Teacher and student perspectives on bilingual and multilingual education

The insights gained from exploring learners’ beliefs about OPI have the potential to significantly shape the learning process and influence the outcomes that learners achieve, aligning w

Perspectives on Bilingual and Multilingual

Education Hung Phu Bui

University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Truong Cong Bang

University of Economics and Law, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam & Vietnam Na-tional University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Cuong Huy Nguyen

International University, USA

A volume in the Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design (AETID) Book Series

Published in the United States of America byWeb site: http://www.igi-global.com

Copyright © 2024 by IGI Global All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher.Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: eresources@igi-global.com CIP Pending

ISBN: 979-8-3693-5365-3 EISBN: 979-8-3693-5367-7

Hung Phu Bui, University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamHong Quan Bui, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, VietnamNghi Tin Tran, Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry and Trade, Vietnam

Chapter 3

EnglishinHigherEducation:NavigatingVietnam’sAcademicLandscape 34

Truong Cong Bang, University of Economics and Law, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam & Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Fatimah Suhaila Arsalia, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, IndonesiaZain Adinul Falah, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, IndonesiaHerri Mulyono, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, Indonesia

Chapter 6

CourseBooks 81

Chau Thi Hoang Hoa, Tra Vinh University, VietnamVien Truong, Hue University, Vietnam

Ngoc-Chau T Tran, SEAMEO RETRAC, Vietnam

Cuong Huy Nguyen, International University-Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh

Dinh Tran Thuy Lieu, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, VietnamNguyen Thi Thu Van, Sai Gon University, Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Hong Lien, Ho Chi Minh City University of Foreign Languages-Information Technology, Vietnam

Chapter 11

LanguageLearners 167

Chau Thi Hoang Hoa, Tra Vinh University, VietnamDuy Thi Yen Nguyen, Tra Vinh University, Vietnam

Hai Yen Vu, Choice Business College, Sydney, Australia

Thi Thanh Lan Truong, National Academy of Education Management, Hanoi, Vietnam

Hong-An Thi Pham, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Bao-Tran Nhu Lam, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Compilation of References 252About the Contributors 290Index 294

Hung Phu Bui, University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City, VietnamHong Quan Bui, Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, VietnamNghi Tin Tran, Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry and Trade, Vietnam

This chapter presents how working memory influences vocabulary learning and retention. First, it

Chapter 3

EnglishinHigherEducation:NavigatingVietnam’sAcademicLandscape 34

Truong Cong Bang, University of Economics and Law, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam & Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Fatimah Suhaila Arsalia, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, IndonesiaZain Adinul Falah, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, IndonesiaHerri Mulyono, Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof DR HAMKA, Indonesia

Chau Thi Hoang Hoa, Tra Vinh University, VietnamVien Truong, Hue University, Vietnam

Chapter 8

PerceptionsandEncounteredChallenges 114

Ngoc-Chau T Tran, SEAMEO RETRAC, Vietnam

Cuong Huy Nguyen, International University-Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh

Nguyen Thi Le Nguyen, The University of Newcastle, Australia

This chapter discusses the inequality of access to language learning and teaching in the Northern

Dinh Tran Thuy Lieu, Ho Chi Minh City Open University, VietnamNguyen Thi Thu Van, Sai Gon University, Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Hong Lien, Ho Chi Minh City University of Foreign Languages-Information Technology, Vietnam

Chau Thi Hoang Hoa, Tra Vinh University, VietnamDuy Thi Yen Nguyen, Tra Vinh University, Vietnam

Chapter 13

TheUseofVietnameseinEnglishLanguageClassrooms:Teachers’andStudents’Perceptions 193

Hai Yen Vu, Choice Business College, Sydney, Australia

Thi Thanh Lan Truong, National Academy of Education Management, Hanoi, Vietnam

Hong-An Thi Pham, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Bao-Tran Nhu Lam, University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Hung Phu Bui

University of Economics Ho Chi Minh CityTruong Cong Bang

University of Economics and Law, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam & Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Cuong Huy Nguyen

1 International University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

xiv

Chapter 1

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-5365-3.ch001

This chapter reports a study on EFL learners’ perspectives on online pronunciation instruction (OPI), aiming to understand their perceptions and the impact of online platforms on pronunciation develop-ment Data were collected via a survey questionnaire and subsequent online interviews following 10-hour explicit pronunciation instruction sessions, involving 40 Kurdish EFL learners Through comprehensive descriptive and thematic analyses of the survey and interviews, the findings highlight positive attitudes toward OPI Moreover, the results indicate learners’ favourable reception of OPI, recognizing its specificity and crucial role in pinpointing areas for improvement Overall, this research underscores the positive reception of online methodologies that incorporate technology (i.e., high variability phonetic training (HVPT), offering valuable insights to enhance language instruction in virtual environments The results of this study are discussed in terms of implications and pedagogical recommendations for online L2 pronunciation teaching and learning.

1 INTRODUCTION

Pronunciation plays a pivotal role in effective communication, serving as the cornerstone of language proficiency Accurate pronunciation not only enhances one’s overall language skills but also facilitates clear and meaningful interaction (Derwing & Munro, 2015; Levis et al., 2022; Levis, 2021; Vančová, 2019) As we navigate an increasingly interconnected world, the ability to communicate across borders and cultures becomes imperative However, achieving accurate pronunciation can be a challenging task for language learners, and this is where technology-assisted pronunciation instruction (henceforth PI) comes into play In an L2 learning setting, pronunciation is the most noticeable aspect and is easily

de-EFL Learners’ Perspectives

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

tected among EFL/ESL learners and non-native speakers Therefore, regarding PI, it is recommended for both teachers and learners to establish a realistic objective, which focuses on enhancing intelligibility rather than striving for flawless native-like pronunciation (Derwing & Munro, 2005) For that reason, in the last two decades, there has been a great interest in researching L2 pronunciation and PI (Derwing & Munro, 2015; Derwing & Rossiter, 2002; Gordon, 2023; Lee & Thomson, 2022; Lyster, 2004; Lyster & Mori, 2006; Pennington, 2021).

In recent years, the field of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction has witnessed a significant shift towards online learning platforms and tools, especially after the pandemic- COVID-19 (Chau & Bui, 2023; Gonzalez-Torres et al., 2022; Hendrawaty et al., 2021) While these advancements hold great promise, they present challenges and issues that need careful consideration In this context, it is crucial to explore the importance of pronunciation and delve into the multifaceted landscape of technology-assisted PI which has gained particular attention (Al-Jarf, 2022; Alkhalaf, 2021; Meilani et al., 2021) With the advancement of technology and the increasing availability of internet resources, EFL learners now have access to a wide range of online platforms, apps, and software that claim to improve their pronunciation skills However, numerous learners recognize the significance of pronunciation in achieving effective communication and express eagerness to leverage Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT) apps and systems A considerable portion of these tools is designed for self-study, lacking robust quality control mechanisms to assess their effectiveness in pronunciation learning The allure of technological innovation often captures attention, momentarily overshadowing potential shortcomings in pedagogical rigour Nevertheless, this novelty is unlikely to sustain motivation over the long term (Pennington & Revell, 2019; Revell, 2011; Revell, 2021) As Pennington and Rogerson-Revell (2019) stated, “One of the difficulties is that there is no obvious fit between language learning pedagogies and the affordances of digital technologies” (2019, p 238).

As the debate surrounding the effectiveness of online pronunciation instruction (henceforth OPI) continues, delving into EFL learners’ perceptions of OPI becomes paramount The increasing avail-ability of internet resources and a myriad of online platforms designed to enhance pronunciation skills suggests a transformative shift in language learning However, the impact of these tools on learners’ perceptions remains unclear Consequently, understanding how EFL learners view OPI becomes not only relevant but also imperative for educators and researchers aiming to refine the design and implementa-tion of online pronunciaimplementa-tion resources The insights gained from exploring learners’ beliefs about OPI have the potential to significantly shape the learning process and influence the outcomes that learners achieve, aligning with the broader goals of improving pronunciation proficiency in second language acquisition (Alshumaimeri & Alhumud, 2021; Derwing & Rossiter, 2002; Kang, 2015; Muslem et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2021; Nguyen & Luu, 2021) Hence, it is crucial to explore L2 learners’ percep-tions of OPI to improve their pronunciation because as Pennington (2021, p 7) stated “many kinds of technology can be of value for pronunciation learning and teaching, both those which are specifically designed to work on pronunciation and those not so designed but which have been creatively applied to pronunciation” Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore the perceptions of EFL learners towards OPI and incorporate some of these online tools By examining learners’ perspectives and beliefs, this research aims to shed light on the advantages and disadvantages of online pronunciation tools on learners’ pronunciation development.

To address these objectives, the following research questions guide this study: 1) How do EFL learners perceive OPI? 2) What are Kurdish EFL learners’ specific attitudes and preferences regarding different OPI, including High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT) (i.e., a method where learners are

exposed to many different speech samples produced by different speakers in various phonetic contexts) (Thomson, 2011, 2018), and how do these preferences influence their pronunciation development? By delving into these research questions, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the effectiveness and implications of OPI methods By addressing this research gap, the present study aims to contribute to the field of EFL PI and provide insights into the design and implementation of effective online pro-nunciation programs.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Theoretical Framework

This study is theoretically anchored in the confluence of sociocultural theory and the Speech Learning Model (SLM), and the Revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r), two frameworks that offer comple-mentary perspectives on language learning, particularly in the realm of pronunciation acquisition within online instructional settings.

Originating from the work of Lev Vygotsky (Frawley & Lantolf, 1985; Vygotsky, 1986, 1988), so-ciocultural theory underscores the social and cultural dimensions of learning It posits that learning is inherently a social process shaped by interactions, language, and cultural tools The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (i.e., involves learning being facilitated as a more proficient peer helps their part-ner solve specific textual challenges) (Villamil & de Guerrero, 2006), and the concept of scaffolding is fundamental to this theory The ZPD refers to the space between a learner’s current abilities and their potential capabilities with assistance At the same time, scaffolding involves providing temporary sup-port that gradually diminishes as the learner gains proficiency Another crucial aspect of sociocultural theory revolves around the concept of mediation In accordance with this perspective, mental activities at a higher level are entirely influenced by social interactions Mediation encompasses the diverse array of physical and symbolic tools and artefacts that enable us to connect ourselves with the surrounding world (Nassaji, 2021; Wells, 2007) In this case, the online tools can play a role as artefacts In the con-text of this study, sociocultural theory provides a framework to explore the impact of social and cultural influences on learners’ perceptions of online PI, examining how the online environment mediates these sociocultural factors.

The Speech Learning Model and the Revised Speech Learning Model (SLM-r) (Bohn & Flege, 2021; Flege, 1995; Flege & MacKay, 2004), are tailored to the acquisition of pronunciation and speech sounds in second language (L2) learning Emphasizing the roles of both first language (L1) and L2 factors, the SLM addresses the critical period hypothesis and delves into transfer (positive influence from L1 to L2) and interference (negative influence from L1 to L2) effects It provides a structured framework for understanding pronunciation acquisition In the context of this study, the SLM facilitates an examination of how online PI aligns with speech learning principles, unravelling the transfer and interference effects within the online learning environment.

By intertwining these two theoretical frameworks, this study aims to offer a nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between sociocultural influences and the cognitive processes delineated by the Speech Learning Model in the context of online PI and the role of technological resources in L2 pronunciation development This integrated approach seeks to explore how social and cultural factors

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

intersect with the principles of speech learning, thereby shaping learners’ perceptions and experiences within the digital learning environment.

2.2 Pronunciation and Technology

The COVID-19 era has triggered significant transformations, notably an increased dependence on tech-nology for education This shift permeates various aspects of life, with telecommunication programs facilitating communication The pandemic underscores the crucial role of technology in teaching language skills, especially L2 pronunciation The current trend towards technological integration in L2 pronuncia-tion aligns with long-term developments, with technological tools playing a pivotal role in instructing L2 learners and training language teachers Previous research (Chun, 2019; Gokgoz-kurt, 2023; Kruk & Pawlak, 2023; Lee et al., 2014; O’Brien et al., 2018; Pennington & Rogerson-Revell, 2019) consistently emphasizes the application and adaptation of technology in pronunciation learning and teaching, covering perception, production, and teacher training, feedback, and resource availability across diverse contexts.

Studies on pronunciation have focused on two crucial aspects: segmental and suprasegmental instruc-tions impacting comprehensibility and fluency Derwing et al (1998)[REMOVED HYPERLINK FIELD], for instance, concluded that both features are vital for enhancing speech comprehension, especially comprehensibility in spontaneous speech Technology has increasingly offered numerous and effective ways to aid in the training of both segmentals and suprasegmentals, such as Praat and YouGlish (i.e., HVPT) While these tools were initially accessible primarily in laboratories, technological advancements have made them available for teachers as well.

Furthermore, more recent studies have shown that the benefits of HVPT are not confined to labora-tory settings but extend to practical classroom applications Thomson (2012, 2013) illustrated that in-corporating 20 Canadian English speaker voices in training aided Mandarin learners in enhancing their ability to differentiate English vowels This training also proved beneficial for novel words and certain unfamiliar contexts Additionally, Qian et al (2018) established the effectiveness of HVPT systems in improving both vowel and consonant skills for Mandarin and Russian speakers.

Notably, previous studies (e.g., Lee et al., 2014) have compared the effectiveness of human-delivered PI and computer-delivered PI, revealing larger effects with human-delivered PI for speech comprehension Conversely, a meta-analysis of 20 studies by Mahdi and Al Khateeb (2019) indicated that learners using Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT) for PI outperformed those trained with traditional methods Regardless, of the effectiveness of face-to-face or online methods of teaching, all the reviewed studies have emphasized the importance of L2 pronunciation in successful communication (Levis, 2021) Hence, mixed results from previous studies underscore the need for further research to explore this issue comprehensively, especially in terms of learners’ perceptions, as none of the reviewed studies have investigated this aspect thoroughly using a comprehensive methodology, especially interviewing learners regarding their perceptions of OPI because sometimes survey participants might just complete as they are required to without expressing their actual beliefs and perceptions Hence, one can deduce that researchers and experts in previous studies have underscored the role and significance of PI (Darcy, 2018; Lee & Thomson, 2022; Levis et al., 2022; Low, 2021; Mahmood, 2023; Thomson & Derwing, 2014) However, it is essential to review what findings have been presented regarding the effectiveness of PI and its role in L2 pronunciation teaching.

2.3 Role of Instruction in Pronunciation Improvement

One of the aspects of L2 teaching and learning is pronunciation As mentioned above, it is considered the key element in successful communication (Levis, 2021) Therefore, it is crucial to review the relation-ship and the role L2 instruction plays in learners’ pronunciation improvement Pronunciation has been a subject of instruction by language teachers for an extended period (Derwing & Munro, 2015) However, the question remains as to whether PI is effective Thomson (2011) demonstrated that perceptual training can yield positive effects on L2 oral production immediately after the training Furthermore, the study revealed that both perceptual and production progress were retained three months after the initial train-ing period Similarly, after 18 weeks of PI, Yuan and Zhang (2020) found that explicit PI has positive effects on learners’ segmental and suprasegmental aspects of their pronunciation However, the study did not report the learners’ perceptions of PI, and it was conducted in a traditional setting rather than online mode PI was delivered in a traditional method such as reading words from textbooks and direct instruction from the teacher as the participants had two days of classes per week.

Furthermore, in a study conducted by Kissling (2013), the effectiveness of explicit PI for English speakers learning Spanish was examined The participants were divided into two groups, with one group receiving explicit instruction on L2 phonetics and the other group receiving more implicit instruction, both with comparable input and feedback Data were collected through pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test assessments The results indicated that both groups showed similar levels of improvement in pronunciation The researcher suggested that the improvement could be attributed to factors such as input, practice, and PI, rather than solely relying on explicit lessons focused on L2 phonetics Further-more, the study did not report the participants’ perceptions of the instruction methods while learners’ perceptions are crucial to L2 PI.

Based on previous studies, instruction plays a critical role in pronunciation development, guiding learners’ attention to specific features of pronunciation and providing information on their performance (Thomson & Derwing, 2014) However, previous studies have primarily examined the effectiveness of PI in traditional face-to-face classroom settings Considering the recent COVID-19 pandemic, which has led to a shift towards online instruction, exploring the challenges and considerations associated with teaching pronunciation in this new instructional context is crucial.

2.4 Online Instruction vs Face-to-Face Pronunciation Instruction

The field of OPI has seen significant advancements in recent years, offering diverse tools and platforms to enhance EFL learners’ pronunciation skills Computer-assisted pronunciation training (CAPT) pro-grams, mobile applications, and web-based platforms have emerged as popular resources for self-directed pronunciation practice (Al-Jarf, 2022; Derwing & Munro, 2015; Gonzalez-Torres et al., 2022; Martin, 2020) These tools often utilize automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology to provide learners with real-time feedback on their pronunciation accuracy.

Previous studies have attempted to investigate the effectiveness of OPI For example, Inceoglu (2019) conducted a study to assess the development of learners in a completely online pronunciation class Par-ticipants were tasked with three assignments throughout the semester: picture narration, reading aloud, and conversation simulation Their oral performances were collected and analysed to evaluate segmental accuracy, connected speech, and fluency, and were also rated by native speaker judges The findings indicated a notable enhancement in segmental accuracy and fluency, but no substantial improvement in

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

the overall native speaker ratings In the same vein, Martin (2020) found that the pronunciation skills of distance learners did not demonstrate significant improvement throughout the semester when targeted pronunciation training was absent However, learners who received specific pronunciation training exhibited significant improvement from the pre-test to the post-test These studies have examined the effectiveness of OPI, but an important aspect of L2 teaching to consider is learners’ perceptions (Alshu-maimeri & Alhumud, 2021; Gonzalez-Torres et al., 2022; Kang, 2015; Muslem et al., 2021) On the other hand, Cralidis and Salley (2020) discovered that students in the face-to-face (FTF) format demonstrated a notably higher percentage of correct terms and assessed their pronunciation ability more positively in comparison to those enrolled in online courses The performance of both groups exhibited a positive cor-relation with self-ratings of pronunciation accuracy Furthermore, Malpartida (2023) found that 50% of the participants expressed a preference for face-to-face instruction The remaining participants favoured online education or a combination of both learning environments In another meta-analysis, Martin et al (2021) identified a statistically significant small advantage in favour of synchronous online learning over asynchronous online learning in terms of cognitive outcomes Similarly, [REMOVED HYPERLINK FIELD] Meritan (2022) conducted a study to investigate the efficacy of an online explicit PI method in enhancing the intelligibility and comprehensibility of French pronunciation among students participating in in-person classes The research also explored whether the impact of this approach was comparable for students attending classes remotely The findings revealed no significant difference in the outcomes between students learning in person and those learning remotely Previous studies have focused on one way of providing PI However, incorporating various PI methods as the ones in the current study is crucial to be explored for more effective L2 pronunciation methods, especially as stated several CAPT resources exhibit less pedagogical innovation than anticipated In certain instances, despite technological advance-ments, there seems to be a regression in pedagogical methods, reverting to traditional approaches like repetition, mimicry, and drilling reminiscent of audiolingual methods (Rogerson-Revell, 2021) Hence, in the ongoing discourse, it is imperative to investigate the perspectives of second language (L2) learners concerning the utilization of OPI and technology.

2.5 Learners Perceptions of Online Pronunciation Instruction

While several studies (Gao, 2021; Gonzalez-Torres et al., 2022; Hendrawaty et al., 2021; Inceoglu, 2019; Meilani et al., 2021) have delved into the efficacy of OPI methods However, there exists a notable gap in the literature when it comes to understanding the perceptions of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in less-explored contexts such as the Kurdish setting Notably, previous studies have yielded mixed results, underscoring the complexity and diversity of outcomes within the realm of OPI efficacy For example, a study by Huensch and Thompson (2017) found noticeable variations among different groups in terms of class level and extramural language activity about learners’ perceived significance of improving pronunciation Furthermore, the findings in the study by Nugroho and Atmojo (2021) revealed that learners had a positive perception of using digital technology as a tool for language learning, particularly in the context of the global pandemic.

In a similar study, Alkhalaf (2021) found that the participants had a positive attitude towards online learning In addition, the study indicated that the majority of learners not only enjoyed but also expressed support for online learning specifically for English phonology Although these studies have shown learn-ers’ positive perceptions of online learning and pronunciation, the study by Alkhalaf (2021) revealed no statistically significant difference in terms of confidence in pronunciation between those who had taken

a phonetics course and those who had not Therefore, the study emphasizes the importance of instructors being aware of their learners’ needs in pronunciation On the other hand, Alshumaimeri and Alhumud (2021) found that virtual classrooms can have a significant impact on improving learners’ communication skills However, despite the positive perspectives regarding virtual classrooms, learners acknowledged that the absence of face-to-face communication posed a major challenge in online learning.

While previous studies have explored the effects of OPI, including computer-assisted pronunciation training (CAPT) programs and online resources, there is still a gap in the literature regarding the ef-fectiveness of these online tools and technological applications and a specific approach that combines explicit OPI and High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT).

this research aims to bridge the existing gap by investigating the nuanced impact of combining ex-plicit OPI and HVPT on the perceptions of EFL learners, particularly in the distinctive context of the Kurdish setting By addressing this gap, the study not only contributes to the broader understanding of OPI efficacy but also provides valuable insights into the potential benefits of integrating HVPT into language teaching methodologies Through a comprehensive exploration of learners’ perspectives, this research endeavours to shed light on the effectiveness of this combined approach in improving pronun-ciation skills and fostering a more holistic understanding of OPI among EFL learners in less-explored linguistic contexts.

3 METHODOLOGY3.1 Participants

The participants in this study were 40 Kurdish EFL learners in Iraqi Kurdistan who were pursuing their bachelor’s degree in English language studies The sample for the current study encompassed two distinct groups, each comprising 20 learners These participants, whose ages ranged from 18 to 25, exhibited a mean age of 20, with a standard deviation of 0.680 The participants were selected based on their proficiency levels, with one group representing pre-intermediate proficiency and the other representing upper-intermediate proficiency Proficiency levels were assessed using the Cambridge English Placement Test (CEPT) Furthermore, the participants were categorized based on their university year level One group consisted of first-year university learners, while the other group comprised third-year university learners This differentiation aimed to account for potential variations in experience and exposure to OPI.

3.2 Instruction Procedure

The online sessions comprised a structured program of online explicit PI, spanning a total of 10 hours In the initial session, participants were familiarized with online communication platforms, notably Zoom Meeting, and were introduced to the concept of High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT) Moreover, explicit guidance on utilizing YouGlish as a resource for HVPT was provided Subsequent sessions focused on the targeted English vowel sounds, specifically /iː, ɪ, aː, ʌ/ Throughout the entirety of the intervention, participants engaged in a variety of exercises, including word reading, sentence readings, and picture descriptions, to reinforce the acquired knowledge.

The provision of explicit PI was administered meticulously to ensure a comprehensive understanding among participants Emphasis was placed on metacognitive strategies to motivate students and facilitate

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

a clear awareness of the disparity between their current proficiency levels and the desired pronunciation accuracy This approach aimed to encourage active participation and foster a nuanced recognition of the areas requiring improvement to attain optimal pronunciation precision.

3.3 Data Collection Methods

To collect the necessary data, an online survey questionnaire was utilized The questionnaire was designed to assess the participants’ perceptions of OPI The questionnaire was distributed among the participants after they received 10 hours of explicit PI using HVPT with ample practice opportunities afterwards The survey included a series of closed-ended questions that allowed participants to rate their agreement on Likert scale items (i.e., 1 Strongly Disagree to 5 Strongly Agree), providing a numerical representation of their perceptions The online survey questionnaire was administered to the participants via an online platform, ensuring ease of access and convenience Participants were provided with clear instructions and given an appropriate time frame to complete the survey Following the survey questionnaire, for more robust information, an online interview was conducted with 20 of the participants who were asked some follow-up questions regarding their perceptions towards the online pronunciation training sessions.

3.4 Data Analysis Procedures

The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics The quantitative data obtained from the closed-ended Likert scale items were subjected to statistical analysis to summarize participants’ ratings and perceptions Descriptive statistics, including frequencies, means, and standard deviations, were calculated to provide a summary of the participant’s perceptions of OPI.

Conversely, the qualitative data stemming from the interviews were subjected to thematic analysis This methodological approach was employed to discern and comprehend the nuanced intricacies of how learners perceive OPI Thematic analysis facilitated a nuanced exploration of the qualitative dimen-sions embedded within participants’ narratives, affording a deeper understanding of their subjective experiences and perspectives (Khoa et al., 2023) This mixed-methods approach contributes a holistic perspective, combining statistical summaries with qualitative insights for a comprehensive evaluation of participants’ engagement with OPI.

4 RESULTS

The reliability of the measurement instrument was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient The overall Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient for the instrument was found to be (.88), as illustrated in Table 1, indicating a high level of internal consistency among the items Additionally, when considering the stan-dardized items, Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient remained high at (.884) This suggests that the instrument demonstrates strong reliability in measuring the construct of interest The assessment was conducted across 16 items, contributing to the robustness of the reliability estimation.

Upon encoding the survey questionnaire data into SPSS, this study delineated four prominent

cat-egories from the dataset These encompassed: (1) Evaluation of Online Pronunciation Instruction’s

Impact on Learners’ L2 Improvement, (2) Assessment of Engagement and Interactivity within OPI, and

(3) Examination of Confidence Levels and Participant Preferences regarding PI After this

categoriza-tion, the data underwent descriptive statistical analyses for each category, fostering a comprehensive exploration of the dataset’s intricacies.

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for participants’ perceptions regarding the impact of OPI on their L2 improvement The mean scores indicate generally positive perceptions across various facets of OPI and learning Specifically, participants reported a notably high mean score (M = 4.15, SD = 0.802) indicating that online instruction positively affected their ability to understand and communicate with native English speakers Additionally, participants found online instruction beneficial in enhancing their ability to distinguish and produce English sounds, as reflected in the high mean score (M = 4.27, SD = 0.679) for this item Moreover, respondents generally agreed that OPI equipped them with practi-cal strategies to enhance their pronunciation skills, as evidenced by mean scores ranging from 3.95 to 3.98 across different aspects of instruction Overall, these results suggest a positive perception among participants regarding the effectiveness of OPI in improving their L2 pronunciation skills, providing practical strategies, and aiding in communication with native speakers.

Table 1 Reliability test

Table 2 Evaluation of online pronunciation instruction’s impact on learners’ L2 improvement

Online pronunciation instruction has improved my overall pronunciation skills.403.98.698Online pronunciation instruction has positively impacted my ability to understand and be understood

by native English speakers. 40 4.15 .802 Online pronunciation instruction has provided me with clear and practical strategies to improve my

I find online pronunciation instruction to be engaging and interactive.403.97.832Online pronunciation instruction has allowed me to practice at my own pace and convenience.403.93.797I find the multimedia resources (YouGlish) used in online pronunciation instruction to be helpful in

understanding and practising pronunciation. 40 4.03 .862 Online pronunciation instruction has made the learning process more enjoyable and interesting for me404.231.074

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

Furthermore, Table 3 showcases the second category about participants’ assessments of engagement and interactivity within OPI The mean scores across various statements illustrate favourable percep-tions regarding the interactive nature and effectiveness of the online instructional approach Participants reported a moderately high mean score (M = 3.97, SD = 0.832) suggesting a positive perception of the engagement and interactivity embedded within the OPI and learning environment Moreover, respon-dents acknowledged the flexibility afforded by online instruction, as indicated by the mean score (M = 3.93, SD = 0.797) reflecting the convenience of practising at their own pace Furthermore, the employ-ment of multimedia resources garnered favourable input, evidenced by the mean score (M = 4.03, SD = 0.862) denoting their perceived helpfulness in comprehending and practising pronunciation Notably, the notably higher mean score (M = 4.23, SD = 1.074) reveals that participants found the online learn-ing process more enjoyable and engaglearn-ing These outcomes collectively suggest a positive perception among participants regarding the engaging, interactive, and enjoyable nature of OPI, emphasizing its adaptability, multimedia efficacy, and enhancement of the learning experience.

As presented, Table 4 illustrates the third category pertaining to participants’ perspectives on con-fidence levels and preferences regarding OPI Overall, the mean scores suggest positive perceptions in several areas Participants reported a notably high mean score (M = 4.20, SD = 0.791) indicating that OPI significantly contributed to enhancing their confidence when speaking English Additionally, respondents exhibited a positive shift in their awareness of phonetic features and pronunciation patterns in English, as demonstrated by the mean score (M = 4.05, SD = 0.749) for this aspect of instruction.

However, in terms of preferences, participants expressed a slightly lower mean score (M = 3.55, SD = 1.011) indicating a moderate preference for traditional classroom-based instruction over online methods for improving pronunciation skills Despite this, there was a positive inclination toward online instruction, reflected in the mean score (M = 4.00, SD = 0.679) for the likelihood of recommending OPI to other English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners seeking to enhance their pronunciation skills.

These findings suggest that while OPI positively impacted participants’ confidence levels and height-ened their awareness of pronunciation intricacies, there exists a nuanced preference among participants, with a moderate inclination towards traditional classroom-based instruction Nonetheless, the overall favourable perception and recommendation of online methods for EFL learners highlight the potential efficacy and value of OPI in augmenting language skills despite differing preferences.

Following the collection of survey questionnaire responses from participants, an additional layer of depth was sought through online interviews conducted with a subset of 20 participants Thematic

Table 4 Examination of confidence levels and participant preferences regarding pronunciation instruction

Online pronunciation instruction has helped me feel more confident when speaking in English.404.20.791Online pronunciation instruction has increased my awareness of phonetic features and pronunciation

patterns in English. 40 4.05 .749 I prefer online pronunciation instruction over traditional classroom-based instruction to improve my

pronunciation skills. 40 3.55 1.011 I would recommend online pronunciation instruction to other EFL learners who want to improve

their pronunciation skills. 40 4.00 .679 Valid N (listwise)40

analysis was employed to systematically scrutinize and categorize their qualitative responses The results are presented below.

The research findings draw upon rich participant quotations, providing nuanced insights into their experiences with OPI Participants overwhelmingly expressed a positive reception towards technologi-cal integration, with one learner stating, “I found using technology really engaging It’s like having a personal pronunciation coach showing where I need to improve.” This sentiment reflects the participants’ appreciation for the interactive and personalized nature of technology-driven learning.

Moreover, participants underscored the impact of technology in reducing the intimidation associated with pronunciation learning A participant highlighted, “The technology made learning pronunciation less intimidating I could notice my mistakes and work on them independently.” This acknowledgement of increased autonomy in identifying and rectifying mistakes showcases the empowering effect of tech-nology on learners.

In terms of engagement and self-paced learning, participants emphasized the flexibility afforded by online platforms as one participant noted, “Being able to practice whenever I wanted to make a big difference I felt more in control of my learning.” Another participant highlighted the importance of interactive exercises in maintaining engagement, stating, “The interactive exercises kept me engaged I didn’t feel bored or lose interest in practising.” These quotations underscore the positive impact of self-directed learning and interactive tools on learners’ motivation and commitment.

Despite the advantages of technology, participants consistently emphasized the pivotal role of hu-man interaction in the learning process For instance, a participant articulated, “The online tools were helpful, but the training sessions were crucial Talking with a tutor clarified things I couldn’t understand on my own.” This testimony underscores the irreplaceable value of human guidance and the need for a balanced approach that combines technological resources with personalized instruction.

The need for diversified learning resources was echoed by participants who appreciated platforms like YouGlish for providing real-life examples One participant stated, “I liked using YouGlish, as it provides more real-life examples which are very helpful It would make it easier to apply what I learned in everyday situations.” Another participant suggested incorporating additional exercises, stating, “Hav-ing different exercises besides the online ones would be good Maybe some group activities or tongue twisters to practice with others.” These quotations highlight a desire for a holistic and varied learning experience that goes beyond online modules.

The positive reception of High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT) using YouGlish was evident in participant responses “Using YouGlish for HVPT was amazing! Hearing different accents in authentic examples helped me understand diverse pronunciations,” expressed one participant This finding under-scores the effectiveness of incorporating real-life examples and diverse accents in pronunciation training, enhancing learners’ understanding and adaptability.

However, challenges in online pronunciation instruction were articulated by participants A learner emphasized, “Not every learner has access to the internet, and sometimes time might be a big problem.” Another participant highlighted the potential drawback of non-recorded classes, stating, “If the class is not recorded, learners will miss the class, and this makes the online learning method less effective.” Additionally, concerns were raised about learners’ proficiency in using technology, especially in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, indicating the need for technology training.

In conclusion, participant quotations serve as compelling evidence, providing depth and authentic-ity to the research findings These quotes not only validate the identified themes but also offer valuable

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

5 DISCUSSION

This study delves into EFL learners’ perspectives on OPI, aiming to understand their perceptions and the impact of online platforms on pronunciation development The findings shed light on several key aspects in response to the research questions: 1) How do EFL learners perceive OPI? 2) What are the specific attitudes and preferences of Kurdish EFL learners towards different OPI methodologies, including High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT), and how do these preferences influence their pronunciation development?

Regarding the first research question on how the EFL Learners perceived OPI, the EFL learners demonstrated positive perceptions of OPI They recognized the effectiveness of online methods in im-proving pronunciation skills, expressing increased confidence in communicating with native speakers and better comprehension of English phonetics (Nguyen & Hung, 2021) In addition to that, it was found that OPI has provided the learners with effective strategies to improve their overall pronunciation, sound production and perception, more specifically These findings align with previous research emphasizing the efficacy of online instruction in enhancing pronunciation accuracy (Alkhalaf, 2021; Inceoglu, 2019; Martin, 2020).

Furthermore, it is crucial to demonstrate that learners perceive OPI as an effective method to enhance their ability to distinguish individual sounds, specifically segmental features during the learning process This finding is significant because it suggests a promising approach Previous studies (Flege, 1987, 1999, 2018; Flege et al., 1997; Flege & Liu, 2001; Flege & MacKay, 2004; Flege et al., 2003; Piske et al., 2001) have indicated that, for L2 learners to acquire an L2 sound system, the ability to perceive differences between their L1 and L2 sound systems is a key component in pronunciation development, particularly in sound production and perception Although most of the participants perceived OPI positively, in the interview analysis, some participants expressed concerns regarding OPI, as it might pose issues for learners such as the timing of sessions, lack of internet access among some learners, and insufficient technology literacy These findings also aligned with the results of previous studies (Malpartida, 2023) Therefore, teachers and stakeholders must address these potential issues before offering online training courses.

The second research question that this study attempted to answer was about EFL learners’ attitudes and preferences towards teaching pronunciation using the current methods and techniques used during the 10-hour training sessions, and how engaging and interactive was for them Interestingly, learners ap-preciated the engagement, interactivity, and multimedia resources within online instruction, supporting the importance of interactive elements in virtual learning environments (Gonzalez-Torres et al., 2022; Kruk & Pawlak, 2023; Wang & Hannafin, 2005) In that regard, the outcomes of the present investigation unveiled affirmative attitudes among participants towards OPI, concomitant with a sense of enjoyment during the learning endeavour This revelation stands in contrast to the conclusions drawn by Alkhalaf (2021), whose study reported a lack of enjoyment experienced by learners in the context of online learn-ing A plausible contributing factor to this disparity may lie in the incorporation of interactive online tools, exemplified by the inclusion of YouGlish in the context of HVPT This particular finding holds pivotal significance, rendering the current study distinctive, as it furnishes substantiation for the efficacy of these tools in enhancing the pronunciation learning experience Additionally, explicit OPI is perceived as an effective technique among learners in improving their pronunciation skills, and this adds more to what has been found in previous studies (e.g., Gordon, 2021; Pennington, 2021) that learners improved pronunciation abilities through explicit formal instruction.

Previous research (e.g., Zeinali Nejad et al., 2021) has explored the use of computer-mediated com-munication as a means of providing second language PI, specifically focusing on phonemic and lexical aspects of pronunciation, and the findings revealed a positive effect of CMC compared to face-to-face PI, yet the study conducted with 15 participants Thus, the findings of the current study provide more solid evidence that CAPT can be utilized as an effective tool either in face-to-face settings or online training courses.

Furthermore, the study attempted to explore learners psychological aspects during the online ses-sions because previous studies have found that learners’ confidentiality level is a vital aspect of learners ‘ ability to communicate effectively (Almusharraf, 2022; Sardegna, 2022; Tejeda & Santos, 2014) The findings revealed that learners felt more confident during speaking upon receiving OPI, and they gained more awareness of English sounds and pronunciation patterns, awareness has been reported as a crucial aspect of improving and perceiving L2 contrast sounds (Felker et al., 2023; Sardegna, 2022) This finding is crucial to the future implementation of OPI, as it has confirmed the importance of feeling confident during speaking It also verifies that explicit instruction can be effective among L2 learners who struggle with L2 contrast sound perceptions This outcome is well-aligned with the idea that confidentiality can be seen as a motivational factor to encourage learners to improve their pronunciation Finally, the find-ings affirmed that learners preferred OPI over traditional classroom-based instruction as it helped them to receive more engaging instructions This confirms that the type of instruction in L2 pronunciation teaching plays an important role in providing learners’ needs in terms of pronunciation development, and this is also confirmed by Tejeda and Santos (2014) as they found that learning English as a foreign language requires more than just receiving PIs from the teacher; it also necessitates substantial engage-ment and practice by students to effectively develop and improve their pronunciation skills, and this can be achieved by incorporating interactive resources such as online platforms and HVPT.

In contrast to the predominantly positive aspects highlighted in the preceding section, participants articulated challenges associated with OPI Some of the participants reported the limited accessibility to the internet, identifying it as a significant obstacle Time constraints were also noted as a substantial challenge, with a participant expressing concerns about the potential impact on learning outcomes The absence of recorded classes was flagged as a drawback, with an observation that non-recorded sessions could result in missed opportunities for learners and consequently diminish the effectiveness of the online learning method Furthermore, apprehensions were raised regarding learners’ proficiency in utilizing technology, particularly in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts, underscoring the necessity for dedicated technology training initiatives These identified challenges underscore the importance of addressing practical barriers and ensuring comprehensive technological preparedness for learners en-gaging in OPI These challenges were also reported by previous studies (Levis, 2018; Rogerson-Revell, 2011; Rogerson-Revell, 2021), and they have not been resolved yet.

Finally, this study’s unique contribution lies in its affirmation of the importance of learner confidence, the significance of interactive tools, and the preference for OPI over traditional methods, and revealed that some of these computer and technological tools are perceived by learners to be effective Therefore, the findings offer substantial pedagogical techniques when it comes to OPI and pronunciation teaching By addressing concerns raised by participants and emphasizing the motivational factor of confidence, this research provides a roadmap for educators and stakeholders to optimize OPI, thus significantly elevating the learning experience for EFL learners.

EFL Learners’ Perspectives on Online Pronunciation Instruction

6 CONCLUSION

This study aimed to explore EFL learners’ perspectives on OPI and OCF, illuminating their perceptions and the impact of online platforms on pronunciation development The findings underscore the positive reception of online methods, and the significance of effective online resources and HVPT, and highlight essential considerations for language pedagogy.

The insights garnered from 40 participants revealed a favourable outlook toward OPI Learners ac-knowledged the efficacy of these methods in enhancing pronunciation skills, bolstering confidence in communication, and improving comprehension of English phonetics Additionally, learners valued the interactive features and multimedia resources embedded in online instruction, emphasizing the impor-tance of engagement and interactivity in virtual learning environments.

Moreover, participants showcased a positive attitude towards online OCF, deeming it specific, ac-tionable, and instrumental in identifying areas for improvement in pronunciation The impact of explicit practice through online platforms unveiled its pivotal role in learners’ pronunciation development as ample authentic examples of target pronunciation were provided and practised by the learners using the available online tools.

The theoretical implications of this study extend to the realm of sociocultural theory, which posits that learning is inherently social and occurs within a cultural context The positive perceptions of EFL learners towards online PI, as well as their preference for interactive and engaging elements in virtual environments, align with sociocultural theory and Speech Learning Model (SLM) Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory emphasizes the role of social interactions, socio-cultural tools, and collaborative activities in cognitive development In the context of PI, the online platforms served as cultural tools that facilitated social interactions and collaborative learning experiences The effectiveness of online methods in improv-ing pronunciation skills suggests that the socio-cultural environment created through virtual platforms contributes significantly to language learning Moreover, the learners’ increased confidence in commu-nication with native speakers reflects the socio-cultural aspect of language development, highlighting the importance of social interactions in shaping linguistic competence Furthermore, based on SLM, L2 learners must distinguish between their L1 sound system and the target language’s sound system This raises more awareness of the differences between their level of L2 during the learning process, and they improve their phonetic categories as they process speech.

Pedagogically, these findings underscore the importance of integrating online platforms and inter-active elements into language instruction, aligning with sociocultural theory’s emphasis on the social and cultural context of learning Educators can leverage the benefits of online PI, such as multimedia resources and interactive features (i.e., YouGlish and HVPT), to create a collaborative and culturally enriched learning environment Additionally, the study highlights the nuanced preferences of EFL Kurd-ish learners, emphasizing the need for flexibility in instructional approaches to accommodate diverse learner preferences Pedagogical strategies should consider both online and traditional classroom-based instruction to meet the varied needs and preferences of learners In conclusion, this study contributes to the pedagogical understanding of language learning through the lens of sociocultural theory and pro-vides practical insights for educators seeking effective methods to enhance PI in diverse EFL contexts Although this study has focused on a specific EFL context, the results can be generalised to other EFL contexts where OPI and technology have been less utilized and explored in L2 teaching.

However, it’s important to note some limitations The study’s sample size of 40 learners may limit the generalizability of the findings Expanding the sample size and incorporating diverse learner backgrounds

could offer more comprehensive insights into EFL learners’ perceptions Furthermore, the current study has not provided the effects of OPI on learners’ sound production and pronunciation, therefore, future studies must investigate this issue.

In conclusion, this study sheds light on the positive reception of OPI and the crucial role of OPI in pronunciation development Embracing interactive learning principles and enhancing pronunciation strategies in online language instruction holds promise for optimizing pronunciation learning outcomes while acknowledging the need for further research to expand these insights and address limitations.

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ADDITIONAL READINGS

Derwing, T M., Munro, M J., & Thomson, R I (2022) The Routledge Handbook of Second Language

Acquisition and Speaking Routledge doi:10.4324/9781003022497

Kang, O., Thomson, R., & Murphy, J (2018) The Routledge handbook of contemporary English pro-nunciation London New York, NY Routledge.

Levis, J M., Derwing, T M., & Sonsaat-Hegelheimer, S (2022) Second language pronunciation:

Bridg-ing the gap between research and teachBridg-ing John Wiley & Sons doi:10.1002/9781394259663

Levis, J M., & Moyer, A (2014) Social dynamics in second language accent Walter de Gruyter

Low, E (2014) Pronunciation for English as an international language: From research to practice (1st

ed.) Routledge doi:10.4324/9781315814131

Sardegna, V G., & Jarosz, A (2023) English pronunciation teaching: Theory, practice and research

findings (1st ed.) Multilingual Matters.

Szpyra-Kozłowska, J (2014) Pronunciation in EFL instruction: A research-based approach

Multilin-gual Matters doi:10.21832/9781783092628

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Computer-Assisted Pronunciation Training (CAPT): A method of teaching pronunciation that

involves using computer-based tools, software, or applications to aid learners in improving their pro-nunciation skills.

Explicit Pronunciation Instruction: This involves directly providing learners with detailed

expla-nations, demonstrations, and targeted exercises to improve their accuracy in articulating sounds in a second language.

High Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT): A technique used in language learning that exposes

learners to a wide range of pronunciations of specific sounds or words, aiming to enhance their ability to understand and produce those sounds accurately.

Learners’ Perceptions: The thoughts, opinions, and understandings that learners have about a

particular subject or experience, often regarding their learning process, teaching methods, or materials used in their education.

Online Instruction: It refers to the delivery of educational content, courses, or training through digital

platforms or the Internet It involves using various online tools, resources, and interactive technologies to facilitate learning, often allowing students to access and engage with educational materials remotely, providing flexibility and convenience in the learning process.

Pronunciation Accuracy: It is the precision with which an individual articulates sounds in a language,

reflecting how closely their spoken words align with the standard pronunciation.

Pronunciation Instruction (PI): Teaching and guidance focused on improving the way words and

sounds are spoken or articulated, enhancing an individual’s ability to produce sounds accurately and comprehend spoken language effectively.

Second Language (L2) Instruction: It refers to the process of teaching and learning a language that

is not the native language of the learner This instruction typically includes formal language education, such as classes, courses, or self-guided study, to help individuals acquire proficiency in a second language.

This chapter presents how working memory influences vocabulary learning and retention First, it critically reviews the literature on working memory To provide the grounding for detailed discussion, the definition, components, and processes working memory are presented Different models of working memory in the current literature are discussed with implications for vocabulary teaching and learn-ing Second, the impacts of working memory, as an individual learner variable, on second language vocabulary acquisition and development are discussed Relevant proposals and studies are reviewed to demonstrate how different components of working memory affect vocabulary learning, including processes, outcomes, and retention To conclude, the authors discuss implications for second language vocabulary teaching and learning and suggest directions for further studies.

1 INTRODUCTION

The current literature in second language learning emphasizes the function of cognition Cognitive pro-cesses “include(s) complex mental operations such as memory, learning, language use, problem solving,

The Effects of Working

Memory on Second Language Vocabulary Learning

Hung Phu Bui

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3468-4837

University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Hong Quan Bui

Ho Chi Minh City University of Education, Vietnam

Nghi Tin Tran

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6549-3895

Ho Chi Minh City University of Industry and Trade, Vietnam

decision making, reasoning, and intelligence” (Smith & Kelly, 2015, p 1), directly or indirectly resulting in developments in students’ competency of language and, in turn, language use Specifically, humans’ embodied experiences, which derive from their interaction with the “outside world”, provide input for mental processes (Hung, 2018; Wilson & Gibbs, 2007), functioning as sources for schemata These cognitive structures, which are the “sensory-motor nature of various structures of our conceptualiza-tion and reasoning,” mentally represent what humans have experienced (Hampe, 2005, p 18) Human experiences are initially accumulated in their memory, where human experiences (linguistic forms and meaning) retain, are represented (Evans & Green, 2006; Schnotz, 2014, Hung, 2019).

Given the significance of lexical resources and cognitive processes in second language acquisition and learning, this chapter discusses the roles of working memory in acquiring second language vocabu-lary After this introduction section that provides background knowledge, the next section will give insights into working memory It discusses how working memory can affect vocabulary learning and offers implications for teaching and learning Critiques about the cognitive approach in second language teaching are critically reviewed Finally, this review suggests specific areas for targeted research within the domain of second language vocabulary learning.

2 WORKING MEMORY

Working memory generally refers to the capacity of the human mind that holds information for some seconds As working memory manipulates information and requires attention, it might be necessary for learners to screen input, focusing on relevant information Working memory consists of a central execu-tive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad Although working memory capacity is somewhat intuitive, it can improve through training (Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Tsai et al., 2016), influencing aca-demic performance and second language acquisition and learning Teachers may need to help improve learners’ working memory by integrating higher-order thinking tasks (Tsai et al., 2016).

Regarding information processing, Schnotz (2014) introduced the integrated text and picture com-prehension model in which auditory and visual information enters the human mind through ear and eye registers Such information is then projected to establish propositional representations to help people form long-term memory However, this model indicates how information is received and stored in the human mind, but it does not indicate how people retrieve their memory when they use language Ac-cording to Amin et al (2015), Holmes (2012) and Tyler (2012), when people use language, memory retrieval occurs, selecting the language items which they find appropriate.

The dual structure working memory framework by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) provides insights into how human memory works and bridge laboratory research and practice To date, among the most influential of such studies, to my knowledge, is teaching vocabulary to second-language children This model provides some basic understanding of the functions of central memory or attentional control sys-tem, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological store This finding was then challenged by an argument that the phonological loop may be more plausible than keeping simple numbers in mind As the loop is essential for comprehending verbal texts, little is known about the impacts of its impairment on the uptake and performance of speech, “except for certain convoluted sentences explicitly designed to rely on the phonological loop” (Vallar & Baddeley, 1987) From research results, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) modified the model earlier introduced by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) This model is more detailed, explaining the interactions between the central executive and its two subsystems Accordingly, the central

The Effects of Working Memory on Second Language Vocabulary Learning

memory controls the visuospatial sketch pad, storing visual and spatial information, and phonological loop, regulating phonological information Working memory acts as a system that not only keeps input in mind for a brief time, but also manipulates and processes it As noted by Vecchi et al (2010, p 531), “Working memory is more than just a passive storage, it is an active system that performs various cog-nitive operations on the information it holds.” Such information is then projected to long-term memory should it undergoes prolonged rehearsal and be retrieved from long-term memory if it is asked about However, the model is claimed to be oversimplified.

The central store is considered crucial yet least explored element in the model (Baddeley, 2003) It was originally presented to be “a pool general processing capacity” (p 835) that deals with issues which cannot be processed by the two “slave” systems or subsystems In other words, the central executive re-fers to the management in charge of the two components: phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad Particularly, the attentional control system decides what is worth attention on which the subsystems, in turn, work Similarly, this attentional control system serves to filter information from the input for the intake regarding its relevance However, the central executive seems to have more responsibilities than merely this transferring function For instance, when a learner has to learn vocabulary that they read, they may use the inhibition function to make a decision on what words to learn and what is not necessary to learn Also, if there are too many words to learn, they would have to break the big goal of learning all the new terms into several achievable objectives After learning, they would probably evaluate the entire learning process Indeed, Smith and Jonides (1999) point out up to five functions of this control system, including switching attention between relevant and irrelevant tasks, scheduling subtasks to achieve goals, monitoring, and coding representations in working memory Also, the central executive also makes a distinction between working memory and short-term memory because the former is responsible for the cognitive processes that the latter does not have.

The phonological store is in charge of processing sound-based information There are two subcom-ponents of the phonological loop: (1) the inner voice or the articulatory control process which rehearses verbal sounds, and (2) the inner ear or the phonological store which receives and stores sound Phono-logical input can be kept and repeated through the regulation process before it fades away over time and be kept in the phonological inventory.

As in the aforesaid, the visuospatial sketchpad manipulates visual and spatial information For in-stance, one may picture rainy scenery in their mind once they listen to the pitter-patter sound of the rain or can visualize the path from school to home Some researchers argue that people who are blind from birth can use all these senses, including spatial awareness (Wolbers et al., 2011).

Baddeley (2021) refined the earlier introduced model by adding more details This model updates the latest empirical results and specifies the function of working memory Specifically, the central executive not only controls but interacts with the two subsystems There are some links between episodic long-term memory and language, for which the phonological store is responsible, and visual semantics, which the visuospatial subsystem deals with Regarding functions, the central memory and subsystems are fluid in nature; however, sounds, semantics, and long-term memory are fossilized systems That means, working memory serves to store information and operate on that when completing some mentally demanding tasks This function suggests that working memory works when one performs a particular complex task while having to store information simultaneously Unlike the original working memory model, this modified model shows that working memory stores and processes information, benefiting the accomplishment of various cognitive tasks such as reading comprehension, thinking, and metacognition (Baddeley, 2003).

Many studies have pointed out some phenomena that have not been captured by the original model, such as how phonological long-term memory is brought to working memory Specifically, the episodic buffer is a backup memory that incorporates input from components of the working memory into that from the long-term memory (Baddeley, 2000) Thus, it can store and process both verbal and visual information For instance, when one is assigned to count how many windows their house has First, the episodic buffer will retrieve information from long-term memory before manipulating it in working memory (Shallice & Cooper, 2011; Yanagisawa et al., 2020) Then the inner eye will visualize the position of the windows while the inner voice starts counting it, and the inner ear holds that information At the same time, the central executive will decide how much attention should be placed on the task As such, one would not care about anything else around when doing a mentally demanding task (Baddeley, 2021).

The working memory capacity differs among individual learners Some learners, as a result, perform better than others at learning L2 vocabulary due to the difference in their phonological working memory capacity Such a difference can be genetic and/or the result of personal experience Indeed, Engle et al (1999) also drew a conclusion on a direct relationship between working memory capacity and an indi-vidual’s dorsolateral prefrontal cortex functioning or efficiency Regarding experience, should learners be able to make a connection between new words with some words, objects, or experiences that exist in their long-term memory, it is likely that they will remember them easier and longer.

Research has examined the importance of working memory in learning and language processing Regarding first language acquisition, working memory directly impacts phonological development (Adams & Gathercole, 1995), comprehension (Daneman & Merikle, 1996), and the development of academic first language (Pollard & Courage, 2017) These findings have persuaded several researchers (e.g., Skehan, 2002; Wen et al., 2017) to propose that working memory is central to language aptitude Also, empirical evidence shows that working memory positively affects such second language abilities as uptake of input (Mackey & Sachs, 2012), learning lexical and syntactic features (Serafini & Sanz, 2016), and second language proficiency (Grey et al., 2015).

3 WORKING MEMORY AND VOCABULARY ACQUISITION

The history of second language education research shows an ongoing interest in vocabulary acquisition and learning (Akpınar et al., 2015; Milton, 2009; Milton & Fitzpatrick, 2013) Vocabulary is considered essential to language development and use (Alahmadi et al., 2018) Learners’ vocabulary knowledge provides lexical resources for achievements in language skills (Baharudin & Ismail, 2014) As noted by Thornbury (2002), one can only understand the meaning of something in minimal amounts without a knowledge of the target grammar; however, one can understand nothing without any knowledge of vocabulary Therefore, vocabulary knowledge is indispensable to developing or acquiring a second language, closely related to language skills (Schmidt, 2010).

Since the very first introduction of communicative competence by Hymes (1971), the concern of edu-cation has shifted from knowledge to skills or abilities Yet, without knowledge, no language, including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, can be produced Thus, vocabulary is a core knowledge that a learner has to possess when learning and producing a language effectively Moreover, a wide range of lexical resources can also assist one in understanding other people’s language There are also empirical findings that the phonological loop can assist in acquiring new words.

The Effects of Working Memory on Second Language Vocabulary Learning

The phonological loop receives a great deal of concern and is considered necessary for young and adult learners to acquire both native and second-language vocabulary (Juffs & Harrington, 2011; Vasylets & Marín, 2021) The primary result for this claim is from research on children’s vocabulary develop-ment (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1989; Service & Kohonen, 1995), vocabulary acquisition of children with normal and low repetition skills (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990), vocabulary acquisition of normal children and children with developmental language disorders (Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993), and adult learners’ vocabulary acquisition (Martin & Ellis, 2012; Papagno et al., 1991).

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggest that teachers and parents can help to boost children’s phonologi-cal repertoire by providing them with an environment where there are many opportunities for linguistic practice For instance, telling them stories, letting them name letters and objects, and repeating unfamiliar phonological forms are suggested to enhance effective phonological encoding and build up phonological material in their working memory Yet, this recommendation is more appropriate for young learners.

The visual sketchpad, unlike the phonological loop, has received little attention despite its contribu-tion to L2 vocabulary learning It would, in particular, be far easier for language learners to learn and remember a new word with its pictorial image in mind, explaining why abstract words, such as “adulthood” and “democracy”, which do not represent any particular objects, are much more challenging to learn.

The central executive also aids the vocabulary learning process by its ability to deliberately concen-trate or divide attention However, according to Engle et al (1999), the central memory does not take charge of any particular linguistic tasks Also, unlike the phonological store, the central memory does not directly deal with the learning tasks but instead assists L2 learners in thinking about what to pay attention to and what should be ignored to prevent the memory from overloading.

On the other hand, early research on the link between working memory and language development was conducted in highly controlled settings They sometimes involved artificial tasks, such as nonword repetition, instead of real-life language learning situations and naturalistic tasks A similar concern is also found in the study by Martin and Ellis (2012) that there would be limitations on how much the results in the laboratory could be generalized and employed in real-life settings Under these circumstances, learners who participated in such studies were aware of their roles; consequently, they might have at-tempted better than usual, making the results less reliable.

An extensive survey of the literature shows that there has been a slow growth of research interest in cognitive processes in vocabulary acquisition and learning Cheung’s (1996) research explored the effects of secondary school students’ phonological inventory in a naturalistic setting in Hong Kong Findings showed a crucial role of phonological memory in the learners’ vocabulary development Cheung argued for the vital function of working memory in the rehearsal process Working memory and the rehearsal process determine input projection to long-term memory According to the study by Martin and Ellis (2012), phonological loop is positively related to vocabulary development Karousou and Nerantzaki’s (2020) study hypothesized that phonological repertoire could be trained; therefore, learners could be benefited from such an intervention This experimental study showed significant effects of the training intervention on second language learners’ phonological working memory and vocabulary gains Also, learners’ receptive vocabulary knowledge was not, but productive vocabulary was significantly influ-enced by phonological working memory Engle and Gathercole (2012) explored the impacts of work-ing memory on elementary school multilwork-ingual students in a European context Findwork-ings showed that phonological short-term memory significantly affected learners’ first- and second-language lexical and syntactic uptake However, the central executive was insignificantly correlated with second language vocabulary learning Also, phonological inventory did not significantly predict third-language vocabulary