LUNG DISEASES – SELECTED STATE OF THE ART REVIEWS pot

LUNG DISEASES – SELECTED STATE OF THE ART REVIEWS Edited by Elvis Malcolm Irusen Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Edited by Elvis Malcolm Irusen Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book Publishing Process Manager Romana Vukelic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published February, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews, Edited by Elvis Malcolm Irusen p cm ISBN 978-953-51-0180-2 Contents Preface XI Part Airways Disease Chapter Airway Smooth Muscle in Asthma Symptoms: Culprit but Maybe Innocent Ynuk Bossé, Peter D Paré and Yohan Boss Chapter Polymerization and Oxidation of Alpha-1-Antitrypsin in Pathogenesis of Emphysema Aleksandra Topic and Dragica Radojkovic 55 Chapter Recent Advances in the Research and Development of Alpha-1 Proteinase Inhibitor for Therapeutic Use 83 Elena Karnaukhova Chapter Mechanisms Promoting Chronic Lung Diseases: Will Targeting Stromal Cells Cure COPD and IPF? 105 Lynne A Murray and Cory M Hogaboam Part Neoplasia 127 Chapter Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs) in Lung Cancer 129 Hiroyuki Sakashita, Yuki Sumi and Naohiko Inase Chapter Oncogenes and Tumor Suppressor Genes in Small Cell Lung Carcinoma 147 Pankaj Taneja, Robert D Kendig, Sinan Zhu, Dejan Maglic, Elizabeth A Fry and Kazushi Inoue Chapter Centrosome Abnormality and Human Lung Cancer Kazuya Shinmura and Haruhiko Sugimura Chapter Defective Expression and DNA Variants of TGFBR2 in Chinese Small Cell Lung Carcinoma 189 ZhenHong Zhao, Jibin Xu, Jun Xie, Yang Bao, Xiaotian Wang, Lei Wang, Junjie Wu, Li Jin, Zhiyun Xu and Jiucun Wang 171 VI Contents Chapter Neuroendocrine Tumours of the Lung 203 Guadalupe Aparicio Gallego, Vanessa Medina Villaamil, Ana Capdevila Puerta, Enrique Grande Pulido and L.M Antón Aparicio Chapter 10 Chemotherapy for Large Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung: Should It Be Treated with the Same Strategy as Small Cell Lung Carcinoma? 231 Katsuhiko Naoki, Kenzo Soejima, Takashi Sato, Shinnosuke Ikemura, Hideki Terai, Ryosuke Satomi, Sohei Nakayama, Satoshi Yoda and Koichiro Asano Chapter 11 Radiation Therapy in Management of Small-Cell Lung Cancer 239 Erkan Topkan and Cem Parlak Chapter 12 Lung Parenchyma Sparing Resection for Pulmonary Malignancies 257 Arpad Pereszlenyi Chapter 13 Surgery in Small-Cell Lung Cancer: Past, Present and Future 275 Cristian Rapicetta, Sara Tenconi, Tommaso Ricchetti, Sally Maramotti and Massimiliano Paci Part Immunity and Infection 297 Chapter 14 Interleukin-17 and T Helper 17 Cells in Mucosal Immunity of the Lung 299 M.S Paats, P.Th.W van Hal, C.C Baan, H.C Hoogsteden, M.M van der Eerden and R.W Hendriks Chapter 15 Current Status of the Mollicute (Mycoplasma) Lung Disease: Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, Treatment and Prevention 331 Silvia Giono-Cerezo, Guadalupe Estrada-Gutiérrez, José Antonio Rivera-Tapia, Jorge Antonio Yáñez-Santos and Francisco Javier Díaz-García Chapter 16 Pulmonary Paracoccidioidomycosis: Clinical, Immunological and Histopathological Aspects 359 Luz E Cano, Ángel González, Damaris Lopera, Tonny W Naranjo and Ángela Restrepo Chapter 17 Nocardia Infection in Lung Transplantation 393 Pilar Morales, Ana Gil-Brusola and María Santos Chapter 18 In Vivo Models of Lung Disease Tracey L Bonfield 407 Contents Chapter 19 Part Inhibition of Adhesion and Invasion of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to Lung Epithelial Cells: A Model of Cystic Fibrosis Infection 429 Ayman M Noreddin, Ghada Sawy, Walid Elkhatib, Ehab Noreddin and Atef Shibl Paediatrics 441 Chapter 20 Bronchitis in Children Christian Peiser Chapter 21 Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia 463 Shou-Yien Wu, Sachin Gupta, Chung-Ming Chen and Tsu-Fuh Yeh Chapter 22 Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia: The Role of Oxidative Stress 485 Jean-Claude Lavoie and Ibrahim Mohamed Chapter 23 Partial Liquid Ventilation in the Extremely Preterm Infant: Potential Benefits and Harms 505 Mark William Davies Part 443 Pulmonary Oedema: Cardiogenic and Non-Cardiogenic 523 Chapter 24 Non-Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema 525 J Gonzales and A Verin Chapter 25 High Altitude Pulmonary Edema Zhou Qiquan and Luo Yongjun Chapter 26 Mechanical Forces Impair Alveolar Ion Transport Processes – A Putative Mechanism Contributing to the Formation of Pulmonary Edema 561 Martin Fronius Part 539 Miscellaneous 579 Chapter 27 Functional Evaluation in Respiratory Disorders 581 Cirelene Grobler, David M Maree and Elvis M Irusen Chapter 28 Novel Methods for Diagnosis of Pulmonary Microangiopathy in Diabetes Mellitus 603 Kalicka Renata and Kuziemski Krzysztof Chapter 29 The Pneumoconioses 625 Nlandu Roger Ngatu, Ntumba Jean-Marie Kayembe, Benjamin Longo-Mbenza and Narufumi Suganuma VII VIII Contents Chapter 30 Lung Transplantation: Advances and Roadblocks in Treatment Matthew T Hardison and J Edwin Blalock 647 Chapter 31 Bronchial Atresia 671 Lirios Sacristán Bou and Francisco Peña Blas Chapter 32 A Case of Adult Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation of the Lung with Atypical Adenomatous Hyperplasia 685 Ho Sung Lee, Jae Sung Choi, Ki Hyun Seo, Ju Ock Na, Yong Hoon Kim, Mi Hye Oh and Sung Shick Jou 676 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews There are many presumed mechanisms for progressive overdistension of a lobe including obstruction, cartilage deficiency, dysplasia, immaturity and idiopathic It can be associated with cardiac anomalies such as: a ventricular septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus and tetralogy of Fallot Congenital lobar emphysema appears in the immediate postpartum period Radiography of the chest in anteroposterior and lateral projections identifies the involved lobe, the degree of involvement, and the effect on surrounding structures If a decubitus position radiograph is obtained, the involved lung does not collapse Computed tomography scanning can provide details about the involved lobe and its vascularity, as well as information about the remaining lung MRI can be used as an adjunctive modality to evaluate vascular supply and distribution to the involved lobe but is not routinely employed In congenital lobar emphysema, the abnormal lobe usually has a normal vascular supply 7.1.3 Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation (CAM) The first cystic adenomatoid malformation (CAM) was described as a distinct entity by Ch'in and Tang in 1949 CAM is a developmental hamartomatous abnormality of the lung, with adenomatoid proliferation of cysts resembling bronchioles CAM represents approximately 25% of all congenital lung lesions (Colin et al., 2006) CAM is subdivided into three major types:    Type I lesions, the most common, are composed of or more cysts measuring 2-10 cm in diameter Larger cysts are often accompanied by smaller cysts, and their walls contain muscle, elastic, or fibrous tissue Cysts are frequently lined by pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells, which occasionally produce mucin Mucinogenic differentiation is unique to this subtype of CAM Type II lesions are characterized by small, relatively uniform cysts resembling bronchioles These cysts are lined by cuboid-to-columnar epithelium and have a thin fibromuscular wall The cysts generally measure 0.5-2 cm in diameter Type III lesions have the appearance of solid masses without obvious cyst formation although adenomatoid cysts can be detected microscopically CAM receives its blood supply from pulmonary circulation and is not sequestered from the tracheobronchial tree However, type II and III lesions can occasionally coexist with extralobar sequestration, and in such cases, they may receive a systemic arterial supply CAM may also occur in combination with a polyalveolar lobe This is a form of congenital emphysema with an increased number of alveoli with normal bronchi and pulmonary vasculature CAM usually occurs early in fetal life, whereas the polyalveolar lobe occurs later Prenatal ultrasonography is accurate in diagnosing CAM Prenatally diagnosed lesions may be asymptomatic at birth (71%), and they have normal radiographic findings (57%) A concurrent sequestration may not be identified Usually, radiographic findings are apparent in a symptomatic individual, but they may not be as apparent in an asymptomatic child Most often, the diagnosis can be made by using plain radiographs CT scans may be used for confirmation and when planning surgery Overlapping CT features exist among cases of CAM, pulmonary sequestration, bronchogenic cyst, and other foregut malformations Bronchial Atresia 677 7.1.4 Bronchogenic cysts Bronchogenic cysts are part of a spectrum of congenital abnormalities of the lung including pulmonary sequestration, congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation and congenital lobar hyperinflation (emphysema) There exists a predilection in all of them for the left upper lobe that could be due to the embryologic instability of this area (Sadler, 1990) Although relatively rare, cysts represent the most common lesion of the mediastinum In infants and small children, these cysts can be life threatening when they compress vital structures In particular, subcarinal cysts can pose life-threatening airway compromise In infants, the initial presentation may be respiratory distress More than one half of patients are asymptomatic These are usually found using antenatal ultrasonography or routine chest radiography and during evaluations for gastro-intestinal or cardiac symptomatology Bronchogenic cysts are the result of anomalous development of the ventral foregut; they are usually single but may be multiple and can be filled with fluid or mucus They have been found all along the tracheoesophageal course, in perihilar or intraparenchymal sites, with a predilection for the area around the carina Those in the mediastinum frequently attach to, but not communicate with, the tracheobronchial tree Bronchogenic cysts have also been described in more remote locations, including the interatrial septum, neck, abdomen, and retroperitoneal space Chest pain and dysphagia are the most common symptoms in adults with bronchogenic cysts; in infants, symptoms are most often produced as a result of airway or esophageal compression Bronchogenic cysts are usually an incidental finding, and differentiating them from other pathologic conditions is important On conventional radiographs, the appearances of mediastinal or lung masses are nonspecific and should be evaluated further using computed tomography (CT) scanning or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Intrapulmonary cysts are difficult to diagnose and must usually be aspirated to confirm the diagnosis 7.1.5 Anomalous pulmonary venous return Abnormal development of the pulmonary veins may result in either partial or complete anomalous drainage back into the systemic venous circulation Three major clinical patterns of total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) are seen: severe pulmonary venous obstruction; early heart failure; mildly symptomatic or asymptomatic 7.1.6 Pulmonary sequestration Pulmonary sequestration is a cystic or solid mass composed of nonfunctioning primitive tissue that does not communicate with the tracheobronchial tree and has an anomalous systemic blood supply rather than the pulmonary circulation In 15-20% of cases multiple feeding vessels may be present The two forms of pulmonary sequestration are intrapulmonary, which is surrounded by normal lung tissue, and extrapulmonary, which has its own pleural investment Demonstration of a dominant feeding vessel, usually from the aorta or its major vessels, and venous drainage to the pulmonary veins suggests the diagnosis Other congenital malformations may be present 678 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Chest radiographs can provide a reasonable diagnostic clue to pulmonary sequestration A mass in the posterobasal segment of the lung in young patients with recurrent, localized pulmonary infections is suggestive of pulmonary sequestration Computed tomography scanning, angiography, magnetic resonance imaging or bronchography may be helpful in excluding other diagnoses CT scans have 90% accuracy in the diagnosis of pulmonary sequestration Arteriography is helpful in differentiating the lesion from other abnormalities of the lung, such as pulmonary arteriovenous fistulae Magnetic resonance angiography can provide information similar to that on CT scans 7.1.7 Cystic Fibrosis (CF) The name cystic fibrosis refers to the characteristic scarring (fibrosis) and cyst formation within the pancreas, first recognized in the 1930s Difficulty breathing is the most serious symptom and results from frequent lung infections that are treated with, though not cured by, antibiotics and other medications A multitude of other symptoms, including sinus infections, poor growth, diarrhea, and infertility result from the effects of CF in other parts of the body CF is caused by a mutation in the gene for the protein: the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) This gene is required to regulate the components of sweat, digestive juices, and mucus Although most people without CF have two working copies of the CFTR gene, only one is needed to prevent cystic fibrosis CF develops when neither gene works normally and therefore has autosomal recessive inheritance Individuals with cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed before birth by genetic testing, or by a sweat test in early childhood Ultimately, lung transplantation is often necessary as CF worsens CF mainly affects the lungs, pancreas, liver, intestines, sinuses, and sex organs 7.2 Acquired obstructive illnesses 7.2.1 Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) can be classified as an eosinophilic hypersensitivity disease It appears concomitantly in patients with long standing asthma, and occasionally in patients with cystic fibrosis Rarely, it can appear in patients with no other identifiable pulmonary illness In general, patients are diagnosed before the age of 40 years Clinically, patients have atopic symptoms and they present with recurrent chest infection A clinical staging system has been developed: Stage I Acute, Stage II Remission, Stage III Recurrent Exacerbation, Stage IV Steroid-Dependent Asthma and Stage V Pulmonary Fibrosis Laboratory findings include elevated Aspergillus specific IgE, elevated precipitating IgG against Aspergillus, peripheral eosinophilia and positive skin test In patients with ABPA radiological findings will be reversible after appropriate treatment or may show progression from multi-focal and non-segmental consolidations to pulmonary fibrosis and central varicose type of bronchiectasis (stage V) 679 Bronchial Atresia 7.2.2 Other causes Bronchial obstruction may be due to many acquired conditions including inflammatory diseases (broncholithiasis and foreign body aspiration), benign neoplastic processes (bronchial hamartoma, lipoma, and papillomatosis) and malignancies (bronchogenic carcinoma, carcinoid tumor, and metastases) (Gipson et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2009) They can even take place after a segmentectomy as a surgical complication (Okuda et al., 2006) All these situations can produce an appearance of a round, oval or branching (glove-finger shadow) type of bronchocele Most of these conditions can be differentiated by appropriate history (as all will be symptomatic), the progressive nature of the disease, imaging techniques, bronchoscopy and biopsy Congenital obstructive illnesses Bronchopulmonary anomalies: Lung Aplasia Bronchial atresia Lobar emphysema Cystic adenomatoid malformation Bronchogenic cysts Vascular anomalies: Anomalous pulmonary venous return Combined lung and vascular anomalies: Brochopulmonary sequestration Genetic diseases: Cystic fibrosis Acquired obstructive illnesses Infectious diseases: Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) Tuberculous bronchoestenosis Inflammatory diseases: Broncholithiasis, foreign body aspiration Benign neoplastic processes: Bronchial hamartoma, lipoma, papillomatosis Malignancies: Bronchogenic carcinoma, carcinoid tumor, metastases Surgery complication: Lung segmentectomy Table The differential diagnosis of bronchial atresia Treatment of bronchial atresia Treatment of bronchial atresia is controversial The majority of patients are asymptomatic and therefore no treatment is necessary It is currently felt that surgical excision should be reserved for patients with secondary complications to the atretic bronchus, such as infection or significant compromise of adjacent lung parenchyma However, some physicians advocate performing surgery on all patients because a definitive diagnosis could only be made by exeresis of the lung (Cohen et al., 1987) Lobar resection and segmentectomy have 680 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews been used to preserve as much normal lung parenchyma as possible to maintain pulmonary function (Miyahara et al., 1999; Pamer et al., 2008) Prenatal bronchial atresia Antenatal ultrasonography can raise the suspicion of bronchial atresia in the prenatal period by the presence of a hyperechogenic mass at the hilum of the lung which corresponds to a mucocele (Kamata et al., 2003; McAlister et al., 1987) Those hyperechogenic lesions are more likely to regress compared with cystic or mixed lesions (Hadchouel et als 2011a, 2011b) The routine use of prenatal steroids for microcystic congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation seemed to enhance regression (Curran et al., 2010) There are no documented cases on regression of bronchial or lobar bronchial atresia Despite the lack of evidence, it would be advisable to follow an expectant management (Bonnefoy et al., 2011) 10 Diagnostic algorithm Fig Diagnostic algorithm in suspected bronchial atresia 11 State of art during the last three years Due to a wave of new interest in bronchial atresia among clinicians, there have been many more articles and case descriptions published in the last three years than previously The aim of this section is to summarize the main aspects of these reports Bronchial Atresia       681 In asymptomatic patients the bronchial atresia is usually found by chance on a radiographic image as described by Psathakis et al (2009) and Sacristán Bou et al (2010), or sometimes because a patient refers to a shoulder ache, as Hooker & Hendriksz (2011) show Nussbaumer-Ochsner & Kohler (2011) report a 31-year-old HIV-positive man who presented with a history of chronic dry cough They describe the finger-in-glove sign, a radiographic feature that refers to mucoid impaction in central airways Some surgeons like Cappeliez et al (2009) or Zribi et al (2011) think that bronchial atresia may lead to infectious complications and, in the long term, to damage to the adjacent lung parenchyma Therefore, a surgical resection may be necessary The first group of surgeons reported their experience with three patients (two lobectomies and one segmentectomy) and the second group with six Niimi & Gotoh (2010) present the rare case of pneumothorax due to the perforation of bullae associated with congenital bronchial atresia in a 25-year-old woman that complained of right chest pain and shortness of breath A lateral segmentectomy was successfully performed by thoracoscopy-assisted limited thoracotomy Diagnosis of congenital bronchial atresia and subpleural bullae were confirmed by pathological examination Discioscio et al (2010), Shimizu et al (2010) and Siddiqui et al (2011) describe several anomalies associated with bronchial atresia like anomalous pulmonary venous return, congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation or right-sided descending aorta Jung et al (2011) published a case report of a woman with diagnosis of bronchial atresia in whom the conversion of epidural analgesia to epidural anesthesia for cesarean delivery failed during labor, needing the application of general anesthesia for a successful delivery 12 Conclusions Bronchial atresia is a congenital abnormality with characteristic radiological features: a nodule or a mass like a shadow close to the hilum, with well-defined margins, presenting as a tubular, round, ovoid or branching structure and distal oligaemia and hyperinflation When it is required to differential diagnosis over bronchial obstruction, bronchial atresia should be kept in mind Knowledge of this condition in patients with suspected bronchial obstruction would avoid unnecessary surgery Currently, surgical excision is reserved only for patients with secondary complications to the atretic bronchus Most surgeons try to preserve as much normal lung parenchyma as possible to maintain pulmonary function, whilst others prefer to resect the atretic segment 13 References Acosta Gordillo, L.; Márquez Fernández, J & Medina Gil, M.C Asymptomatic congenital bronchial atresia in a 10-year-old boy Anales de Pediatría, Vol 62, No.4, (April 2005), pp 386-388, ISSN 1695-4033 Agarwal, P.P.; Matzinger, F.R & Seely, J.M An unusual case of systemic arterial supply to the lung with bronchial atresia American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol.185, No.1, (July 2005), pp 150-153, ISSN 0361-803X 682 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Amin, M.U.; Rahim, A & Nafees, M Mucocoele formation due to congenital bronchial atresia-a rare cause of solitary pulmonary nodule Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, Vol.57, No.2, (February 2007), pp 98-101, ISSN 0030-9982 Bonnefoy, C.; Blanc, P & Coste, K Prenatal diagnosis of lobar bronchial atresia Ultrasound in 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Archivos de Bronconeumología, Vol.46, No.5, (May 2010), pp 278-279, ISSN 0300-2896 Sadler, T.W & Langman, J (1990) Langman`s medical embryology (6th edition), Williams & Wilkins, ISBN 978-068-3074-93-2/0683074938, Baltimore, United States Shimizu, K.; Masuda, K & Hebisawaa, A A surgical case of congenital bronchial atresia with right-sided descending aorta Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai Zasshi, Vol.48, No.3, (March 2010), pp 210-213, ISSN 1343-3490 Siddiqui, T.S.; Ul Haq, I & Rehman, B Bronchial atresia with partial anomalous pulmonary venous return Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan, Vol.21, No.6, (June 2011), pp 362-363, ISSN 1022-386X Van Klaveren, R.J.; Morshuis, W.J & Lacquet, L.K Congenital bronchial atresia with regional emphysema associated with pectus excavatum Thorax, Vol.47, No.12, (December 1992), pp 1082-1083, ISSN ISSN 0040-6376 Waddell, J.A.; Simon, G & Reid, L Bronchial Atresia of the left upper lobe Thorax, Vol.20, (May 1965), pp 214-218, ISSN ISSN 0040-6376 Ward, S & Morcos, S.K Congenital bronchial atresia presentation of three cases and a pictorial review Clinical Radiology, Vol.54, No.3, (March 1999), pp 144-148, ISSN 0009-9260 Wilson, E.P.; Patel, J & Logalbo, F An Adult Case of Bronchial Atresia Mimicking Pulmonary Embolism Clinical Pulmonary Medicine, Vol.16, No.1, (January 2009), pp 57-59, ISSN 1068-0640 Woodring, J.H Unusual radiographic manifestations of lung cancer Radiologic Clinics of North America, Vol.28, No.3, (May 1990), pp 599-618, ISSN 0033-8389 Zribi, H.; Brian, E & Lenoir, S Congenital bronchial atresia in adults Revue des Maladies Respiratoires, Vol.28, No.5, (May 2011), pp 672-676, ISSN 0761-8425 32 A Case of Adult Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation of the Lung with Atypical Adenomatous Hyperplasia Ho Sung Lee1, Jae Sung Choi1, Ki Hyun Seo1, Ju Ock Na1, Yong Hoon Kim1, Mi Hye Oh2 and Sung Shick Jou3 1Department of Internal Medicine Diagnostic of Pathology and 3Department of Radiology Soonchunhyang University College of Medicine, Cheonan Korea 2Department Introduction Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung is a rare disease that shows multiple cystic lesions in pulmonary tissues in the development process It was first described by Chin et al.1 in 1949 and its incidence is known to be 1:25,000 to 1:35,0002 With the development of prenatal diagnosis, this disease can be diagnosed in 60% and detected within years because of such symptoms as respiratory distress by compression of surrounding lung tissues immediately after birth and repeated respiratory infections in infancy Among adults, it is detected accidentally on X-ray or by such symptoms as pneumonia, pneumothorax, and hemoptysis In Korea, the first case in a 28 year-old woman was reported by Geun-Heung Ki et al.3 in 1989 Since then, about 25 adult cases were reported until 2006 Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia is pathologically defined as the proliferation of atypical cuboidal or columnar cepithelial cells which are typically mm or smaller in size along the alveolus or respiratory bronchiole4,5 In 1999, the WHO classified this disease as a precancerous lesion together with squamous dysplasia and diffuse idiopathic pulmonary neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia5 It is known to be found in about 12% of lung cancers and highly correlated with glandular cancer6 Case Patient: O-Back Kim, Female, 37 Current case history: The patient had been treated in a private clinic due to purulent sputum and cough and hemoptysis which had started two weeks before transfer to our hospital Past case history: The patient had been treated for hyperthyroidism from 1999 to 2003 Examination findings: Vital signs were stable Chest examination detected reduced bilateral breathing sounds only 686 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Laboratory findings: The peripheral blood examination found 13.2 g/dL of hemoglobin, 39.5 % of hematocrit, 5210 /mm3 of white blood cells (neutrophils 43%, lymphocytes 44.5%, monocytes 9.2%), and 255,000 /mm3 of platelets The results of serum biochemical examination, hepatitis marker test, urinalysis, mycoplasma antigen test, and pulmonary function test were normal The thyroid function test found minor hypothyroidism with 8.72 nIU/ml of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), 0.894 ng/dl and 1.19ng/ml of free T4 and T3 respectively The results of the sputum culture and bronchial washing cytodiagnosis were also negative The results of arterial blood gas analysis which was conducted in atmosphere were 7.407 of pH, 41.2 mmHg of carbon dioxide tension, 82.6 mmHg of oxygen tension, 25.4 mEq/L of bicarbonates, and 96.2% of oxygen saturation The tumor marker test result was also normal with 1.49 ng/mL of CEA and 1.57 ng/mL of cyfra 21-1 Chest radiology: The chest X-ray showed a 2.5cm cavitating lesion in the left upper zone (Figure 1) Fig Chest PA shows cavitatory lesion in the left upper zone On the second day after hospitalization, the chest CT showed a diffuse ground glass appearance and cystic lesions that spread in a branching pattern were found in the left lung (Figure 2) Clinical progress: The patient received symptomatic therapy as there were no features of infection The bronchial endoscopy did not reveal any lesions The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid test found 82% of macrophages, 8% of neutrophils, 0.5% of eosinophils, and 9.5% of lymphocytes Endobronchial lung biopsy was performed at the left lower lobe and only chronic inflammatory changes were noted On the 9th day after hospitalization, a wedge resection of the top section of the left upper lobe was performed On the 20th day after hospitalization, the patient was discharged with no complications Biopsy: The microscopic findings of the resected lung showed cystic lesions of various sizes The cells covering them were diverse, including ciliated pseudostratified columnar cells, monolayer columnar cell, and cuboid cells, which corresponded to type of the congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation(Figure 3) A Case of Adult Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation of the Lung with Atypical Adenomatous Hyperplasia 687 Fig Chest CT shows diffuse ground glass opacity and multiple branching cystic lesion in left lung Fig The lining cells are pseudostratified ciliated columnar cells to columnar and cuboidal cells like bronchiolar epithelial cells (H&E, x100) As there were minor atypical nuclei locally and linear structures filled with mucus in the cytoplasm, it looked similar to the mucoid bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, but because their sizes were all smaller than 5mm, they were judged to be atypical adenomatous proliferation (Figure 4) 688 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Fig Focal mucinous epithelial lesion with mild atypism is revealed in the intervening parenchyma (H&E, x200) Treatment and progress: After discharge, the patient was transferred to another hospital at her request; As it was checked, she was being followed up with chest CT every months with no specific treatment Discussion The congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung is very rare and its incidence is known to be 1:25,000 - 1:35,0002 The cause is not known, but two hypotheses have been suggested: cessation in the development of the lung tissues and no development of aveoli during the development process of the respiratory system7,8 The time when the malformation occurs is estimated to be between and weeks before the lobe divides and prechondrial tissues are formed in the bronchus It has been reported that it causes stillborn and premature infants Immediately after birth, respiratory distress is frequent in most cases, and as the baby grows, repeated infections and pneumothorax are more frequent than respiratory distress Accompanying malformations include kidney growth failure, diaphragmatic hernia, jejunul atresia, and colon growth failure1 A histological characteristic is the arrangement of polyp-shaped cysts of various sizes in the bronchial epithelium or simple columnar epithelium with no cartilaginous tissues or inflammatory reaction Stoker et al classified them based on size and pathological findings into type I (only a few large thick walled cyst), type II (numerous, evenly spaced cyst, less than 1cm), and type III (less numerous, firm and bulky masses) in 1977 In 1994, they re-classified them into types based on bronchial invasion: type (bronchial), type I (bronchial/bronchiolar), type II A Case of Adult Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid Malformation of the Lung with Atypical Adenomatous Hyperplasia 689 (bronchiolar), type III (bronchiolar/alveolar), and type IV (peripheral) In 1994, they reported that type I was the most frequent at 50 - 70% and type III showed the worst prognosis Radiographic diagnoses include chest X-ray test, CT, and prenatal ultrasonography Among them, chest CT can observe lesions that contain cysts with multiple large and small thin walls It must be differentiated from pneumonia accompanied by pneumatosis, pulmonary sequestration, congenital lobar emphysema, and bronchiectasis Definite diagnosis is only possible by pathological tests Some claim that it is associated with malignant tumors of the lung There was a report of pulmonary rhabdomyosarcoma in 22-month old boy, and several papers reported the accompaniment of mucoid bronchioloalveolar carcinoma in adults and children3,9 Hence, Ioachimescu et al.9 recommended surgical removal even if there were no symptoms, because it may become malignant Pathological findings in this patient were accompanied by atypical adenomatous hyperplasia Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia is pathologically defined as the proliferation of atypical cuboidal epithelial cells or columnar epithelial cells along the alveolus or respiratory bronchiole4 Their sizes are mostly mm or smaller, although a size of 19mm has been reported As it is difficult to differentiate from bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, one researcher suggested mm as the reference size for differentiation It occurs in up to 5% of normal people and is usually asymptomatic It is known to develop in 2.9% of total population and increases to 10 - 23.2% in lung cancer 11,12,13,14,15 The recent diagnostic rate is increasing due to low dose chest CT as a lung cancer screening test Although there are no specific CT findings, the most frequent finding are nodules with a good boundary accompanied by a ground glass apperance10 In 1999, the WHO classified this disease as a precancerous lesion together with squamous dysplasia and diffuse idiopathic pulmonary neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia5 Chapman et al.6 analyzed the pathological findings of 554 patients with primary lung cancer and found that atypical adenomatous hyperplasia was accompanied in 67 cases (12.1%), and that the percentage of glandular cancer was the highest (glandular cancer 23.2%, giant cell undifferentiated cancer 12.5%, epithelial carcinoma 2.2%) There are many different opinions among pathologists and no established views on the differentiation level of atypical adenomatous hyperplasia, classification based on this, and its relationship with adenocarcinoma However, there are some reports related to morphological changes of the nuclei, expression of Ki-67 and p53, and K-ras mutation, which are expected to be helpful for better investigation of the characteristics of atypical adenomatous hyperplasia as a precancerous lesion5,10 As there are no principles in therapy yet, careful follow-up is needed Although there is controversy about the treatment of this patient, the authors believe that pneumonectomy of the left lung will be necessary because the patient has both congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation which can be accompanied by bronchioloalveolar carcinoma and atypical adenomatous hyperplasia which is a precancerous lesion After a literature review, it is believed that this is the first case report of congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation accompanied by atypical adenomatous hyperplasia References Brambilla, E et al.(2001) The new World Health Organization classification of lung tumours Eur Respir J, Vol.18, No.6, (Dec2001), pp.1059-1068 ISSN 1182-9087 690 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews Chapman, AD & Kerr, KM.(2000) The association between atypical adenomatous hyperplasia and primary lung cancer Br J Cancer, Vol 83, No.5,(Sep2000), pp 632636, ISSN 1094-4604 Chin, KY & Tang, MY.(1949) Congenital adenomatoid malformation of one lobe of a lung with general anasarca Archives of Pathology, Vol.48, No.3,(Sep1949), pp.221-229, ISSN 0361-7017 Ioachimescu, OC., Mehta, AC.(2005) From cystic pulmonary airway malformation, to bronchioloalveolar carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the lung Eur Respir J, Vol.26, No.6, (Dec2005), pp 1181-1187 ISSN 1631-9347 Kawakami, S et al.(2001) Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung: correlation between high resolution CT findings and histopathologic features Eur Radiol, Vol.11, No.5, (2001), pp.811-814 ISSN 1137-2613 Kerr, KM.(2001) Pulmonary preinvasive neoplasia J clin Pathol, Vol.54, No.4, (April2001), pp 257–271, ISSN 1130-4841 Kim, JI et al.(2004) Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung presenting as Hemoptysis in 49-year-old woman: a case report Korean J Crit Care Med, Vol.19, No.2,(Dec 2004), pp.139-142 Nakahara, R et al.(2001) Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung: a clinicopathological study of 118 cases including cases with multiple atypical adenomatous hyperplasia Thorax, Vol.56,No.4, (April2001), pp.302-205 1125-4822 Shackelford, GD., & Siegel, MJ.(1989) CT apperance of cystic adenomatoid malformations J Comput Assist Tomogr, Vol.13, No.4, (Jul1989), pp 612-616 ISSN 274-5778 Stocker, JT.(1994) Congenital and developmental diseases In: Pulmonary Pathology 2nd ed, Dali DH, Hammar SP, (Ed),155-90, 978-078-1782-08-1, New york, Springer-verlag Weng S et al.(1990) Multiple atypical hyperplasia of type II pneumocytes and bronchioloalveolar carcinoma Histopathology, Vol.16,No.1,(Jan1990), pp.101-103 ISSN 230-7410 Stocker, JT et al.(1977) Congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung : Classification and morphologic spectrum Hum Pathol, Vol.8, No.2,(Mar1977) pp.155-171 ISSN 85-6714 Takigawa, N et al (1999) Clinical investigation of atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung, Lung cancer, Vol.25,No.2, (Aug1999), pp.115-121 ISSN 1047-0845 Weng, S et al.(1990) Multiple atypical hyperplasia of type II pneumocytes and Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma Histopathology, Vol.16, No.1,(Jan1990), pp.101-103 ISSN 230-7410 Yokose, T et al.(2000) High prevalence of atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung in autopsy specimens from elderly patients with malignant neoplasms Lung cancer, Vol.29, No.2, (Aug2000), pp 125-130 ISSN 1096-3842 Yokose, T et al.(2001) Atypical adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung in autopsy cases Lung cancer, Vol.33, No.2-3, (Aug2001), pp.155-161 ISSN 1155-1410 ... dictate the location of the folds More studies are 20 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews warranted to establish a consensus concerning the factors influencing the pattern of mucosal... airway responsiveness 18 Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews 4.1.3 Increased amount of material inner the ASM layer As aforementioned, all the layers of the airway wall were shown... eventually stop (when the force generated by the muscle is Lung Diseases – Selected State of the Art Reviews equal to the load opposing its contraction) However, the repetitive sequence of events described