the effect of task based reading activities on students vocabulary retention at a high school

ABSTRACT The study aims to investigate the effect of task-based reading activities on vocabulary retention of students at a high school.. The two objectives set to reach the aim consist

PHAM THI SINH

THE EFFECT OF TASK-BASED READING ACTIVITIES ON STUDENT’S VOCABULARY RETENTION

AT A HIGH SCHOOL

MASTER THESIS

THAI NGUYEN - 2023

PHAM THI SINH

THE EFFECT OF TASK-BASED READING ACTIVITIES ON STUDENT’S VOCABULARY RETENTION

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

By submitting this document, I certify that I am the only author of this master's thesis and that I only consulted the sources mentioned as references and in the bibliography Additionally, I hereby certify that I have not submitted my thesis to any other university in an effort to earn a degree

Thai Nguyen, May 2023

Pham Thi Sinh

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

My supervisor, Mrs Nguyen Thi Hong Chuyen, Ph.D., who made this project possible, certainly deserves my deepest appreciation Her assistance and advice guided me through every stage of the project's creation

I would also like to express my gratitude to my entire family for their unwavering support and patience as I conducted research and wrote my project

Last but not least, I'd like to thank everyone in the English Department at Thai Nguyen University of Education During my time as a university student, I have received your kind guidance and encouragement, which has been incredibly helpful in completing the research

ABSTRACT

The study aims to investigate the effect of task-based reading activities on vocabulary retention of students at a high school The two objectives set to reach the aim consist of (1) identifying the extent to which task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school; (2) determining the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention This is a quasi-experimental study with the participation of 10 English teachers and 66 students Questionnaires and tests were used as data collection instruments to answer the following research questions: 1) To what extent do task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school? 2) What are the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention? The research findings showed that task-based reading activities were effective in improving students’ vocabulary retention, and students had positive attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention

Keywords: task-based learning, task-based reading activities, vocabulary, vocabulary retention

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims and Objectives 3

1.2.1 Aims of the Study 3

1.2.2 Objectives 3

1.3 Research Questions 4

1.4 Scope of the Study 4

1.5 Significance of the Study 4

1.6 Organization of the study 5

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.2.2 Definition of Tasks 19

2.2.3 The Task-based Learning Framework 20

2.2.4 The Advantages of Task-based Learning 22

CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 30

4.1 Findings of the questionnaires 30

4.3.1 Research question 1: To what extent do task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school? 41

4.3.2 Research question 2: What are the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention? 44

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 45

5.1 Conclusions 45

5.2 Limitations 46

5.3 Recommendations 46

REFERENCES 47

APPENDIX 55

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS 55

PRE-QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS 56

POST-QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS 58

PRE-TEST 60

POST-TEST 67

TEST SCORES OF THE CONTROL GROUP 74

TEST SCORES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP 76

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 The results of the students’ post-questionnaire 40

Table 4.5 Post-test score classifications of both groups 44

Figure 4.3 Teacher's understandings of how to apply task-based reading activities in teaching vocabulary

35

Figure 4.4 Students' opinions on task-based reading activities often used by teachers to teach vocabulary

36

Figure 4.5 Students’ opinions on teacher’s use of task-based reading activities in teaching vocabulary

37

Figure 4.6 Students' interests in using task-based reading activities to teach vocabulary

38

Figure 4.8 Students' opinions on how long a task-based reading activity should last

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Meanings

EFL English as a Foreign Language

PPP Presentation, Practice, And Production Approach TBI Task-based Instruction

TBLT Task-based Language Teaching

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Language learning is an ongoing process that necessitates constant vocabulary acquisition on the side of the learners To enable the learners to effectively operate in a particular setting, it is essential to acquire sufficient words to construct a personal library of the lexicon Every day, both within and outside of the classroom, vocabulary importance is highlighted The high achievers in the classroom have the most extensive vocabulary

For many years, English language teaching strategies have prioritized grammar and focused on teaching grammatical constructs As a result, learning English is not derailed for students, and in this way, the teaching of vocabulary has been kept to a minimum Because it was a component of the "structure of the day lesson," vocabulary that was intended to be comprehended was only illustrated in this manner Grammar is a set of rules, but the vocabulary is primarily a collection of objects, it was believed It was considered more effective because a single rule generates a large number of sentences While vocabulary grows, grammar increases (Thornbury, 2004, p.14)

Thankfully, the notion that grammar should take precedence over vocabulary has changed over time The function of lexical chunks and the lexical syllabus, a syllabus that focuses on terms used often in spoken and written English, were two major advances that challenged grammar's hegemony The importance of vocabulary in language learning has become more widely recognized as a result of these two developments Vocabulary is no longer viewed as an "add-on," despite the fact that the majority of coursebooks already adhere to a grammar syllabus "Without language, very little can be communicated, and without spelling, very little can be communicated" (Thornbury, 2004, p.13) The amount of vocabulary students possess is strongly correlated with academic ability, according to tests, which implies that students who have a limited vocabulary will struggle academically (Anderson & Naggy, cited by Mackay, 2007) Teaching and learning vocabulary seem to be a personal issue, teachers try to give and help students to

memorize as many words as possible, and students should learn to use those words as effectively as they can Teaching vocabulary is one of the most discussed parts of teaching English as a foreign language Teachers often encounter issues during the teaching and learning process They have problems with how to teach students in order to gain satisfying outcomes The teacher should prepare and find out the appropriate techniques, which will be implemented to teach the students A good teacher should prepare himself or herself with various up-to-date techniques Teachers should be concerned that teaching vocabulary is something new and different from students’ native language

For the above issue, English teachers should find out an appropriate way to teach vocabulary to stimulate the students to actively use English vocabulary actively both inside and outside classes However, based on the preliminary observation in the classes of a high school, the writer found that the teachers tried using many different ways to teach vocabulary in order to attract students to learn to use English vocabulary correctly However, the writer still found a lot of students who seemed not to be interested in participating in the lesson For those reasons, the teachers need some techniques for teaching vocabulary which can make the students more interested and motivated to learn English vocabulary

Besides, teaching reading skills is one of the most important processes of teaching a language When students have to read the passages, there are some vocabularies that they may not know, and using the reading context to infer the meaning of a word is a basic technique that students should know Using reading activities like inferring is one of the useful techniques that teachers can use to introduce vocabulary to students Given the significance of vocabulary in language learning, numerous researchers have offered insightful recommendations for efficient vocabulary learning and teaching In light of this, Harmer (2007) specifies the best way to teach new terms is through a variety of situations that can assist learners comprehend how the words are used, such as reading texts or listening to audio files Moreover, according to Nagy (2005, p.28), "extensive exposure to rich language, both oral and written; and generating generative word knowledge" as the

elements of successful vocabulary gain Moreover, several scholars stress the value of meaningful context for enhanced vocabulary learning since seeing words in relevant situations can help learners form meaningful associations (e.g Bolger, Balass, Landen, & Perfetti, 2008; Harmer, 2007; McCarten, 2007; Stahl, 2005; Takac, 2008) The National Reading Panel's (2000) findings also highlight the importance of context—in the form of a diversity of reading texts—for successful vocabulary learning Similarly to this, other scholars (such as Stahl, 2005; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Xu, 2009) have argued that repeatedly encountering terms when reading texts has a significant impact on vocabulary acquisition However, according to Stahl and Nagy (2006, p.173), "even for those words that are expressly taught, much of students' knowledge of them ultimately derives from subsequent encounters with those words in text" This might be the case because, compared to experiencing words outside of texts, words in texts sound more realistic for both linguistic and psychological terms (Schouten-van Parreren, 1989)

Those are the reasons why the author would like to conduct the research “The effect of task-based reading activities on students’ vocabulary retention at a high school.”

1.2 Aims and Objectives

1.2.1 Aims of the Study

The study aims to investigate the effect of task-based reading activities on vocabulary retention of students at a high school

1.2.2 Objectives

To achieve the above aim, there were two objectives of the research:

- Identifying the extent to which task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school

- Determining the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention

1.3 Research Questions

The research was conducted with the hope to find out the answers to the following research questions:

1) To what extent do task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school?

2) What are the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention?

1.4 Scope of the Study

This was quasi-experimental research, with the main focus on 66 students at a high school and 10 high school teachers The study aimed to find out the effect of task-based reading activities on the vocabulary retention of students at the high school Therefore, the study dealt with the reading activities which affect the students’ vocabulary retention only Other language abilities were not involved in the research

1.5 Significance of the Study

As the research aimed to investigate the effect of task-based reading activities on vocabulary retention of students, the findings of the research were expected to be significant for students, teachers, and other researchers

Firstly, it is beneficial for students as it provides them with a useful alternative to learning and retaining vocabulary Enriching vocabulary size will help students to be more confident in learning English and develop other aspects of the English language

Secondly, teachers can apply task-based reading activities to teach vocabulary to students Based on the findings of the study, English teachers can get helpful ideas to use in vocabulary teaching

Finally, researchers with similar interests can use this study as information for further research or additional knowledge about teaching and learning vocabulary based on task-based reading activities

1.6 Organization of the study

Chapter I: Introduction: The chapter presents the rationale for conducting the study Besides, the aims and objectives, the scope, the research questions, the significance, and the organization of the study are also illustrated

Chapter II: Literature Review The chapter consists of the background knowledge of vocabulary including definitions of vocabulary, vocabulary retention, teaching vocabulary, and learning vocabulary Besides, the theories of task-based language teaching are also reviewed in terms of the definition of tasks, the task-based learning framework, and the advantages of task-task-based learning Finally, the researcher summarizes some previous studies

Chapter III: Research Methodology This chapter gives information on the research design, the respondents of the study, the data collection instrument, and the data collection procedure

Chapter IV: Researching Findings The chapter includes an analysis and discussion of the research findings

Chapter V: Conclusions and Recommendations In this chapter, the researcher summarizes the findings and gives the conclusions of the study The limitations of the study and recommendations for further research and relevant parties were also provided

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Vocabulary

2.1.1 Definitions of Vocabulary

The Oxford dictionary listed vocabulary as the overall number of words in a language as well as the body of words used in a given field In addition to this definition, as in Longman Dictionary (1995), all the words that a person knows, learns, or uses are referred to as vocabulary According to Hornby (1995), vocabulary is the total amount of words used in all languages

A new word or expression that students learn and use both before and after each term is referred to as their vocabulary Since vocabulary is one of the elements that connects the four skills of communicating: listening, reading, and writing, there are many different perspectives on its meaning and use A language's vocabulary is made up of all of its words (Hornby, 1995)

It is important to make an effort to comprehend, create, and manipulate the target words because learning a language is difficult Many students are motivated and assisted by games to comprehend the target language more quickly They aid teachers in thinking of relevant and useful ways to employ the target words Also, they make learning and remembering new words more enjoyable for students, which helps them comprehend and assimilate new words more quickly When students have studied and used new vocabulary through games, they may use words in a stress-free way (Uberman, 1998)

2.1.2 Vocabulary Retention

Vocabulary retention, Mohammed (2009, p.16), is defined as “the ability to keep the acquired vocabulary and retrieve it after a period of time to use it in different language contexts.” Retention of learned knowledge is defined by Bennette and Rebello (2012) as having the information stored in long-term memory in a way that makes it easy to recall, for example, in response to routine cues Different methods are used in EFL contexts to aid in vocabulary retention Based on

the approaches used for vocabulary teaching, Oxford and Crookall (1990) categorized the strategies into four categories The first one is de-contextualizing, which contains word lists, flashcards, and the conventional use of a dictionary The second one is semi-contextualizing, including word grouping, association, visual imaginary, keyword, physical response, physical sensation, and semantic mapping The third one is fully contextualizing which involves four skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing The final one is adaptable: structured reviewing Vocabulary is supposed to be one of the key areas of concentration during language training because learning a new language's vocabulary is undoubtedly a difficult undertaking for language learners to complete Sadly, this is not always the case in language classes since students must manage terminology independently without any formal teaching The fundamental issue is that second language learners are typically required to memorize the target words that are provided to them in lists, leaving them with little opportunity to practice the words they have just encountered (Oxford & Crookall, 1990)

Given the significance of vocabulary in language learning, numerous academics have offered insightful recommendations for efficient vocabulary learning and teaching In light of this, Nagy (2005, p.28) identifies the elements of effective vocabulary growth as “extensive exposure to rich language, both oral and written; and building generative word knowledge” Additionally, many researchers (e.g Bolger, Balass, Landen, & Perfetti, 2008; Harmer, 2007; McCarten, 2007; Stahl, 2005; Takac, 2008) stress the significance of meaningful context for improved vocabulary learning since learners can form meaningful connections when they see words in meaningful contexts (Stahl, 2005) According to Harmer (2007), the best way to teach new terms is through a variety of contexts (e.g reading texts or listening tracks) that might aid students in understanding how the words are used The National Reading Panel's (2000) findings also highlight the importance of context—in the form of a diversity of reading texts—for successful vocabulary learning Similar to this, (e.g Stahl, 2005; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Xu, 2009) many experts contend that exposure to words repeatedly when reading texts

has a significant impact on vocabulary growth In addition, Stahl and Nagy (2006, p.173) believe that “even for those words that are explicitly taught, much of students' knowledge of them ultimately comes from further encounters with those words in text” This may be because words encountered within writings sound more realistic for both linguistic and psychological terms than when encountered outside of texts (Schouten-van Parreren, 1989)

It is more effective to encounter words repeatedly in a range of texts than to simply repeat them one at a time (Stahl, 2005) Because there are no set standards for learning words, vocabulary is more likely to be forgotten than phonology and grammar, so permanent learning is essential in this situation (Schmitt, 2010) Thornbury (2002) emphasizes that successful vocabulary development requires the transfer of words from short-term memory to long-term memory According to Stahl and Nagy (2006), context can be useful for helping words be stored in long-term memory Furthermore, learning new words successfully requires repeated exposure to them (Kamil & Hiebert, 2005; McCarten, 2007; Nation & Meara, 2002; National Reading Panel, 2000; Schmitt, 2000; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Thornbury 2002) The fact that these repetitions result in more efficient learning when they are meaningful to the learners must also be kept in mind (Oxford & Crookall, 1990; Schmitt, 2010; Stahl, 2005) In other words, as Oxford and Crookall (1990, p.23) state, “sufficient exposure to the new target language word in meaningful, communicative, oral or written contexts is no doubt essential” In a similar vein, Schmitt (2010, p.257) suggests that “A learner must read enough so that a new lexical item will be met again before its memory trace disappears” For this reason, Schmitt (2010) recommends multiple encounters with words in a variety of contexts for permanent learning of second language vocabulary

2.1.3 Teaching Vocabulary

According to Hatch and Brown (1995, p.544), teachers can teach vocabulary to their students using a variety of approaches, strategies, exercises, and practices, but it is up to the teachers to decide which approach works best for their class given

its particular qualities In addition, the teacher should consider if the resources they have selected to utilize in class are consistent with the objectives, maintain the learners' motivation and pique their interest (Uberman, 1998 cited in Taheri, 2014, p.544)

There is more to vocabulary instruction than simply introducing new words Giving students access to the language they can use to communicate their feelings and thoughts also falls under this category One of the most difficult aspects of learning a foreign language for many students is learning vocabulary, particularly for those whose mother tongue writing is the same as their spoken language because they are used to writing a word the same way they say it When speaking of a language like English, however, this reasoning is altered because words are not always typed or pronounced exactly as they are written

According to Thornbury (2002), students can learn words effectively by participating in activities that make them think about and choose the words New information must be combined with previously learned content in order to guarantee long-term retention and recall This calls for storing both sets of data in working memory, which can be accomplished by comparing, matching, combining, sorting, visualizing, and rearranging them, as well as repeatedly storing and retrieving them Students must be exposed to a range of activities that stretch their thinking and encourage decision-making A vocabulary study couldn't be done in isolation According to Nunan (1998), we should begin by introducing new vocabulary words in context before giving students the opportunity to use the words independently later on Kang (1995) asserts that one of the best ways to enhance vocabulary learning in a second language is to employ a context-embedded technique, in which new terms are taught in context In the study, learners were taught target English words together with their explanations and one or more example sentences using computer audio The learners' need for repetition of the target words may vary

While engaging in their studies, students come across words frequently in order to grow and increase their comprehension of and competency with the vocabulary of the foreign language Also, using fun activities to master vocabulary

increases students' odds of effectively remembering the words compared to using merely drills or flashcards to practice the verbal phrases (Cameron, 2001)

When teaching vocabulary, a number of lexis-related factors must be taken into consideration The following list is based on Gairns and Redman's (1986) research:

a Boundaries between conceptual meaning: knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g cup, mug, bowl)

b Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organization)

c Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form that has several meanings which are not closely related (e.g a file: used to put papers in or a tool)

d Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g flour, flower)

e Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g extend, increase, expand)

f Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speaker’s attitude or the situation A Socio-cultural association of lexical items is another important factor

g Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation

h Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g false cognates)

i Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability)

j Pronunciation: the ability to recognize and reproduce items in speech

Ur (1996, p 60) also believed that the following items need to be taught in to be considered when teaching vocabulary:

a Form: Pronunciation and spelling

A learner needs to be aware of both the word's appearance and pronunciation as well as its spelling These traits are clear, and when a student comes into contact with the object for the first time, they will either notice one or the other Both of these characteristics need to be appropriately presented and acquired in order for teachers to effectively impart their knowledge

b Grammar

If a new concept is not clearly covered by general grammatical rules, it will be necessary to teach its grammar It is crucial to tell students of this knowledge concurrently with professors who are instructing based on the form because an item may exhibit an unpredictably changing form in specific grammatical situations and may have some peculiarities with other items in sentences If a new verb is irregular, for instance, teachers must also teach its past form (think, thought) Similarly, to this, while teaching a noun, teachers must either point out that the noun has no plural form at all or provide its plural forms if they are regular (mouse, mice) (advise, information) Teachers must also discuss several forms of the verb that comes after verbs like wish and pleasure (want to, enjoying)

c Collocation

Another aspect that determines whether a particular combination is "right" or "wrong" in a particular context is the normal collocation of specific components Word partners are called collocations Take the phrases "do homework" and "make mistakes" as examples As a result, this is yet another fact about a novel thing that might be instructive The teacher may not imply that he or she takes or creates one when introducing phrases like decision and conclusion In dictionaries, collocations are frequently noted by placing the entire collocation under one of the headwords or by including a remark in parenthesis

d Aspect of meaning: denotation, connotation, appropriateness

Denotation and connotation are the two parts of a word's meaning Denotation is the term used to describe a word's dictionary definition or its literal meaning For instance, the definition of a snake in a dictionary is any of the various scaly, legless, occasionally venomous reptiles with long, tapering, cylindrical bodies that are present in most tropical and temperate environments Connotation, on the other hand, describes the associations or emotional connotations attached to a specific term Together with their denotative counterparts, words can also have connotative meanings The meaning of the word snake may imply danger or evil Whether or not a specific thing is fit to use in a given situation is a more suitable component of meaning that frequently has to be taught For instance, students may be aware that the words cry and weep are nearly similar in meaning, but weep is more formal, more often used in writing than in speech, and less common overall

e Aspect of meaning: meaning relationship

It can also be helpful to educate students on how one concept relates to other concepts There are many different meaning correlations, including

a) Synonyms: Words that have the same or a similar meaning to intelligence can be used as synonyms Examples include brilliant, clever, and smart

b) Antonyms: Words that mean the opposite; for instance, the opposite of poor is affluent

c) Hyponyms: Things that serve as particular illustrations of a basic idea, such as the dog, lion, and mouse, which are hyponyms of the animal

d) Co-hyponyms or co-ordinated: These are other elements that are of the same type, such as red, blue, green, and brown

e) Superordinates: Broad notions that apply to a particular thing For instance, an animal is subordinate to a dog, lion, or mouse

f) Translation: Words or idioms that more or less have the same meaning as the concept being taught in the learner's native tongue

g) Word formation: One or more words in a vocabulary item can frequently be split down into their parts It is called word formation when a new word is produced

In short, the development of teaching and learning depends on vocabulary As a result, students should begin learning vocabulary at a young age so that they can easily master it and achieve the objectives of teaching and learning a foreign language, which includes producing a language in speaking, reading, and writing

2.1.4 Learning Vocabulary

It would be impossible to speak a language without a large vocabulary Since vocabulary is necessary for speaking, reading, listening, and writing, it is a crucial component of language learning Because vocabulary demonstrates a grasp of meaning, it is also one of a language's constituent parts For instance, it might be difficult if all verbal communication was structured and no vocabulary Learning a foreign language demands a strong knowledge of its vocabulary rather than its grammar because one can say almost anything using words (Wilkins, 1972)

Traditional teaching approaches did not view vocabulary as a crucial subject that required formal, one-on-one instruction Instead of being a particular subject that students had to master, it was integrated into speaking, listening, reading, and writing studies Recent advancements in vocabulary teaching and learning, particularly in EFL classes, can be attributed to the use of strategies (Darfilal, 2015) Given the importance of language, it is believed that schools should constantly prioritize instructing students on using vocabulary properly To promote the growth of students' writing, speaking, reading, and listening, vocabulary is one of the language program's most important duties in any classroom

Generally speaking, expanding one's vocabulary is an important and inspiring component of learning a language Vocabulary connected to the issue should be mastered if we want to speak with others using a language; as such, it serves as one of the elements facilitating communication In other words, it is evident that vocabulary plays a significant role in the development of language abilities

Teng (2015) classifies vocabulary learning into incidental and intentional vocabulary learning

Any reading activity produces implicit incidental learning, which is a "by-product" (Hulstijn, 2001, p 266) In other words, word learning happens unconsciously when learners attempt to comprehend the context's underlying meaning (Paribakht and Wesche, 1999) The effects of intensive reading on incidental vocabulary learning have been demonstrated in numerous research (Brown, Waring, & Donkaewbua, 2008; Coady, 1997; Teng, 2015a) For instance, several research examined incidental vocabulary gains by examining the frequency of word recurrence to improve incidental vocabulary learning According to their findings, EFL students were better able to retain terms with a greater frequency level (Day, Omura, and Hiramatsu, 1992; Horst, 2005; Pellicer-Sánchez & Schmitt, 2010; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006; Waring & Takaki, 2003) Repetition increased the results of incidentally obtained productive information, according to Chen and Truscott's (2010) analysis of the effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning Additionally, Webb and Chang (2012) demonstrated that incidental vocabulary learning was considerably higher with aided learning than without it while reading the same content repeatedly However, one drawback addressed in the aforementioned studies is the context issue It is said that a word's meaning that is challenging to deduce in one context may be simple to deduce in another As a result, Webb (2008) put a strong emphasis on context and demonstrated that an informative context had a stronger impact on accidental vocabulary learning than a less informative environment Schmitt (2008) noted that although research has been successful in enhancing incidental vocabulary learning, incidental vocabulary learning alone does not significantly boost total vocabulary learning Since learners can distinguish between form, meaning, and usage, vocabulary-focused tasks are preferable to reading alone for acquiring new words (Laufer, 2003; Paribakht & Wesche, 1997; Zimmerman, 1997) As a result, some academics have hypothesized that reading combined with deliberate vocabulary learning may improve overall vocabulary learning (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Stoller & Grabe, 1993; Webb, 2005) In her 2008 study, Nakata compared word lists, word cards, and computers for vocabulary learning to examine the impact of spacing on purposeful learning It was

determined that the computer-based sequencing technique outperformed word lists It is impossible to require kids to consciously learn every word spoken in class Thus, experts concurred that further study on incidental vocabulary learning is required

Intentional vocabulary learning can be utilized to lessen the "learning burden" in deliberate vocabulary learning, which is regarded to be considerably faster (Nation, 2013, p 13) Additional elements can be stored to a memory trace using techniques like elaboration (Barcroft, 2002; Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Craik & Tulving, 1975; Craik & Watkins, 1973), making vocabulary more memorable and retrievable (Gerrig & Zimbardo, 2010) Explicit links between L1 and L2 vocabulary items that are relevant to the learner's L2 may speed up the acquisition process since new stimuli are tied to existing representations (Hall, 2002)

According to Grauberg (1997, p.15) the process of learning vocabulary involves four stages:

a) Discrimination

This is the basic step It requires the capacity to keep sounds and letters separate when speaking and writing, as well as the ability to differentiate them from sounds and letters of comparable words when reading and listening Failure to distinguish, as will be seen later, is a common source of inaccuracy

b) Understanding meaning

To understand the meaning, students must comprehend the meaning behind the unfamiliar word or phrase Often, this is easy to understand because the word has an English counterpart or can be directly associated with its meaning

c) Remembering

Following the introduction and explanation of new material, its retention must be ensured Once students have figured out a word's definition, they no longer need to focus on it, and it will be forgotten

d) Consolidation and extension of meaning

Learning new words is not a quick process; if it were, and if the presentation were the only factor that mattered, then words would not need to be relearned after

being forgotten But as things stand, it appears that words are assimilated gradually over time and that they only fully integrate into the learner's own pool of words when he can use them with the same level of fluency that distinguishes the words he uses in his original language (Grauberg, 1997, p.22) Lexical command is a gradual process If one attempts to analyze this process by relating it to linguistic descriptions of vocabulary learning, pronunciation, and spelling are likely acquired first, meaning comprehension comes next, control over morphological forms and syntactic links comes after that, and complete semantic knowledge comes last

Students encounter a lot of challenges when learning vocabulary According to Thornbury (2002, p 27), the following are some factors that contribute to some words being more challenging:

a Pronunciation

According to research, learning words that are hard to pronounce is more challenging

b Spelling Sounds

Spelling mismatches are probably the root of problems, either in pronunciation or spelling, and can increase the complexity of a term While the majority of English spelling generally abides by the rules, there are some obvious anomalies Terms like "foreign," "listen," "headache," "climbing," "bored," "honest," "cabinet," and "muscular" are particularly challenging because they contain silent letters

c Length and complexity

Short and long words both seem to be equally challenging to learn Nonetheless, high-frequency words in English generally tend to be short, so the student is more likely to encounter them frequently, which is a characteristic that favors their "learnability."

d Grammar

Also troublesome is the word's syntax, particularly if it differs from that of its L1 equivalent It can be challenging to remember if a verb like enjoy, love, or hope is preceded by an infinitive (to swim) or a -ing form (swimming)

e Meaning

When two words have similar meanings, students are likely to mix them up You cook breakfast and schedule an appointment, but you do the cleaning and fill out a questionnaire

f Range, connotation, and idiomaticity

In general, people will regard words that can be employed in a wider variety of settings as being simpler than their synonyms with a smaller range In comparison to verbs like impose, place, position, etc., but has a much larger range of meanings A safer bet is thin rather than skinny, slim, or slender Problems could also arise because some terms' meanings are unclear Propaganda has a bad reputation in English, but its Spanish equivalent can just be publicity So while the English word quirky does not carry a negative connotation, its closest translation in other languages might be deviant Last but not least, idiomatic words or phrases (such as "make up your mind," "keep an eye on," etc.) will typically be more challenging to understand than terms whose meaning is obvious (decide, watch)

Gower, Philips, and Walter (1995, p.143) elucidate the factors that determine whether a vocabulary word is easy or difficult A vocabulary item's level of difficulty might vary depending on a variety of variables:

a Similarity to L1

A vocabulary item's difficulty level frequently depends on how closely it resembles the student's native language in both form and meaning Similar words in English and the original language may be deceptive rather than beneficial

b Similarity to English words already known

Once students have a basic command of the language, a word that is connected to one they are already familiar with makes learning easier than one that is not For instance, students who have already seen the word friendly should be able to infer what unfriendly means

c Connotation

The connotation of the phrase presents learners with yet another challenging concept to grasp Does the word, for instance, have a favorable or unfavorable

meaning to a native speaker? Both the words "skinny" and "slim" can be used to describe someone who is thin, but because they have quite distinct connotations, the speaker will often choose one over the other

d Spelling and pronunciation

For students from languages with fairly regular spelling systems, the spelling of many English words can be an issue When it comes to pronunciation, certain spelling patterns can be confusing For instance, it is simple to comprehend why so many students mistake the pronunciation, spelling, and meaning of the terms through, though, thought, tough, and thorough

e Multi-word items

Compound nouns like tennis shoes or sports vehicle, or a phrasal verb like "to put someone up" are examples of lexical items that might have many words Because they are composed of simple words, phrasal verbs are notoriously challenging for English language learners (often prepositions or adverbs)

f Collocation

It can also be challenging depending on how a lexical item collocates (or "goes with" other elements) For instance, when individuals are hurt or wounded but items are damaged, we can state that there was a powerful wind and strong coffee, but the wind was actually light and the coffee was weak, not strong

g Appropriate use

It can be difficult to know when to use terminology correctly Certain words and phrases can only be used in certain contexts (for instance, in He's pushing fifty, pushing can indicate almost) We do not say he is pushing there; pushing is only used in this way with older people Also, it's crucial for students to understand whether a word or phrase has an obvious formal or informal style

2.2 Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)

2.2.1 Definitions of TBLT

To enhance the quality of language instruction, task-based language teaching has been incorporated into foreign language education programs throughout the past

few decades; yet, its characteristics and criteria have not received much research Due to some drawbacks of the conventional presentation, practice, and production approach (PPP), which had the point of view of language teaching, outlining the process of presentation, practice, and performance, the task-based approach to language teaching was developed It is based on constructivist learning theories of learning and teaching methodologies of communicative language Therefore, it's crucial to understand that learning a language involves the development of communication and social interaction rather than the internalization of linguistic components and that exposure to considerable amounts of the target language helps learners master it more effectively, (Skehan, 1996)

The term "TBLT" refers to a teaching methodology that was first applied in the 1980s and has since gained popularity and developed in the teaching and acquisition of second languages According to Prabhu (1987), TBLT is a teaching strategy that gives students communicative tasks and encourages idea sharing in order to achieve the desired results Therefore, TBLT significantly affects the growth of communicative proficiency In the viewpoints of Mckinnon and Rigby (2004, as cited in Nahavandi & Mukundan, 2013), when teachers give their students relevant and understandable language in the classroom, learners will process language more readily Richards & Rodgers (2001, p.223) list the main components of language teaching are various tasks, which are included in the planning and instruction in TBLT They state “engaging learners in tasks work provides a better context for the activation of learning processes than form-focused activities and hence ultimately provides better opportunities for language learning to take place” In TBLT, the tasks that students complete in class reflect what they encounter in real life; as a result, the importance of assignments cannot be overstated

2.2.2 Definition of Tasks

The term "tasks" are defined by researchers and linguists in various ways According to Long (1985, as stated in Nunan, 2004), a task is any work that is completed, whether it is done voluntarily or in exchange for payment Therefore,

examples of tasks include things like painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out forms, purchasing shoes, borrowing a book from the library, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, making a hotel reservation, writing a check, and more In other words, a task is something that can be completed for one's own advantage or the benefit of others, either without payment or in exchange for a benefit The definition of Nunan (1998) can help make the term "task" more understandable The task is separated into two categories based on its syllabus: real-world tasks and pedagogic tasks While pedagogic tasks comprise various activities or exercises that students must perform in the classroom, real-world tasks relate to tasks that students may be required to complete in the real world Tasks are activities that require learners to communicate in the target language in order to accomplish a task, according to Willis (1996)

There are two definitions of task (Long, 1985): a Target task

According to Long (1985, p.89), a target task is work that is undertaken for oneself or for others, voluntarily or in exchange for compensation In the examples above, "task" refers to any of the activities that individuals engage in on a daily basis, including work, play, and in-between activities This definition's nontechnical and nonlinguistic nature should be noted right away Tasks take on a pedagogical quality when they are transferred from the actual world or the objective task to the classroom

b Pedagogical task

A pedagogical task is an action or activity that is completed as a result of processing or understanding language Tasks include things like drawing a map while listening to a tape, following instructions and listening to commands

2.2.3 The Task-based Learning Framework

Willis (1996) in “A Framework for Task-Based Learning” states that tasks are always actions where the learner uses the target language for a communicative purpose (goal) to obtain a result

The task itself is at the core of task-based learning The lesson's goal is to complete the task, according to the underlying principle For instance, you might invite students to compose their own English recipe (task-based learning emphasizes reading, writing, speaking, and listening equally)

Getting learners to complete one assignment after another is not the only goal of task-based learning If such were the case, learners would most likely gain fluency at the expense of accuracy while also becoming highly adept at doing tasks and resourceful with their language The framework consists of three phases: pre-task, task cycle, and language focus:

1) The pre-task phase introduces the class to the topic and the task, activating topic-related words and phrases;

2) The task cycle gives students the chance to complete the task using any language they already know while also giving them the opportunity to develop that language while planning their task reports with the help of the teacher When they need it most, during the planning phase and after the report, teachers provide feedback Task-based Learning provides three basic conditions for language learning, exposure, use, and motivation There are three components of the task cycle:

a Task: learners use whatever language they can master, working simultaneously, in pairs, or in small groups to achieve the goals of the task

b Planning: comes after the task and before the report, forming the central part of the cycle The teacher’s role here is that of a language advisor Learners plan their reports effectively and maximize their learning opportunities

c Report: is the natural condition of the task cycle In this stage, learners tell the class about their findings Therefore, the report stage gives students a natural stimulus to upgrade and improve their language It presents a very real linguistic challenge to communicate clearly and accurately in language appropriate to the circumstances

3) The language focus allows a closer study of some of the specific features naturally occurring in the language used during the task cycle The learners are now

prepared to concentrate on the specific language forms that convey that meaning because they have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning As a result, the goal itself provides a clear context for the study of these forms This final phase, which includes analysis and practice components, fulfills the fourth desirable extra condition for learning explicit study of language form

Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered Although the teacher may present language in the pre-task the students are free to use what they want This allows them to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than a single construct Furthermore, as the tasks are supposed to be familiar to the students, students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning

In task-based learning, the teacher is generally a facilitator, always keeping the key conditions for learning in mind Facilitating learning involves balancing the amount of exposure and use of language, and ensuring they are both of suitable quality

In a task-based learning framework, most of the emphasis is on learners doing things, often in pairs or groups, using language to achieve the outcomes and guided by the teacher The teacher is involved in setting tasks up, ensuring that learners do tasks independently; the teacher still has overall control and the power to stop everything if necessary

2.2.4 The Advantages of Task-based Learning

Willis and Willis (2001) described task-based learning as a two-stage process Engaging learners in communicative tasks is the initial step The second step is to carefully examine the language used to complete a task and take notes from that language

We also have project-based, content-based, thematic, and text-based syllabuses, according to Willis and Willis (2001, p.173) Pedagogically, the following principles and practice have been strengthened through task-based language teaching: 1) a needs-based approach to content selection: 2) an emphasis

on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language, 3) the introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation; 4) the provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself; 5) an enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning, and 6) the linking of classroom language learning with language use outside the classroom

The task-based learning gives students a natural setting to use language Students have several opportunities to interact while they strive to complete a task Since students must try to comprehend one another and express themselves, the interaction is thought to aid in language acquisition (Larsen, 2000, p.144) Task-based learning puts the focus more on the student Although the teacher may provide language in the pre-task, students are afterward free to utilize it in the way they like This enables individuals to learn new languages and employ the ones they already know They are utilized for more than just one construct (Willis, 1996)

Engaging students in task work rather than form-focused activities improves the context for the activation of the learning process and, as a result, improves the opportunities for language learning to occur (Richard & Rodger, 2001)

The fundamental benefit of task-based learning is that it is utilized for real purposes, which requires that communication occur and that, while writing a report for the class, students think about language form generally rather than focusing on a particular form The objective is to integrate all four skills and to shift from fluency to accuracy plus fluency

2.2.5 Tasks for reading comprehension

Students can use the strategies provided by the British Council to interact with texts in order to improve their reading comprehension and grow as critical readers For the directed activities utilizing texts, there are two categories: reconstruction activities and analytical activities.Activities that require students to fill in missing words, phrases, or sentences, rearrange jumbled text, or otherwise reconstruct a text or image The teacher may change the original text by deleting words, phrases, or sentences in their whole The pursuits include:

Text-related directed activities may be based on classic writings, including poetry and quotes from plays, novels, and short stories Additionally, you can use sections from history, geography, science, and other textbooks as well as snippets from magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, etc to create your own original materials

The advantages of employing guided activities related to texts were also outlined by British Council (2012) First off, when students discuss reading materials in dialogue, their reading comprehension improves They get knowledge of textual organization as well They develop greater text-criticality as a result They begin to examine the information in the text, both that which has been added and that which has been omitted, as well as the author's choice of words and sentence constructions Second, as students get a better understanding of how texts are put together, their writing also gets better Reading aloud to students boosts their cognitive development, according to research Additionally, since textbooks for many different courses are readily available, the activities don't call for expensive equipment or resources As a result, these exercises can be used in schools with limited resources Additionally, text-related directed activities might make your

students' textbooks more engaging If you teach English in a setting where English is the language of instruction but not the students' native language, you can better prepare them for the texts they will face in other disciplines by using guided activities connected to texts based on passages from their textbooks Additionally, it will assist them in preparing for the types of assignments they may encounter in other fields Creating Venn diagrams, labeling diagrams, and completing tables are a few examples The exercises also help students build their own visual information, such as tables, flowcharts, branch diagrams, etc., by helping them to use texts efficiently without reproducing them

2.2 Previous Studies

Kalukar, Syamdianita, and Kurniawan (2019) in the research entitled “The Effect of Task-based Reading Activity on Vocabulary Achievement of the Second Grade Learners at SMPN 24 Samarinda” looked into the vocabulary development of the students using task-based reading activities The researcher employed the T-test to see whether there was a significant difference in vocabulary achievement between before and after task-based reading activities were used to teach it The study's findings revealed that the mean score in the experimental class increased from 66.77 on the pre-test to 77.25 on the post-test The Ho was rejected and Ha was approved, according to the results of the two T-tests mentioned above It is clear from the analysis of the research findings that using task-based reading activities to teach vocabulary had a noticeable impact on vocabulary achievement

Kamalian, Soleimani, and Safari (2017) examined the impact of task-based reading exercises, such as text completion and student-generated questions, on Iranian intermediate EFL learners' vocabulary learning and retention The results of this study showed that task-based instruction (TBI), particularly information-gap, opinion-gap, reasoning-gap, and problem-solving activities, can improve reading comprehension It also demonstrates that there is a strong association between TBI and unintentional vocabulary learning and that TBI may significantly improve Iranian university students' vocabulary knowledge in ways that are similar to the

specific findings of this study The study's findings also showed that those TBI participants who were given the activities to complete improved their performance

Gavell (2021) illustrated the possibilities for using authentic materials in a task-based lesson in the research “Task-Based Reading Activities Using Authentic Materials and Skills” The findings show that the technique always encourages students to investigate, make their own decisions, and use critical thinking while altering their physical environment It is a tactic that can be applied just once over a semester or more frequently The outcome will be an energetic, interesting, and productive reading class

Vietnamese researchers are also interested in using TBLT in teaching English Pham Trung Nghia & Nguyen Buu Huan (2018) examined the use of task-based language education in EFL classes along with teachers' perception about it The opinions of 68 university professors in the Mekong Delta were investigated through interviews and questionnaires The results showed that instructors' opinions and understanding of task-based language teaching are positive The implications for TBLT's practical uses are also discussed

Vo Thi My Xuyen & Nguyen Huynh Trang (2021) looked at how task-based speaking activities affect students who are not English majors as well as how they feel about the implications of such activities The participants' speech performance was assessed using pre- and post-tests, and the experimental group's attitudes toward the usage of task-based speaking activities were investigated using a questionnaire The results show that EFL students in the experimental group gained more development in speaking than those in the control group

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research design

The study aims to investigate the effects of task-based reading activities on vocabulary retention of students at a high school The research objectives consist of (1) identifying the extent to which task-based reading activities improve the vocabulary retention of students at a high school; and (2) determining the students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention To achieve these research objectives, the researcher selected the quasi-experimental design for the study because quasi-experiments design can be perfect to determine what is best for the population and it gives the researchers power over the variables by being able to control them Researchers used experiments to examine the strength of connections between variables, according to Nunan (1992, p 24–25) Language researchers sometimes wish to examine the connections between several factors, such a teaching style and a second one, like test results on an official language competence test He also distinguishes quasi-experimental research from other types of experimental research Specifically, a quasi-experiment has both pre-and post-test and experimental and control groups but no random assignments of subjects (Nunan, 1992, p.41)

As this is a quasi-experimental design, students were divided into two groups, with 33 students in each group The group which experienced the intervention (using task-based reading activities to improve students’ vocabulary retention) is called the experimental group, and the other, taught by traditional methods, is called the control group The effectiveness of using traditional methods and task-based reading activities was compared based on the test results of both groups

3.2 Respondents

The respondents of the study were 66 high school students and 10 English high school teachers The students were in the school year 2022-2023

3.3 Data Collection Instrument

3.3.1 Questionnaires

a Teacher’s questionnaire

The questionnaires were designed using both close-ended and open-ended questions to provide enough space for the respondents to raise their voices and explain their ideas The questionnaire for teachers collected data on the techniques that the high school English teachers often use when teaching vocabulary to students, the frequency of using task-based reading activities in teaching vocabulary to their students, and how much they understand about applying task-based reading activities in teaching vocabulary to their students It may take teachers 5-10 minutes to complete the questionnaire

b Student’s pre-questionnaire

The questionnaire for students focused on the techniques that their English teachers often use to teach vocabulary, how often their English teachers organize task-based reading activities to teach vocabulary, how the students feel if their teachers organize task-based reading activities to teach vocabulary, the topic of the reading text that they prefer and how long they would like each activity to last To avoid misunderstanding, all of the items in the questionnaires were translated into Vietnamese The students may have to spend no more than 15 minutes doing the questionnaire

c Students’ post-questionnaire

The students’ post-questionnaire was used to collect information on students’ attitudes toward using task-based reading activities to improve their vocabulary retention There were 15 statements in the questionnaire, and students responded by specifying their levels of agreement by selecting the corresponding 4-Point Linkert Scale (1 – strongly disagree; 2 – disagree; 3 - agree; 4 – strongly agree) All of the statements were translated into Vietnamese to allow students to complete the survey more easily

3.3.2 Tests

The study used the school mid-term test as the pre-test and the school end-of-term test as the post-test The pre-test helps to identify the language abilities of the respondents and the post-test allows the researcher to see how much improvement the students made after 8 lessons Based on the test results, the researcher could conclude the effects of task-based reading activities on students’ vocabulary retention

3.4 Data collection procedure

Firstly, the researcher developed a set of questionnaires to give to teachers and the students in the experimental group The questionnaires were reviewed by peer teachers before being given to the respondents Both sets of questionnaires for students were translated into Vietnamese

Next, the researcher chose the tests in accordance with the study's objectives based on the identification and formulation of the problem through a questionnaire given to the participants Then, the students in both groups were also let to take the pre-test The test helped the researcher determine the students’ vocabulary level

After collecting enough data, the researcher made an intervention plan which was carried out over 8 weeks

After 8-week intervention, the students of both groups took the post-test The results of the post-test were compared, analyzed, and synthesized by the researcher to draw conclusions on the effects of task-based reading activities on students’ vocabulary retention At the same time, the researcher let the students in the experimental group take the post-questionnaire survey to find out their attitude toward the use of task-based reading activities in vocabulary lessons

3.5 Data analysis

After the data collection, the survey responses were input into an Excel spreadsheet for quantitative analysis Statistics from both questionnaires and tests are compared and analyzed to determine the effect of task-based reading activities on the vocabulary retention of students at a high school