures I am not sure about while I write 1.0 5.0 2.80 1.089

47 I correct grammar, vocabulary, and spelling errors in my writing while I am writing 2.0 5.0 3.80 1.000

48 I eliminate unnecessary or redundant details in my writing work while I am writing 2.0 5.0 2.82 1.052

49 I go back to my writing to revise and improve the overall organization and content 2.0 5.0 3.86 876

50 I reread my own writing to edit vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and punctuation 2.0 5.0 3.63 839

51 I check my overall writing for coherence and cohesion 1.0 5.0 3.49 992

The findings underscore the crucial role of students' self-assessment practices in the development of their writing skill Regarding self-assessment before writing activities, a significant number of participants strongly agreed that they carefully selected ideas from the brainstorming stage (M=3.90, SD=.967) and used a dictionary to verify unfamiliar vocabulary (M=3.68, SD=.985) Similarly, the majority of participants checked the logical organization and ideas outlined before starting to write

100 (M=3.20, SD=.815) and self-assessed the clarity and specificity of their writing goals during the pre-writing stage (M=3.03, SD=1.032) During the writing process, most participants agreed that they corrected grammar, vocabulary, and spelling errors as they wrote (M=3.80, SD=1.000) However, a minority of students agreed that they eliminated unnecessary or redundant details in their writing (M=2.82, SD=1.052) and used a grammar book to check grammatical points/structures (M=2.80, SD=1.089) In terms of post-writing, the majority of participants agreed that they revisited their writing to revise and enhance overall organization and content (M=3.86, SD=.876), edited vocabulary, spelling, grammar, and punctuation (M=3.63, SD=.839), and checked their overall writing for coherence and cohesion (M=3.49, SD=0.992)

In Table 4.5, the overall mean SD value of 964 reflects a moderate level of variability in students' reported self-assessment practices in writing skill Remarkably, items 42, 43, 45, 49, 50, and 51 demonstrate SD values ranging between 815 and 0.992, suggesting a relatively consistent practice among students in checking the logical organization and ideas of the outline before starting to write This indicates relatively uniform practices in carefully selecting ideas from brainstorming, checking vocabulary and grammar, and revising overall organization and content Conversely, items 44, 46, 47, and 48 exhibit higher SD values (ranging from 1.000 to 1.089), indicating more diverse approaches among students in checking writing goals, using grammar resources, correcting errors, and eliminating unnecessary details

Besides data from the questionnaire, a significant number of the interviewees emphasized the importance of reviewing and verifying the information outlined in their essays before commencing the writing process Their responses indicated a conscious effort to maintain control over their writing For instance, one interviewee mentioned,

" I frequently choose and reorganize the ideas outlined in my essay" (Int-2.S.5)

Another interviewee expressed, " I consistently rely on the outline to guide my essay writing and self-editing by selecting relevant ideas" (Int-6.S.24)

A noteworthy discovery is the substantial proportion of participants who integrated criteria from their writing textbook to assess their essay content while engaging in the writing process They carefully reviewed and adjusted the details within each paragraph of the introduction, body, and conclusion For example, several respondents shared, " I frequently verify the requirements of the introductory paragraph, such as the inclusion of a thesis statement" (Int-1.Ss.1, 3 & 4) Another participant mentioned, " I make sure to correct the topic sentence of each body paragraph" (Int-2.S.8) Additionally, many of the participants expressed their attention

101 to detail in the body paragraphs, focusing on reasons, and facts Lastly, one participant highlighted their consistent effort to eliminate redundant ideas from their essays (Int- 4.S.16)

Most participants indicated that they consistently revisited their written work to evaluate its organization upon completion They devoted considerable time and effort to enhancing their essays by incorporating additional information, transition signals, and connectors For instance, several interviewees said,

“I often invest much time in each essay” (Int-1.S.4) …after finishing writing, I always went back to see the paragraph lengths and paragraph essentials such as the use of transition words and supporting details (Int-8 S.30) …I always edit all errors that I found especially grammar mistakes .I try to adjust my essay to be coherent with the content.” (Int-6.Ss.22 & 24)

The participants' practices encompassed investing ample time and effort, reviewing and enhancing organization and structure, editing for mistakes (particularly grammar), and striving for coherence in their essays

However, there are several students who admitted that they only skimmed their essays for errors after they finished them They did not pay much attention to editing and self-assessment of their work An individual claimed that he rarely revises his essay For example, “…after completing a writing task, I often take a quick look for errors …I think my essay is good enough (Int-5.S.17) and “I seldom edit my writing…” (Int-4.S.15)

Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing

This section analyzes data from 18 students enrolled in an online writing course who utilized self-assessment checklists in their learning process This empirical study explores EFL students' reflections on the role and use of self-assessment checklists in learning writing The analysis involves a questionnaire, ninety essay drafts (comprising both first and revised drafts), ninety corresponding self-assessment checklists (including Yes/No responses and open-ended questions), and eighteen reflective journals The project aims to provide insights into the self-assessment practices of Vietnamese tertiary students in the development of writing skill

4.2.4.1 Students’ reflection on the role of SA checklists in learning writing

The data from a questionnaire presented in Table 4.6 offers an overview of the students' reflections on the utilization of self-assessment checklists in their writing learning journey The results indicate a significant overall score of M=4.33, accompanied by a standard deviation of SD=.549 The table comprises eleven items

102 measured on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from M=3.61 to M=4.72 The data reveals that the majority of participants responded positively to the self-assessment instrument, expressing levels of agreement ranging from "agree" to "strongly agree."

Particularly noteworthy is the finding that most participants strongly agreed that self- assessment checklists serve as an effective tool for improving their writing skill (M=4.72, SD=.460) Two items received the same high rating (M=4.67, SD=.485), indicating that the checklists not only help students eliminate unnecessary details but also assist in identifying and correcting mistakes related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation

Table 4.6 Participants’ reflection on the role of self-assessment checklists

No Items Min Max Mean S.D

1 Self-assessment checklists are a good tool to help me improve my writing skill 4.0 5.0 4.72 460

2 Self-assessment checklists help me reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of my own writing works

3 Self-assessment checklists help me focus on each step of the process of my own writing 4.0 5.0 4.17 383

4 The use of self-assessment checklists improves my own independent thinking 3.0 5.0 3.89 676

5 Self-assessment checklists encourage me to establish organization throughout my writing 3.0 5.0 3.61 978

6 Self-assessment checklists encourage me to take more responsibility for my learning 4.0 5.0 4.44 511

7 Self-assessment checklists increase my independent learning 4.0 5.0 4.28 627

8 Self-assessment checklists help me find the errors relating to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation in my writing works

9 I know how to solve problems in my writing works through self-assessment checklists 4.0 5.0 4.22 427 10

Self-assessment checklists enable me to eliminate unnecessary or redundant details in my writing works

11 I prefer to evaluate my writing by using self- assessment checklists 4.0 5.0 4.39 501

Further analysis of the data highlights students' practices of self-assessment in writing The self-assessment criteria in the checklists encourage participants to reflect on their strengths and weaknesses (M=4.56, SD=.511), assume greater responsibility

103 for their learning (M=4.44, SD=.511), evaluate their writing (M=4.39, SD=.501), and enhance their independent learning abilities (M=4.28, SD=.627) Additionally, participants expressed the belief that self-assessment checklists aid in problem-solving within their writing (M=4.22, SD=.427) and foster focused attention on each step of the writing process, thereby improving independent thinking (M=4.17, SD=.383) The subsequent sections will provide more detailed findings on students' reflections regarding the role of the self-assessment checklist

The standard deviation (SD) analysis in Table 4.6 demonstrates minimal variance between the data and the mean, confirming the reliability of the findings regarding students' reflections on the role of self-assessment checklists in their writing process

Notably, items 1 to 11 exhibit moderately lower SD values, ranging from 383 to 978

This suggests a general consensus among participants that self-assessment checklists aid them in focusing on each stage of the writing process Additionally, a relatively consistent perception emerges regarding the positive influence of self-assessment checklists on multiple aspects, encompassing the enhancement of writing skill, self- reflection, organizational abilities, independent thinking, error recognition, problem- solving, and the elimination of unnecessary details

Upon completion of the online writing course, 18 students documented their reflections in their respective reflective journals (see Appendix K) Analysis of the journal entries indicates that the majority of students initially experienced some confusion when engaging in self-assessment of their essays using the checklist tool

Traditionally, students were accustomed to receiving feedback on their writing through teacher assessment or peer assessment in a classroom setting However, the transition to self-assessment required them to independently assess and edit their essays using the criteria outlined in the self-assessment checklist before submitting them to their writing teacher This shift in approach empowered students to take more ownership of their writing process, rather than relying solely on external assessments For example, the following are excerpts from students’ reflective journals,

“I have never assessed my essays by using a self-assessment checklist I feel a bit nervous because this assessment method is new so I haven’t adapted to it yet …my writing teacher often asks my classmates to edit other students’ essays and then she corrects them afterward.” (S.7)

“…my writing teachers always assess my essays in class and ask me to correct all the errors according to the teacher’s comments.” (S.9)

These findings provided valuable insights into students' perspectives and

104 experiences with self-assessment checklists in the context of essay writing The EFL students expressed feelings of nervousness and unfamiliarity with this assessment method, as they were more accustomed to teacher assessment or peer editing The shift towards self-assessment required students to adapt and develop new skills, highlighting the need for support and guidance in this area The data also revealed a predominant reliance on external assessments, with teachers and peers playing a central role in providing corrections and feedback These findings underscore the importance of promoting and nurturing students' self-assessment abilities, as it empowers them to take ownership of their learning and enhance their writing skill Further efforts should be made to familiarize students with self-assessment practices, provide clear guidelines and criteria, and create a supportive learning environment that encourages independent reflection and self-improvement

However, the feedback from the 18 students indicated that they highly valued the use of self-assessment checklists as a valuable tool for self-assessing their essays They recognized the numerous benefits associated with this approach, including gaining a deeper understanding of their specific strengths and weaknesses, fostering critical thinking skills, and actively engaging in the writing process The students expressed a strong preference for incorporating self-assessment into their writing learning course

They emphasized that the self-assessment process provided them with valuable experience in independently revising their essays Utilizing the criteria outlined in the self-assessment checklist, students were able to improve the quality of their revisions by carefully reviewing their essays multiple times, specifically focusing on aspects such as essay contents, organization, and language skills The use of self-assessment checklists proved to be a valuable tool in facilitating their growth and development as proficient writers For instance, they wrote,

“The self-assessment checklist allowed me to find mistakes in my essay and I had to fix them by myself Self-assessment helps my essay become better in the final version” (S.1) ….I always reread my essay content and organization.” (S.12)

“It [checklist] helped me edit errors such as spelling, verb tenses, and grammar It helped me develop my independent thinking skills in writing…I learn more experience in self-editing.” (S.18)

“The self-assessment checklist is a perfect one because it helped me recognize mistakes that I do not think why I made them in my essay.”

(S.10) Finally, a majority of the students expressed confidence in their ability to solve problems in their essays, as they took on the roles of assessors and decision-makers

Discussion of students’ practices

This section aims to provide a coherent analysis and interpretation of the results obtained from the analysis of multi-source data The discussion begins by focusing on the findings derived from the questionnaire and interviews, which shed light on the reported practices of self-assessment in learning writing among the students

Subsequently, the discussion delves into an examination of the students' actual practices

115 of self-assessment in writing Organizing the discussions in this manner, a comprehensive understanding of both the reported and observed self-assessment practices can be attained

The present discussion delves into the engagement of Vietnamese tertiary students in self-assessment activities as a means to enhance their writing skill The findings derived from the questionnaire and interviews revealed that these students employed various elements of writing strategies, writing processes, and writing skill in EFL students’ self-assessment practices This indicates a conscious effort on their part to critically self-assess and improve their own writing In the subsequent sections, the study will delve into the details of this discussion, exploring the specific aspects of self- assessment employed by the students and shedding light on the implications of their practices for enhancing their overall writing proficiency

The findings from the analysis of students' practices of self-assessment in the writing process provide valuable insights into the strategies and approaches adopted by Vietnamese tertiary students These findings shed light on the students' engagement in self-assessment before, during, and after the writing process, as well as their use of technology as an aid in the editing phase

Notably, the participants in the study exhibited a proactive approach to self- assessment in learning writing, displaying a recognition of the value of reading strategies in supporting their writing endeavors Before engaging in practice activities, they prioritized reviewing class notes, handouts, and assignment requirements This practice allowed them to gather pertinent information and enrich their vocabulary for writing tasks These findings align with previous research conducted by Belachew et al

(2015), Elgadal (2017), and Liu & Brantmeire (2019), who also emphasized the impact of reading strategies on students' self-assessment However, the present study went beyond these previous findings by shedding light on the students' explicit acknowledgment of reading strategies as a means to analyze ideas, expand vocabulary, and gather details during the prewriting stage Moreover, this study also highlighted the specific focus on reviewing class notes, handouts, and assignment requirements as an integral component of self-assessment before engaging in writing practice activities

Additionally, the students highlighted the significance of creating an outline based on their review of the overall ideas, further emphasizing their commitment to organizing their thoughts and setting clear objectives before commencing their writing These findings reveal that the students possess a strong understanding of how to use reading strategies for self-assessment and preparation, which is a notable contribution to the

Remarkably, Vietnamese EFL students exhibited a remarkable level of control over their self-assessment activities during the writing process They actively monitored and evaluated various aspects of their writing, such as language usage, coherence, organization, and the incorporation of transitions and cohesive devices What sets this study apart is the students' conscious effort to maintain accuracy and coherence in their writing through continuous review and editing This proactive approach indicates their active engagement in self-assessment to identify weaknesses and improve their writing in real-time Another notable finding in this study is the students' resourcefulness and willingness to seek external references for self-improvement They made use of grammar guides or language resources to identify areas of improvement in their writing

This highlights their real dynamism to go beyond their own knowledge and seek additional support to enhance their writing skill In short, these findings emphasize the students' dedication to improving their writing skill through ongoing self-assessment practices The students' active monitoring, continuous review, and use of external resources demonstrate their commitment to identifying and addressing weaknesses in their writing This study provides valuable insights into the proactive and resourceful nature of students' self-assessment strategies during the writing process

After completing the writing process, the majority of students demonstrated a diligent approach to self-assessment by thoroughly rereading their entire essays This comprehensive review aimed to identify areas that required improvement, including punctuation, spelling, grammar, run-on sentences, and overall clarity The meticulous attention to these specific aspects of writing skill reflects the students' ability to producing polished and refined written work These findings are in line with previous studies conducted by Huang and Gui (2015), Micán and Medina (2017), and Xu (2019), which also emphasized the role of self-assessment in guiding students' evaluation, revision, and improvement of their writing However, this study adds a novel perspective by highlighting the particular focus on aspects such as punctuation, spelling, grammar, run-on sentences, and overall clarity among Vietnamese tertiary students This indicates that the students recognized the importance of these specific elements in effective written communication Moreover, the significance of these findings lies in the students' meticulous attention to detail during the process of self- assessment It means that the students strived to enhance the overall quality of their writing all the time This attention to specific aspects indicates a higher level of self- perception and proficiency in written expression compared to previous studies

Another significant finding in this study is the use of assistive technology tools by

117 several tertiary students to edit their essays and improve the quality of their writing products Tools such as Microsoft Word and writing checker apps are commonly utilized by students for spell-checking, punctuation correction, and grammar analysis

This observation highlights the important role that technology plays in facilitating proofreading and enhancing students' writing skill However, it is crucial to recognize that writing is not solely reliant on technology but is a cognitive process that involves critical thinking, knowledge activation, and the application of writing strategies

Scholars such as Boud (2013), Earl (2010), Lee (2017), and Weigle (2009) have emphasized the thinking component of writing as students reflect on their strengths, weaknesses, learning progress, and language proficiency The emphasis here is self- assessment in learning writing requires students to engage in problem-solving, reflect on social interaction and assessment, and evaluate their learning activities This reflective process enables students to recognize their weaknesses and independently revise their work (Mahmud, 2013) Although technology serves as a valuable tool to support students in self- assessment during the writing process, it is important to strike a balance Overreliance on technology may undermine students' reflective thinking skills and render them helpless without its assistance This over-dependence can lead to passivity and excessive engagement with technology during writing tasks, potentially hindering their ability to perform well in paper-based writing and examinations

4.2.5.2 Students’ actual use self-assessment checklist in learning writing

Despite their involvement in a short writing course that incorporated self- assessment, the findings reveal that a substantial majority of Vietnamese tertiary students responded positively to the utilization of self-assessment checklists as a means to improve their writing abilities The participants acknowledged the effectiveness of these checklists in improving their writing abilities and expressed a strong interest in utilizing them These results were consistent with several prior investigations conducted by Bowman (2017), Ferry (2020) and Wang (2017), which underscored the importance of self-assessment checklists in helping students recognize their strengths and weaknesses, thereby supporting the enhancement of students’ writing skill However, the present study found the superior value of the self-assessment checklist in identifying and rectifying errors specifically related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation Incorporating self-assessment checklists into students’ writing process, students were able to pinpoint mistakes in these areas and effectively address them, leading to enhanced writing skill Furthermore, this study highlighted the additional benefits of self-assessment checklists beyond error identification Students actively engaged in the self-assessment process, gaining insight into their strengths and weaknesses as writers Students also took greater ownership of their writing process,

118 assuming responsibility for their improvement Through the self-assessment, students developed critical thinking skills and fostered independent learning abilities, thanks to the self-assessment criteria provided within the checklists These new findings provide valuable insights into the efficacy of self-assessment checklists in the context of Vietnamese tertiary education, especially in writing skill

Another notable finding reveals that EFL students highly valued the use of self- assessment checklists They recognized the benefits of gaining a deeper understanding of their strengths and weaknesses and actively engaging in the self-assessment process

Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

Students’ reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

Table 4.9 presents the rankings of students' challenges in self-assessing their writing skill, ranging from "disagree" to "strongly agree." The mean scores range from M=2.48 to M=4.33, with an overall mean score of M=3.49 and the total value of SD 0.92, indicating a moderate level of reported challenges in self-assessment

Significantly, a majority of participants strongly agreed that they felt uncertain about the reliability and validity of their self-assessment results (M=4.33, SD=.712) and found it challenging to objectively assess their writing skill (M=4.22, SD=.885) Many students expressed difficulty in correcting all grammar mistakes in their writing (M=4.07, SD=.877) and lacked confidence in accurately assessing the quality of their work (M=3.96, SD=.990) and identifying unnecessary details to eliminate (M=3.93, SD=.768) Some participants struggled to identify errors in grammar and sentence structures during editing (M=3.80, SD=1.060) and setting specific and measurable goals for writing improvement through self-assessment (M=3.63, SD=1.082) However, other aspects of self-assessment activities received lower ratings, indicating fewer challenges A minority of participants reported difficulties in finding spelling, capitalization, and punctuation errors during editing (M=3.32, SD=1.071), and a similar rating was observed for using a dictionary to check spelling mistakes and recognizing strengths and weaknesses in writing (M=3.31, SD=.796) Lastly, participants encountered challenges in using a grammar book to check grammar mistakes (M=2.57, SD=.926) and identifying mistakes in transitions and cohesion between paragraphs and ideas (M=2.48, SD=.978), both with approximately the same rates

In Table 4.9, the overall SD values of 0.920 reflect a moderate level of variability in students' reported challenges with self-assessment in writing skill Particularly, items 58, 59, and 62 exhibit SD values ranging from 1.071 to 1.082, indicating a broader range of

121 difficulties among students in setting specific and measurable goals for improving their writing and identifying errors related to spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and sentence structure during the editing process On the other hand, items 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 60, 61, and 63 demonstrate SD values ranging from 768 to 990, suggesting relatively consistent difficulties among students in using a dictionary to check spelling mistakes, lacking confidence in accurately assessing writing quality, and encountering challenges with transitions and cohesion between paragraphs and ideas during the editing process

Table 4.9 Students' reported challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

No Items Min Max Mean S.D

52 I find it challenging to objectively self-assess my own writing skill 3.0 5.0 4.22 885

53 I lack confidence in my ability to accurately assess the quality of my writing 2.0 5.0 3.96 990

54 I find it difficult to identify specific weaknesses in my writing through self-assessment 1.0 5.0 3.31 896

55 I feel uncertain about the reliability and validity of my self-assessment results 3.0 5.0 4.33 712

56 I cannot correct all grammar mistakes that I found in my papers 2.0 5.0 4.07 877

57 I face difficulties in recognizing the mistakes in my transitions and cohesion between paragraphs and ideas

58 When I edit my writing, I cannot find the errors relating to spelling, capitalization, and punctuation

59 When I edit my writing, I cannot find the errors relating to grammar and sentence structures 1.0 5.0 3.80 1.060

60 I find it hard to use a dictionary to check spelling mistakes 1.0 4.0 2.31 796

61 I find it hard to use a grammar book to check grammar mistakes 1.0 4.0 2.57 926

62 I find it challenging to set specific and measurable goals for improving my writing skill through self-assessment

63 I find it hard to eliminate unnecessary details in my writing 1.0 4.0 3.93 768

In the interviews, a majority of the respondents expressed that they frequently encounter numerous challenges when engaging in self-assessment activities One common difficulty reported was the confusion they experienced when deciding which

122 aspects of their essays to correct or leave untouched such as the selection of vocabulary, ideas, and connectors They struggled to maintain a clear stance when evaluating specific elements in their writing, which further added to the complexity of self- assessment For instance, several students suggested, “I often change my mind about what I corrected in my essays such as the use of vocabulary and connectors ” (Int-

2.Ss.6 & 8), “…Sometimes I’m not sure about what I edited like my ideas in my essays

…I have a little confused about my decisions…” (Int-6.S.22)

Significant findings reveal that a significant number of students consistently struggled with self-assessment in relation to grammar and sentence structure in their writing Despite having learned grammar rules and sentence structures from secondary school to university, many participants reported ongoing difficulties in applying this knowledge effectively In interviews, several students expressed their frustration, stating that although they had acquired a substantial amount of grammar knowledge, they often found themselves confused when applying and assessing it in their writing

For instance, one student stated, "I have learned English grammar since secondary school, but I still find it confusing when it comes to writing, even self-assess it in my writing" (Int-7.S.27) Similarly, other participants acknowledged their specific challenges in remembering verb tenses, adverbs, adjectives, parts of speech, and grammatical rules, leading them to overlook certain errors in their writing A large number of the participants shared similar sentiments regarding their weaknesses in writing and self-assessment They said,

“I always have trouble with finding mistakes such as adjectives, adverbs, and parts of speech in my writing I am not sure about grammar in my writing (Int-

1.S.4), …I do not identify all mistakes in my writing to correct (Int-2.S.8), and

…I think there remain some errors in my writing after I self-assessed.” (Int- 7.S.28)”

“I have learned how to use verb tenses, but I still have these errors in my writings It is really hard to remember grammar.” (Int-6.Ss.21 & 23)

An additional noteworthy finding from the interviews is the students' lack of experience and knowledge in self-assessment Nearly all of the participants claimed that they had few opportunities to engage in self-assessment activities in writing classes

Within the writing classrooms, students had limited time and opportunities to discuss areas of dissatisfaction or uncertainty in their own writing with both their peers and the writing teacher Due to the large class sizes, teachers found it challenging to provide individualized feedback to each student Consequently, writing teachers employed various assessment techniques to assess their students' written works in the classroom

123 such as peer or teacher assessment For example, several interviewees said,

“The writing teacher often asked us to work in groups because of the large number of students We assess with peers in groups Then teacher chooses one of the writings in each group to assess We only learn the experiences from peers We have too few chances to self-assess in class.” (Int-4.Ss.14 & 15)

“In fact, I have limited knowledge about self-assessment I only edited my writing with my own experience.” (Int-8 Ss.29 &30)

“In the writing classroom, the teacher normally asks students to write on the board, and then asks other students to assess, and the teacher finally completes the last correction version Students could learn the experiences from the corrections to avoid in their own writing.” (Int- 7.S.25 & 27)

Surprisingly, students' low English proficiency in writing emerges as another crucial factor that significantly impacts their self-assessment progress A small number of participants indicated their inability to identify the areas of weakness in their writing that require improvement Despite repeatedly reviewing their essays, they struggled to identify and correct all the errors during the final revisions Their limited language proficiency posed a challenge in accurately assessing their own writing and implementing effective revisions For example, several students commented,

“ I think my essays are so poor for ideas, grammar, transition signal, and the likes I cannot correct all the mistakes in my essay.” (Int-2.Ss.5 & 7)

“…I think there are a number of mistakes in my writing but I try my best to self-assess (Int-6.S.23), …I know, my vocabulary is really limited I usually have trouble with synonyms and parts of speech in writing.” (Int-8.Ss 29

“We have different language proficiency we need encouragement and help from the teacher.” (Int-1.S.3)

These statements provided by the interviewees suggest that students exhibited varying levels of language proficiency This implies that some students may possess poorer written language skills compared to others The participants also express the need for encouragement and assistance from their teachers This indicates that they recognize the importance of teacher support in their language learning process, particularly in the context of self-assessment The students acknowledge that guidance and assistance from their teachers are essential for improving their writing skill and

Students' challenges of self-assessment in writing skill

In the analysis of the self-assessment checklist data, a specific question (Question 22) was posed to 18 students, requesting them to rate the difficulty level they faced while assessing their writing skill As presented in Appendix L, the findings highlight the areas in which students encountered the most challenges Notably, grammar emerged as the most challenging aspect, with 88.89% of students indicating difficulty in this area Two other elements of writing skill that posed significant challenges were consistent verb tense (61.11%) and vocabulary (55.56%) On the other hand, students reported comparatively lower difficulty with elements such as sentence structure (44.44%), organization (38.89%), punctuation (33.33%), spelling (22.22%), and capitalization (5.56%) Further examination in Appendix L reveals that capitalization (83.33%) and spelling (61.11%) were the least problematic areas during self- assessment Overall, these results emphasize that grammar and vocabulary present more significant challenges in writing compared to other elements in writing skill

According to reflective journal findings, for instance, several individuals wrote,

“I know, my knowledge is not good enough so I usually have trouble with grammar and vocabulary ….I really do not believe in my self-assessment

“Although I tried my best to self-assess my essay and revised it in the final draft, I felt unsure about what I corrected (S.6), …I need my writing teacher’s help.” (Ss.5&13)

Reflective journal findings shed light on the students' experiences with self- assessment procedures While some students claimed not to encounter any difficulties, the analysis reveals limitations inherent in their knowledge of self-assessment and proficiency in writing A significant number of students expressed uncertainty when it came to self-assessing their own essays, as they struggled to identify mistakes in their writing This reliance on writing teachers and the lack of self-control in self-assessment further compounded their challenges.

Discussion of students’ challenges

This study delves into the challenges experienced by Vietnamese students during the self-assessment process in learning writing and the difficulties they encountered in developing their writing skill The research investigated these challenges by examining

125 students' reported difficulties through questionnaires and interviews Additionally, it explores their actual practice of self-assessment by analyzing data from journals, checklists, and written drafts Generally, the findings from the study indicate that Vietnamese students encountered various challenges during the process of self- assessment in learning writing The analysis involved examining data from questionnaires, interviews, reflective journals, checklists, and students' written drafts to gain a comprehensive understanding of these challenges

One of the major challenges identified by the students is the uncertainty about the accuracy of their self-assessment results Many participants expressed a lack of confidence in objectively assessing their writing skill, which can make it difficult for them to accurately self-assess the quality of their work This uncertainty may stem from a lack of experience and knowledge in self-assessment, as a majority of students reported having limited opportunities to engage in such activities in their writing classes The large class sizes and limited time available for individualized feedback make it challenging for teachers to provide adequate support for students' self- assessment efforts These findings were in line with previous studies conducted by Belachew et al (2015) and Purwanti (2015), which also identified students' lack of confidence in identifying errors in their writing and a misunderstanding of the purpose of self-assessment activities However, this current study offers additional insights that distinguish it from previous research First remarkable aspect is the emphasis on the challenges related to grammar and sentence structure EFL students in this study consistently struggled to apply their knowledge of grammar rules effectively, leading to difficulties in assessing and correcting grammar mistakes in their writing Furthermore, this study highlights the limited opportunities for self-assessment reported by students

The large class sizes and time constraints within the classroom setting restricted the availability of individualized feedback and meaningful discussions about students' writing This finding emphasizes the need to prioritize the creation of an environment that supports self-assessment and provides ample time and resources for students to engage in self-assessment practices

Remarkably, significant findings from the study are the persistent challenges students face in the areas of linguistic knowledge and discourse knowledge Despite having learned grammar rules and sentence construction, many participants expressed ongoing difficulties in effectively applying this knowledge in their writing A notable observation was that several students struggled to identify and correct all errors in their essays, particularly related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and maintaining consistent verb tenses These findings align with previous studies conducted by Elgadal (2017), Oscarson (2009), and Purwanti (2015), which also

126 highlighted students' struggles with identifying mistakes in structural and grammatical relationships, word choice, mechanics, pronoun usage, and verb agreement Simmilarly, Elgadal (2017) specifically emphasized that mechanics and grammar pose significant challenges for EFL students in writing and self-assessment, despite being traditionally taught in EFL contexts This finding suggests that even though students are exposed to grammar instruction, they still encounter difficulties in applying it effectively

However, this study provided a new perspective by highlighting the implications of these challenges for less-proficient students in learning writing It is evident that learners with lower proficiency levels often struggle to address problems and may not actively seek clarification for areas they do not understand Purwanti (2015) further supported this notion, as their study revealed that students acknowledged making mistakes in their writing but lacked the knowledge or skills to correct them effectively

Therefore, language proficiency also plays a crucial role in students' self-assessment progress Some participants indicated that their limited proficiency in English made it difficult for them to accurately assess their own writing and implement effective revisions They reported challenges in identifying areas of weakness in their writing and correcting all the errors during the final revisions This highlights the importance of language proficiency development alongside self-assessment skills to enable students to accurately evaluate their own work

The findings also highlight the students' recognition of the importance of teacher involvement and support in their self-assessment and writing improvement journey The students expressed a need for encouragement and assistance from their teachers, emphasizing the role of teachers in providing guidance, resources, and individualized feedback to help students overcome their challenges Creating a supportive learning environment and providing ample opportunities for self-assessment activities can contribute to the students' development of self-assessment skills and improvement in their writing abilities

The data from the self-assessment checklist further supports the challenges identified in the interviews and reflective journals Grammar, consistent verb tense, and vocabulary were the areas that posed the most significant difficulties for students during self-assessment On the other hand, elements such as sentence structure, organization, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization were reported as comparatively less challenging These findings align with the students' reflections, indicating a consistent pattern of struggle with grammar and vocabulary in their writing.

Summary of the findings for RQ3

The main goal of the third research question was designed to determine the

127 challenges that Vietnamese students encountered in the self-assessment of their writing

The findings show that students felt confused with self-assessment activities in the process of writing Students had limited experience using self-assessment independently and lacked a stance when making their decisions One of the more significant findings to emerge from this result is that most of the students faced the same problems of identifying all the mistakes in their essays to edit, especially grammar and vocabulary mistakes.

Triangulation of findings

This section involves a triangulated discussion to cross-check the findings of students' perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment of writing skill in higher education in Vietnam The analysis integrates insights from diverse sources, including questionnaires, interviews, reflective journals, self-assessment checklists, and students' written papers This approach offers a comprehensive understanding of students' experiences and perspectives with self-assessment in learning writing

As discussed in the preceding pages, a disparity exists between EFL tertiary students' perceptions and practices of self-assessment This incongruence revolves around students' recognition of the significance of self-assessment in enhancing their writing skill, contrasted with their reported confusion during self-assessment activities in the writing process Several factors may contribute to this apparent misalignment

Primarily, this incongruity can be attributed to cognitive dissonance According to Vygotsky's (1978) perspective, cognitive dissonance arises when individuals hold inconsistent beliefs or attitudes In this context, students may possess a theoretical understanding of the benefits of self-assessment, acknowledging its importance from an academic standpoint However, when it comes to practical application during the cognitive demands of the writing process, confusion ensues This gap in translating theoretical knowledge into practical skills might be an important factor Additionally, metacognitive barriers could contribute to this mismatch Accurate self-assessment requires a heightened level of metacognitive prowess – the ability to reflect upon one's thought processes (Díaz, 2013; Goctu, 2017) It is plausible that students face challenges in engaging with metacognitive aspects, finding it arduous to analyze their writing, identify areas requiring improvement, and formulate precise goals for enhancement Lastly, the absence of constructive feedback and supportive mechanisms for nurturing self-assessment skills could play a role in amplifying this incongruity

Dewey (1933, p 22) posited that effective self-assessment demands “ongoing guidance, constructive feedback, and opportunities for gradual skill refinement.” A deficiency in these elements may render the self-assessment process daunting for students

128 Furthermore, Vietnamese EFL students demonstrated a positive view of their writing self-efficacy, expressing confidence across various facets of self-assessment of their writing In contrast, challenges surfaced as several students acknowledged inherent limitations in their knowledge of self-assessment and writing proficiency They expressed uncertainty when it came to self-assessing their essays; some students struggled to identify and correct all errors in their written work, particularly those related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and maintaining consistent verb tenses Additionally, findings from reflective journals suggested that students had limited experience in the process of self-assessment practice independently and lacked a clear stance when making decisions in editting and revising The perceived incongruity between the positive perception of their writing competence and self-assessment and the acknowledged challenges in self-assessment practices prompts an exploration through cognitive and educational psychology Firstly, Schunk (2012) and Wenden (1998) proposed that self-efficacy beliefs are cultivated through successful experiences

In the specific context of Vietnamese EFL students, their positive self-perception in writing skill aligns with this theory, indicating that their belief in their ability to self- assess effectively may be rooted in past accomplishments in similar writing tasks This positive outlook is likely shaped by their experiences of success, contributing to a reinforced sense of self-efficacy in the domain of writing and self-assessment The alignment with Schunk's theory underscores the influence of past achievements in shaping students' confidence and positive perceptions regarding their writing capabilities and self-assessment However, the limited experience of students in independent self-assessment aligns with the principles of constructivist learning theories Vygotsky's (1978) constructivist learning theory underscores the significance of social interaction and guidance in skill development In the context of Vietnamese EFL students' limited experience in independent self-assessment, this observation aligns with Vygotsky's theory, particularly emphasizing the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) The theory suggests that learners benefit from guidance and social interaction to advance their skills The apparent need for scaffolding in self-assessment practices among Vietnamese EFL students implies that structured support and guidance could enhance their decision-making abilities in this aspect For instance, by providing appropriate scaffolding, educators can create a supportive learning environment that facilitates the development of students' self-assessment skills, aligning with the constructivist principles proposed by Vygotsky.

Chapter summary

This chapter analyzes and discusses the aspects of students' perceptions and practices regarding self-assessment in learning writing The exploration of the first

129 research question illuminated positive perceptions of self-assessment's significance in enhancing writing skills, fostering self-efficacy, and yielding various benefits and values Students acknowledged its role in promoting autonomy, self-directed learning, and an understanding of their progress Moving on to the second research question, the study uncovered the proactive utilization of diverse writing strategies and technology in self-assessment practices among Vietnamese tertiary students The findings emphasize the favorable impact of self-assessment on students' writing proficiency, language control, and error rectification Lastly, the third research question sheds light on the challenges encountered by Vietnamese students in self-assessment, revealing confusion, limited experience, and difficulties in identifying and correcting errors Understanding these challenges is crucial for educators and practitioners to tailor effective strategies and interventions, ultimately supporting students in overcoming obstacles and fostering continuous improvement in their writing skill

CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

This chapter presents the current study's key results based on three research questions

It discusses the practical implications of self-assessment for EFL students, teachers, and educational administrators It also highlights the scientific contributions, limits, and future research directions.

Summary of key findings

Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing

The aim of the RQ-1 was to explore the perceptions of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in writing skill The study utilized questionnaires and interviews to gather data on students' perceptions, focusing on overall writing abilities, self-efficacy, and the values and benefits associated with self-assessment

Firstly, the majority of students held positive perceptions of self-assessment in learning writing They recognized the importance of language usage, ideation, explanation, and idea development Self-assessment was valued for content selection, vocabulary development, organization of thoughts, and grammar control These findings highlight the need to integrate self-assessment practices in writing instruction to empower students and foster continuous improvement

The second finding was the improvement in editing abilities through self- assessment While questionnaire results indicated lower ratings for self-assessment of editing abilities, interviews revealed that students expressed confidence in its efficacy

Self-assessment was found to significantly enhance editing abilities, particularly in elements of writing such as capitalization, spelling, punctuation, tenses, and grammatical structures This aligns with previous studies emphasizing the positive impact of self-assessment of writing skill

Furthermore, Vietnamese tertiary students displayed a positive perception of self- efficacy in writing skill They demonstrated confidence in various aspects, including overall writing ability, logical paragraph arrangement, clear topic sentences, revision, and essay organization However, individual variations existed, with some students expressing uncertainty in specific areas, such as developing main points, crafting a thesis statement, and writing longer essays These differences may stem from variations in language proficiency

Noteworthy, Vietnamese EFL students recognized several benefits of self-assessment in writing skill Self-assessment was seen as effective in identifying and rectifying mistakes,

131 addressing writing issues, and employing effective strategies It facilitated reflective thinking, goal-setting, and self-directed learning Self-assessment empowered students to actively engage in problem-solving, set specific goals, and take ownership of their learning process It also enhanced their engagement and activity in the writing process

Finally, the majority of students perceived self-assessment positively in terms of fostering future independent learning skills, empowering them to take control of their learning, encouraging self-improvement and self-editing, and enhancing self-efficacy

These values align with previous research on the positive impact of self-assessment on autonomy, self-directed learning, and improvement in writing

In conclusion, the findings of RQ-1 indicate that Vietnamese EFL tertiary students have positive perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill They recognized its importance in overall writing improvement, grammar utilization, sentence structure selection, and the identification of strengths and weaknesses Self-assessment was found to enhance editing abilities, self-efficacy, and students' understanding of the values and benefits associated with learning writing However, some students may require additional support and guidance in the self-assessment process These findings contribute to our understanding of students' perceptions and highlight the significance of integrating self-assessment practices in writing instruction to promote student empowerment and continuous improvement in writing skill.

Students’ practices of self-assessment in learning writing

The RQ-2 explored the practices of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment in writing skill The findings can be summarized as follows

Firstly, Vietnamese tertiary students actively engaged in self-assessment activities to improve their writing skill They utilized reading strategies, created outlines, monitored and evaluated their writing during the process, and thoroughly reviewed their essays after completion The students demonstrated a proactive approach and resourcefulness in seeking external references for self-improvement their writing

Another finding refers to the use of technology in self-assessment practices Many students made use of assistive technology tools, such as Microsoft Word and writing checker apps, to aid in editing and improving their writing While technology played a valuable role, it was emphasized that writing is a cognitive process that also requires critical thinking, reflection, and the application of writing strategies

Notably, the incorporation of self-assessment checklists proved effective in improving writing skill The checklists helped students identify and rectify errors related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and punctuation They also facilitated students' understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, promoting critical thinking skills, independent learning, and a sense of agency

Moreover, tertiary students demonstrated proficiency in self-assessing the content and organization of their essays They recognized the importance of clear introductory

132 and conclusion paragraphs, thesis statements, and well-structured body paragraphs

Self-assessment practices enhanced their understanding of essay structure and improved their ability to critically evaluate their own work

For language skills, Vietnamese students exhibited the ability to self-assess language errors within their essays, including grammar, subject-verb agreement, punctuation, spelling, capitalization, and vocabulary Although they were able to address some of these mistakes, areas for improvement remained, particularly in spelling and grammar Self-assessment contributed to noticeable improvements in language skills

Finally, the findings aligned with Zimmerman's (2000) three-phase model of self- regulated learning, as students set goals, monitored and controlled their learning process, and engaged in reflection and self-evaluation Self-assessment practices facilitated students' ability to regulate their learning, make necessary adjustments, and actively engage in self-correction and improvement

In short, these findings emphasize the positive impact of self-assessment in writing skill among Vietnamese EFL tertiary students The integration of self- assessment practices, including the use of checklists, can empower students, enhance their writing abilities, and foster independent learning and critical thinking skills.

Students’ challenges of self-assessment in writing

The RQ-3 explored the challenges encountered by Vietnamese students in the process of self-assessment for learning writing The research investigated these challenges through questionnaires, interviews, and analysis of students' actual self- assessment practices The findings indicate that Vietnamese students encountered various difficulties during self-assessment in learning writing

The first finding is the uncertainty in self-assessment Many students lacked confidence in objectively assessing their writing skill, leading to uncertainty in the reliability and validity of their self-assessment results Limited experience and knowledge in self-assessment, coupled with a lack of opportunities for practice, contributed to this challenge

Next, the EFL students struggled to effectively apply their knowledge of grammar rules, resulting in difficulties in identifying and correcting grammar mistakes in their writing Challenges related to grammar and sentence structure were persistent, highlighting the need for targeted support in these areas

Thirdly, large class sizes and time constraints restricted the availability of individualized feedback and meaningful discussions about students' writing This limitation emphasized the importance of creating an environment that supports self- assessment and provides ample time and resources for students to engage in self- assessment practices

133 Moreover, despite learning grammar and sentence construction, students faced ongoing challenges in applying this knowledge effectively Identifying and correcting errors related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and verb tenses posed difficulties for students

Another finding is students' language proficiency Lower proficiency levels in English hindered students' ability to accurately assess their own writing and make effective revisions Limited language proficiency affected their understanding of areas of weakness and hindered error correction during the revision process

Finally, students recognized the importance of teacher involvement and support in their self-assessment and writing improvement journey They expressed a need for guidance, resources, and individualized feedback from teachers to overcome their challenges

In conclusion, the findings highlight the significance of addressing challenges in grammar, vocabulary, and language proficiency, as well as providing a supportive learning environment and teacher support to facilitate students' self-assessment and writing improvement.

Implications

Implications for EFL students

The findings of this study have important implications for EFL students in terms of their perceptions, practices, and challenges related to self-assessment in learning writing Understanding these implications can help students enhance their writing skill and effectively engage in the self-assessment process

Firstly, EFL students should understand the value of self-assessment in learning writing and actively engage in self-assessment practices Understanding the benefits of self-assessment for overall writing improvement, grammar control, content selection, vocabulary development, and organization of thoughts is crucial By embracing self- assessment, students can harness its potential for continuous improvement in their writing skill

Secondly, students should take advantage of self-assessment to improve their editing abilities Although students initially rated their self-assessment of editing

134 abilities lower, they found self-assessment to be effective in improving specific areas such as capitalization, spelling, punctuation, tenses, and grammatical structures Paying attention to these areas during the self-assessment process can significantly enhance students' editing abilities

Furthermore, students should develop their self-efficacy in writing skill

Recognizing their confidence in various aspects of writing, such as overall writing ability, logical paragraph arrangement, clear topic sentences, revision, and essay organization, students should capitalize on this self-efficacy to further strengthen their writing skill and actively engage in self-assessment

Moreover, students should embrace the benefits of self-assessment in learning writing Using self-assessment to identify and rectify mistakes, address writing issues, and employ effective strategies, students can enhance their reflective thinking, goal- setting, and self-directed learning skills Self-assessment empowers students to actively engage in problem-solving and take ownership of their learning process, leading to improved writing abilities and fostering independent learning skills

In addition, students should enhance their approaches and resourcefulness in their self-assessment practices Following the example of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students, students can utilize reading strategies, create outlines, monitor and evaluate their writing process, and thoroughly review their essays after completion They can also make use of technology tools and self-assessment checklists to aid in the self- assessment process and improve their writing skill

Lastly, students should be aware of the challenges they may face during self- assessment in learning writing These challenges include uncertainty in self-assessment, difficulties in applying grammar rules effectively, limited opportunities for self- assessment, ongoing struggles in applying language knowledge, and the need for teacher involvement and support By recognizing these challenges, students can seek strategies to overcome them, such as seeking guidance from teachers, actively participating in self-assessment activities, and focusing on improving grammar and language skills through targeted practice.

Implications for teachers of writing

The findings of this study have important implications for teachers of writing

Understanding these implications can help teachers effectively integrate self-assessment practices into their writing instruction and support students in their writing development

Teachers should recognize the roles of self-assessment in writing Understanding its importance for overall writing improvement, grammar control, content selection, vocabulary development, and organization of thoughts, teachers can emphasize the significance of self-assessment to their students

135 Additionally, teachers should leverage the integration of self-assessment practices into their writing instruction By including self-assessment activities, such as providing self-assessment checklists and encouraging reflective thinking, teachers can empower students to play an active role in assessing their own writing and fostering continuous improvement

Teachers should play a crucial role in supporting students to enhance their editing skills through self-assessment Lecturers can effectively assist students in improving specific areas such as capitalization, spelling, punctuation, tenses, and grammatical structures by offering guidance and scaffoldings

Furthermore, teachers should nurture and further develop students' self-efficacy in writing Acknowledging students' confidence in various writing aspects, such as logical paragraph arrangement, clear topic sentences, revision, and essay organization, teachers can provide positive reinforcement and encourage students to take ownership of their writing development

Lastly, writing teachers should remain cognizant of the challenges students encounter in the self-assessment process Acknowledging students' difficulties related to uncertainty in self-assessment, effective application of grammar rules, limited opportunities for self-assessment, language proficiency, and the importance of teacher involvement and support, teachers can offer targeted guidance and foster a supportive learning environment.

Implications for curriculum developers and policymakers

Curriculum developers and policymakers can promote the integration of self- assessment practices into the writing curriculum, provide professional development for teachers, encourage the development of self-assessment checklists, and address the challenges students face in self-assessment

Curriculum developers should integrate self-assessment practices into the writing curriculum to empower students and foster continuous improvement in writing skill

Additionally, policymakers and curriculum developers should actively promote the development and use of self-assessment checklists in writing instruction For instance, the self-assessment checklists serve as valuable tools for students to identify and rectify errors related to grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, and their overall writing Moreover, they contribute to the enhancement of critical thinking skills, foster independent learning, and instill a sense of agency in students' ongoing journey of writing improvement

Policymakers should prioritize professional development programs to equip teachers with the knowledge and skills to effectively implement self-assessment practices in writing instruction Teachers play a crucial role in guiding students through the self-assessment process and providing meaningful feedback Investing in teacher training, policy makers can ensure that educators are well-prepared to support students in their self-assessment practices

136 Finally, policymakers should address the challenges students encounter in self- assessment, including uncertainty, difficulties in applying grammar rules, and limited opportunities for individualized feedback Creating a supportive learning environment that encourages meaningful discussions about students' writing and providing necessary resources and guidance from teachers are essential steps in facilitating students' self- assessment and promoting continuous improvement in their writing skill.

Research contributions

Theoretical contributions

Theoretical contributions in this study are prominently evident in the application of self-assessment to enhance the writing skill of Vietnamese tertiary EFL students A robust theoretical framework, derived from cognitive and constructivist theories, metacognitive theory, and reflection theory, serves as the intellectual backbone of this research This framework not only facilitates a detailed exploration of students' perceptions, practices, and challenges in self-assessing their writing skills but also guides the entire research process—from design through data collection and analysis

Theoretical guidance provided by cognitive and constructivist theories enables an understanding of how Vietnamese EFL tertiary students construct knowledge in the realm of self-assessment The incorporation of metacognitive theory emphasizes the significance of learners' metacognitive processes in self-assessment, shedding light on their capacity to monitor, evaluate, and improve their writing performance Reflection theory enriches the theoretical foundation by recognizing the importance of introspection, perspection, and critical thinking in the self-assessment process

This study places particular emphasis on metacognition, highlighting Vietnamese tertiary students' ability to critically analyze their writing abilities The acknowledgment of metacognition's pivotal role underscores the importance of empowering students to become active participants in their learning journeys, fostering a deeper level of self-awareness and proficiency

To enhance methodological rigour, the study employs triangulation to crosscheck findings, ensuring the reliability and validity of the results Moreover, triangulation helps address potential biases and increases the trustworthiness of the results The convergence of evidence from various sources enhances the credibility of the study and strengthens the confidence in the validity and reliability of the conclusions drawn This methodological approach aligns with best practices in research design, particularly in

137 complex studies like those exploring students' perceptions, practices, and challenges in self-assessing their writing skill

This research significantly contributes to the existing body of knowledge by addressing a notable gap in the literature—specifically, the focus on self-assessment in learning writing within the context of Vietnamese higher education The study not only advances our understanding of self-assessment but also provides valuable insights into its role in teaching and learning writing skill within the EFL domain The theoretical framework not only elucidates the intricacies of self-assessment but also establishes a foundation for future research endeavors in the dynamic landscape of language education and assessment.

Methodological contributions

This study makes methodological contributions through the successful application of a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design By adopting this design, the study effectively combines quantitative and qualitative data to provide comprehensive insights into students' self-assessment in learning writing The questionnaire data offers quantitative information regarding the perceptions, practices, and challenges of EFL tertiary students' self-assessment The qualitative data, collected through focus-group interviews, complements the quantitative findings by providing deeper insights and cross-checking the quantitative data Additionally, a trial experiment project was conducted to further validate the data obtained from the questionnaires and interviews

This project involved data collection through students' questionnaires, self-assessment checklists, and reflective journals, specifically focusing on students' practices and challenges in self-assessment The utilization of these various instruments and data collection methods allows for a more thorough understanding of the context of EFL tertiary students' self-assessment in writing The methodological approach of this study, combining both quantitative and qualitative data, enriches data gathering and generates new insights into the self-assessment practices of Vietnamese tertiary students in writing.

Practical contributions

This study offers new and valuable contributions that have the potential to significantly impact EFL lecturers and educators in Vietnam The findings of this study provide fresh insights into the important role of self-assessment, the effective integration of self-assessment practices, and the specific challenges that students encounter during the self-assessment process These contributions have the power to reshape the perspectives and teaching approaches of teachers in Vietnam, particularly in the context of writing instruction

One of the main contributions of this study is the recognition of the role of self- assessment in writing skill The majority of Vietnamese students held positive perceptions of self-assessment, acknowledging its importance in overall writing

138 improvement, content selection, vocabulary development, and organization of thoughts

This finding highlights the significance of self-assessment as a tool for students' writing development and emphasizes the need for teachers to recognize and promote self- assessment practices in their instruction

Additionally, the study contributes to our understanding of how self-assessment practices can be integrated into writing instruction, especially students' efforts in using self-assessment checklists to self-assess their writing The findings emphasize the effectiveness of incorporating self-assessment activities, such as providing self- assessment checklists and encouraging reflective thinking, to empower students and foster continuous improvement This provides practical guidance for teachers on how to incorporate self-assessment practices into their curriculum and support students in taking an active role in assessing their own writing

Another valuable contribution of this study is the identification of the challenges faced by students during the self-assessment process The findings shed light on the uncertainty students experience in objectively assessing their writing skill, difficulties in applying grammar rules effectively, limited opportunities for self-assessment and individualized feedback, and the impact of language proficiency on self-assessment

Understanding these challenges is crucial for teachers to provide targeted support and create a supportive learning environment that addresses the specific needs of students during the self-assessment process

Finally, the study provides insights into the practices of Vietnamese EFL tertiary students regarding self-assessment It highlights the proactive approach of students in engaging in self-assessment activities, their use of technology to aid in editing and improving their writing, and the effectiveness of self-assessment checklists in identifying and rectifying errors These findings offer practical strategies for teachers to encourage and support students in their self-assessment practices, including the use of technology and self- assessment checklists as valuable tools for enhancing writing skill.

Limitations

The current study has several limitations that should be acknowledged Firstly, the mixed-method design introduced potential challenges due to the complexity of analyzing and interpreting data from both quantitative and qualitative approaches The researcher's limited experience with mixed methods may have impacted the coherence of data analysis and interpretation Additionally, the lack of piloting for some research instruments, except for the questionnaire and interview, may have affected the reliability and validity of the results The absence of classroom observations to complement the questionnaire and interview data further limits the generalizability of students' self-assessment practices in the higher education context The study's focus on two universities in southern Vietnam with a specific sample size restricts the generalizability of the findings to other university contexts with different student backgrounds Furthermore, the experimental project's duration of six weeks may not

139 have provided sufficient insights into students' practices and challenges in self- assessment The incomplete reporting of students' writing papers and reflective journals in the learning-log project also diminishes the comprehensive understanding of their self-assessment practices Future research should address these limitations by conducting studies on larger scales and diverse contexts to strengthen the validity and generalizability of the findings.

Recommendations for further research

Further research in the field of self-assessment in learning writing among Vietnamese EFL tertiary students should consider several areas Firstly, conducting replication studies with larger and more diverse samples across multiple universities would enhance the generalizability of the findings Longitudinal studies tracking students' self-assessment practices over time would provide valuable insights into their development and the long-term impact on writing improvement Classroom observations could be incorporated to capture actual self-assessment activities and explore the role of teachers Comparative studies among different student populations would shed light on factors influencing self-assessment effectiveness Extended experimental projects and the development of validated self-assessment tools tailored for Vietnamese EFL tertiary students would provide in-depth exploration and structured guidance Addressing these recommendations would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of self-assessment in learning writing and facilitate the development of effective self-assessment practices in the Vietnamese EFL context

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Bảng câu hỏi này nhằm tìm hiểu về hoạt động tự đánh giá của sinh viên đại học Việt Nam về kỹ năng viết tiếng Anh Vui lòng đánh dấu (√) vào các ô bạn chọn trong mỗi phần Nếu bạn thay đổi lựa chọn, chỉ đánh dấu (X) vào ô đã chọn rồi đưa ra lựa chọn mới Tất cả thông tin bạn cung cấp trong bảng câu hỏi này sẽ được giữ bí mật và chỉ được sử dụng cho mục đích nghiên cứu

Thông tin người tham gia:

Họ và tên của bạn (có thể bỏ trống): ………

Tuổi: 18-20 21-22 trên 22 Sinh viên năm: 1 2 3 4

Bạn đánh dấu (√) vào các ô số:

1=hoàn toàn không đồng ý, 2=không đồng ý, 3=không chắc, 4= đồng ý, 5= hoàn toàn đồng ý

A Students’ perceptions of self-assessment in writing skill Students’ perception of general self-assessment in writing skill

1 Tôi tin rằng việc tự đánh giá là quan trọng để cải thiện toàn diện kỹ năng viết của tôi 1 2 3 4 5

2 Trong kỹ năng viết, tôi cho rằng tự đánh giá giúp tôi phát triển vốn từ vựng phong phú 1 2 3 4 5

3 Tôi cho rằng việc tự đánh giá trong kỹ năng viết giúp tôi lựa chọn cấu trúc câu phù hợp 1 2 3 4 5

4 Tôi cho rằng việc tự đánh giá hỗ trợ khả năng tự suy ngẫm và học hỏi từ kinh nghiệm viết của tôi 1 2 3 4 5

5 Tôi nghĩ rằng tự đánh giá giúp tôi phát triển kỹ năng chỉnh sửa trong kỹ năng viết 1 2 3 4 5

6 Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi luôn hài lòng với bản thảo cuối cùng mà tôi đã tự đánh giá 1 2 3 4 5

Students’ perception of self-efficacy of their writing ability

7 Tôi có thể viết một bài luận dài mà không cần có sự trợ giúp nào 1 2 3 4 5

8 Tôi có thể viết một mở bài hay cho một bài luận 1 2 3 4 5

P 2 9 Tôi có thể viết một luận đề rõ ràng xác định chủ đề và kiểm soát ý tưởng của bài luận 1 2 3 4 5

10 Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi có thể viết câu chủ đề rõ ràng xác định chủ đề và kiểm soát ý tưởng trong đoạn thân bài 1 2 3 4 5

11 Tôi có thể bổ sung và phát triển ý chính một cách hợp lý khi tôi viết một đoạn văn 1 2 3 4 5

12 Tôi có thể sắp xếp các đoạn văn một cách hợp lý và và phát triển luận điểm 1 2 3 4 5

13 Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi có thể sắp xếp các ý tưởng một cách hợp lý khi tôi viết một bài luận 1 2 3 4 5

14 Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi có thể xác định các vấn đề trong bài viết của mình và xem những gì cần được cải thiện 1 2 3 4 5 15 Tôi chắc chắn rằng tôi có khả năng học viết tốt 1 2 3 4 5

16 Sử dụng ngữ pháp và các cấu trúc câu là thế mạnh của tôi trong viết 1 2 3 4 5

17 Tôi nghĩ rằng tôi có thể tự kiểm tra các lỗi trong bài viết để tự chỉnh sửa ví dụ như ngữ pháp, từ vựng, chính tả, dấu câu 1 2 3 4 5

Students’ perception of benefits of self-assessment in writing

18 Tôi nhận thấy rằng các hoạt động tự đánh giá trong môn viết thúc đẩy tinh thần trách nhiệm đối với việc học viết của mình 1 2 3 4 5

19 Tôi nhận thấy rằng các hoạt động tự đánh giá khuyến khích tôi đặt mục tiêu cụ thể cho sự phát triển khả năng viết của mình 1 2 3 4 5

20 Tôi nhận thấy rằng học với cách tự đánh giá cho phép tôi tìm ra lỗi trong bài viết của mình và tự sửa chúng một cách độc lập 1 2 3 4 5

21 Tôi nhận thấy rằng tự đánh giá thúc đẩy sự tự suy nghĩ về những điểm mạnh và điểm yếu trong bài viết của tôi 1 2 3 4 5 22

Tôi nhận thấy rằng việc tự đánh giá trong việc học viết giúp tôi hiểu sâu hơn về quá trình viết của mình và cải thiện kỹ năng viết tổng thể của mình

23 Tôi nhận thấy rằng việc sử dụng tự đánh giá trong học viết cung cấp cho tôi nhiều cơ hội để theo dõi và hiểu quá trình học tập của mình trong suốt khoá học

24 Tôi nhận ra rằng tham gia vào quá trình tự đánh giá, tôi nhận thức được cách xử lý vấn đề trong các bài viết của mình 1 2 3 4 5

Students’ perception of values of self-assessment in writing

25 Tôi nhận thấy rằng tự đánh giá giúp tôi hiểu rõ hơn về điểm mạnh và điểm yếu trong bài viết của mình 1 2 3 4 5

P 3 26 Tôi nhận thấy rằng tự đánh giá giúp hiểu sâu hơn về sự tiến bộ của mình trong việc học viết 1 2 3 4 5

27 Tôi nhận thấy rằng tự đánh giá khuyến khích tôi kiểm soát việc học của mình 1 2 3 4 5

28 Tôi nhận thấy rằng các hoạt động tự đánh giá khuyến khích tôi tự tin hơn trong học viết 1 2 3 4 5

29 Tôi nhận ra rằng việc tự đánh giá giúp tôi có quyền làm chủ quá trình học tập của mình và trở thành người tham gia tích cực vào quá trình phát triển khả năng viết của mình

30 Tôi nhận thức rằng việc tự đánh giá giúp tôi phát triển các kỹ năng tự điều chỉnh trong việc học viết 1 2 3 4 5

31 Tôi nhận thấy rằng tự đánh giá giúp tôi nâng cao tính chủ động trong quá trình học viết 1 2 3 4 5

32 Tôi nhận ra rằng tự đánh giá giúp tôi phát triễn kỹ năng học tập độc lập trong tương lai 1 2 3 4 5

33 Tự đánh giá nâng cao kỹ năng viết và nhận thức của tôi về quá trình viết 1 2 3 4 5

B Students’ Reported Practices of Self-Assessment in Writing Skill Students’ practice self-assessment in writing strategies

34 Tôi cân nhắc lựa chọn hoạt động động não để tìm các ý tưởng và viết dàn ý trước khi viết 1 2 3 4 5

35 Tôi tự lập kế hoạch cho riêng mình khi viết bài 1 2 3 4 5

36 Tôi xem lại các ghi chú trên lớp, tài liệu và các yêu cầu trước khi viết 1 2 3 4 5

37 Tôi điều chỉnh bố cục (organization) của bài viết trong khi tôi viết 1 2 3 4 5

38 Tôi điều chỉnh nội dung (content) trong bài viết khi tôi viết 1 2 3 4 5 39 Tôi cân nhắc để thêm nhiều chi tiết để bài viết thú vị hơn 1 2 3 4 5 40 Trong quá trình viết, tôi luôn sử dụng tư duy độc lập 1 2 3 4 5

41 Tôi chú ý nhiều đến các mô tả chi tiết về các bối cảnh khó trong quá trình viết 1 2 3 4 5

42 Tôi nghĩ bài viết của tôi cần chỉnh sửa khi tôi hoàn thành 1 2 3 4 5

43 Tôi quay lại bài viết để chỉnh sửa nội dung và làm cho các ý tưởng của bài viết rõ ràng hơn 1 2 3 4 5

44 Tôi quay trở lại bài viết để nhận ra các vấn đề và xem những gì cần được cải thiện 1 2 3 4 5

45 Tôi ghi chú lại các điểm mạnh và điểm yếu trong bài viết của mình để rút kinh nghiệm cho các bài viết sau 1 2 3 4 5

Students’ Practices of Self-Assessment in Writing Processes

46 Tôi cân nhắc lựa chọn các ý tưởng từ dàn ý một cách cẩn thận trước khi viết 1 2 3 4 5

47 Tôi kiểm tra tính hợp lý về bố cục và ý tưởng của dàn ý trước khi tôi bắt đầu viết 1 2 3 4 5

48 Tôi đặt mục tiêu cho những gì tôi viết ví dụ như bố cục, nội dung, các cấu trúc ngữ pháp, từ vựng, … 1 2 3 4 5

49 Tôi sử dụng từ điển song ngữ để kiểm tra từ vựng mà tôi không chắc trước khi bắt đầu viết 1 2 3 4 5