An investigation into learning style preferences of efl primary school students

Trang 1 _____________ DO HOANG LE VY AN INVESTIGATION INTO LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES OF EFL PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching Code: 8140

INTRODUCTION

Rationale

Second language is a socially dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes Second language also calls a foreign language, which is might be used for cross-cultural communication situations or studied as a curricular requirement (Troike, 2006) Nowadays, learning foreign language earlier is important, because learning foreign language can make children who learn it become more proficient in their native language and will be able to communicate with a foreigner There are great uses of English as a foreign language in the modern world, especially in education

Psycholinguistic study shows that childhood is considered as the golden age for a young learner to learn the foreign language That’s why in this modern era, parents are looking for a school that provides an English lesson for their children In fact, in 21st century learning, students must have the ability to solve problems, think critically, find and evaluate information and can productively collaborate and communicate with other students

Throughout their educational journeys, individual pupils employ various learning methods and get knowledge from a variety of sources An individual's natural, ingrained, and preferred method of taking in, processing, and remembering new knowledge and abilities can be referred to as their learning style Distinct pupils have distinct learning preferences, with a preference for a certain sensory mode to receive and process that learned information As a result, it is crucial to determine each student's unique learning style in order to support that type and enhance other less favoured learning styles

One of the challenges in the world of education lies in how to make students accustomed to critical and creative thinking in solving problems, so that educators are required to play an active role in the learning process As a matter of fact, before deciding upon a definite teaching approach, educators should realize that every learner has his/her own way of learning Students learn by seeing and hearing, reflecting and acting, reasoning logically and intuitively, analyzing and visualizing Teaching methods also vary If the teaching style of the instructors doesn’t match with the students’ learning styles, the students may get bored and inattentive in class, do poorly on tests, and get discouraged about the courses, the curriculum, and themselves In any case, the students’ learning styles should guide teachers and help to build the independent teaching style of the instructor Within time, the instructor gains experience that is useful to determine the possible working teaching method according to the needs of the students A lot of teaching and learning ways and theories that can help to meet the needs of students to have interaction with somethings, friends, and environment around them

Howard Gardner defined learning styles as the manners in which a person handles a variety of activities According to Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983, p 8), "They have been classified in a number of different ways; they are visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, impulsive and contemplative, right brain and left brain, etc.” Gardner contends that the concept of learning styles lacks precise standards for what constitutes a learning style, from where it derives, and how to identify and evaluate it He characterizes the notion of learning styles as "a hypothesis of how an individual approaches a range of materials" (Gardner, 1983, p.2)

Dunn and Griggs (1998) defined learning style as the attitude, favorites, and conducts that learners utilize in their learning Moreover, according to them, the learning method might have a lot or a bit of differences For instance, do you remember the name of a person if you see it written down?

If you prefer to learn it by seeing the written name you are a visual learner Otherwise, if you prefer to learn it by listening you are an auditory one In other side, Paul (2013) stated the “learning style” that teachers and parents should focus on is the universal learning style of the human mind and two characteristics of it in particular First of all, students benefit from encountering information in multiple forms They learn more, for example, from flashcards that incorporate both text and images or charts, graphs, etc than from cards that display text alone Second, students’ interest is kept alive by novelty and variety, so regularly turning away from textbooks and blackboards is key “As long as the new activity genuinely informs the students about the academic subject at hand, clapping a math lesson or sketching in science class, or acting during story time can help every student to learn better” (Paul, 2013, p 2)

Since learning styles are a property of each student and each one contributes a unique learning style to the classroom, they are significant in the teaching of learning processes In order to give each student with the best teaching methods possible, a teacher must be able to recognize the different learning styles of their students Learning style refers to how students receive and process the knowledge their teacher imparts to them in the classroom Considering this, Candler and Joe (2009, p 1) state "behaviors and attitudes are some factors used to identify learning styles and options to facilitate learning" Based on the aforementioned concepts, the author hopes to learn more about the English language learning preferences of the students in Australian Languages Center

Based on the discussion above, I want to conduct a research about pupils’ learning style preferences by the title “An investigation into learning style preferences of EFL primary school students”

Aims and Objectives of the Study

The study aims to investigate learning style preferences of primary school students in Quy Nhon city and to point out the correlation between learning style preferences and gender differences

Based on the aims previously mentioned, the objectives of the study are as follows:

- To identify all the learning style preferences of EFL primary school students based on Theory of Multiple Intelligence

- To find out correlation between gender and learning style preferences.

Research questions

To achieve the above aims and objectives, the reseacher collected data and analyzed it to answer the following questions:

1 What are EFL primary school students’ learning style preferences?

2 What is the correlation between learning style preferences and gender differences?

Scope of the study

Although there are many theories about learning style preferences, this study focuses on Theory of Multiple Intelligences for young learners in primary school Moreover, to make the research manageable, the subject to conduct this study merely concentrates on young learners in primary school There are 89 primary school EFL learners in a language center in Quy Nhon city There are male and female students aged from 8 to 11 The pupils involved in this research are from varied educational background as well as taught by different English teachers and no pupils are excluded from the study.

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will partly contribute to the benefits of learning English in our society Primary school students who are the launch of lifelong journey diving into this foreign language should have appropriate paths for learning the right way from the start This research is expected to be beneficial for teachers to improve their creativity and competence with learners’ learning styles, especially for those who teach young learners.

Organization of the Study

This thesis is organized into five chapters The first chapter gives a brief introduction about the rationale of the research, research questions, the aims and objectives, the scope, the significance as well as structure of the study In the next chapter, a fundamental overview of theoretical concepts relating to the research provided The third chapter presents methods used to collect data and information of participants Questionnaires, and interviews are described in more detail In the fourth chapter, collected data are calculated and analyzed to draw some conclusions about primary school students’ learning styles preferences and correlation between them and gender differences Finally, the study summarizes the research findings, offers implications as well as limitations of the study and makes suggestions for classroom practice and further research.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Today's world is characterized by quick and widespread advancements in science, technology, and communication as well as the emergence of fresh perspectives on social, political, economic, and cultural concerns (Otaghsara,

2014) These innovations have a profound impact on educational institutions and teaching strategies

Intelligence is of paramount importance in a person’s life Consequently, both academics and the general public are very curious about and interested in the subject of intelligence (Mackintosh, 1998) It has been shown that there are many different types of intelligence, including general, interpersonal, fluid, and crystalized intelligence

For a long time, educators have used traditional teaching strategies in the classroom that have a tendency to categorize students as members of a single, homogeneous group Teachers use the executive approach to impart knowledge to all of the students using a common set of teaching strategies (Sulaiman et al.,

2011) Teachers encounter difficulties while attempting to meet the variety of student learning preferences and needs using the standard teaching methodology Besides, learning preferences and characteristics are linked to how an individual perceives and engages with their environment

Within the context of the student-centered classroom, research interest in learners’ individual differences has begun to expand (Ellis, 2012) Additionally, research has begun to investigate individual variations that can improve classroom learning According to language learning researchers, multiple intelligences and learning styles have the potential to have a positive impact on classroom instruction (Reid, 1998) Students are more likely to be responsive to our instructional tactics and forms of presentation if we tailor them to their preferred learning styles and take into account their use of multiple intelligences The existence of different learning styles and different types of intelligences has thus been confirmed by the theories of multiple intelligences (Christison, 2005; Gardner, 2006) and learning styles (Kolb, 2014; Oxford,

2003) Reid (1998) stated that "internally-based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information" are what learning styles are A person's intelligence can be measured by their problem-solving and creative capacities, both of which are considered to be highly desirable in multiple cultural contexts according to Gardner's (2006) He cast doubt on the notion that intellect could be measured by "IQ" score or a single number Following this, researchers have found a number of generic teaching practices that can take into account students' learning preferences and multiple intelligences, such as instructional models that depart from the conventional lecture format, such as visual presentations, site visits, and Internet usage

According to the hypothesis of multiple intelligences, which was developed by psychologist Howard Gardner in the late 1970s and early 1980s, people have at least eight reasonably independent intelligences People use these intelligences, both individually and collectively, to develop goods and find solutions to issues that are pertinent to the societies in which they live (Gardner, 1983, 1993, 1999, 2006) The eight types of intelligence that Gardner

(1999) described are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, naturalistic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence It is helpful to think of that language-logic combination as

"academic" or "scholarly intelligence" because, in Gardner's perspective, only two intelligences - linguistic and logical mathematical - have been recognized and tested for current secular schools The theory of multiple intelligences, or multiple intelligences theory, departs from traditional conceptions of intelligence by viewing intelligence as multiple rather than unitary in nature These conceptions were first put forth in the early 20th century, are still measured by IQ tests, and were extensively researched by Piaget (1950, 1952) and other cognitively oriented psychologists

Neither the multiple intelligences theory nor any other theory that views intelligence as pluralistic is the only one that challenges Spearman's (1904,

1927) notion of general intelligence In addition to others, Thorndike (1920; Thorndike, Bregman, Cobb and Woodyard, 1927) saw intelligence as the combination of three different types of intelligence: abstract intelligence, mechanical intelligence, and social intelligence According to Thurstone (1938) and Thurstone and Thurstone (1941), intelligence can be better understood as being made up of seven fundamental skills In the conceptualization of intelligence, Guilford (1967) and Guilford and Hoepfner (1971) divided it into four content categories, five operational categories, and six product categories They finally identified 150 separate intellectual faculties Analytical, creative, and practical intelligences were recognized by Sternberg's triarchic theory of intellect, which was presented in 1985 and 1990 Lastly, Ceci (1990, 1996) has described a variety of cognitive potentials that allow for the acquisition of knowledge and the consideration of links between concepts and ideas

The most well-known of these pluralistic views is perhaps Gardner's hypothesis of many intelligences This notoriety is a result of its enthusiastic acceptance by the educational community as well as the sources of information on which Gardner drew (Armstrong, 1994; Kornhaber, 1999; Shearer, 2004) The mission, curriculum, and pedagogy of many thousands of schools all over the world now include multiple intelligences concepts, and hundreds of books (in many different languages) have been written on the topic of the applicability of MI theory to teachers and educational institutions (Chen, Moran, and Gardner, 2009) A 10-acre "science experience park" with more than 50 unique exhibits opened in Sonderberg, Denmark, in 2005, allowing visitors to discover their unique intelligence profile (Danfoss Universe, 2007) The main points of this expansive theory are outlined in the sections that follow, along with a few of the changes that have been made to it during the past 25 years

Multiple intelligences have biological and cultural roots, according to Gardner Accepting Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has a number of effects on how teachers should instruct students in the classroom According to the notion, each of the seven intelligences is necessary for productive social interaction Children cannot be evaluated the same way because they all learn differently Consequently, it is crucial that a teacher develops "intelligence profiles" for each pupil The teacher will be able to accurately evaluate the student's development if they are aware of how each student learns (Lazear,

Multiple intelligences are especially useful in the context of education and student accomplishment because they assist parents and instructors comprehend education holistically According to Gardner (1994), multiple intelligences influence parents and educators to question their own beliefs and presumptions about student accomplishment and take into account alternative instructional strategies This idea offers a potent lens through which to examine different intelligences in relation to secondary student performance

Gardner and Hatch (1989) defines intelligence as a bio-psychological ability of processing information that can be activated to handle a problem appropriately and create a product that is valued in a cultural setting This definition extends the meaning of the word intelligence beyond its typical application in psychology He created the hypothesis of multiple intelligences and claimed that each person possesses not just one general intelligence but also several intelligences The notion of many intelligences advocates the idea that everyone is capable of learning using a variety of distinct intelligences The six intelligences he originally suggested were later supplemented by two more (Gardner, 1999)

The first type is linguistic or verbal intelligence, which incorporates language expertise People that are verbally intelligent frequently think in words and have exceptionally strong aural abilities Frequently, they are either reading or writing

Learning Style Preferences

Over the last decade, educational research has uncovered a number of characteristics that account for some of the disparities in how pupils learn Learning styles, which have been variously defined by experts and researchers in EFL learning, are one of these variables However, the terms learning style, cognitive style, personality type, sensory preference, modality, and others are used quite loosely and frequently interchangeably in the research on learning styles (Ehrman, Leaver, and Oxford, 2003)

According to Keefe (1979, cited in Brown, 1994), "cognitive, affective, and psychological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment" may be used to identify learning style Dunn and Griggs (1988, as quoted in Bachetti, 2003) described learning style as a set of traits imposed by biology and development that determine whether a certain teaching strategy is effective for some students and ineffective for others

Furthermore, Dunn et al (1993, as quoted in Dunn et al., 2009) described learning styles as the manner in which people start to focus on, process, absorb, and remember new and difficult material Brown (1994), on the other hand, described learning style as "a phrase that alludes to persistent and rather enduring patterns or preference within a person Similar to Dunn, et al., Felder and Henriques (1995) define learning styles as "the ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retain, and retrieves information"

Grasha (1996, as cited from Diaz and Cartnal, 1999) described learning styles as "personal qualities that influence a student's ability to acquire information, interact with peers and the teacher, and otherwise participate in learning experiences." Similar to Dunn et al and Felder and Henriques and citing Hong (2007), Reid (2002 as mentioned from) describes learning style as an individual's natural, habitual, and preferred ways of acquiring, processing, and retaining new information and skills Another definition of learning style is "A term that describes the variations among learners in using one or more senses to understand, organize, and retain experience" (Reid, 1987, p 89) More specifically, "the ways in which an individual characteristically acquires, retains, and retrieves information" is how Felder and Henriques (1995, p 21) defined it

What stands out in all of the definitions given above is how different language learners are from one another; for example, a student of English may prefer hearing and seeing over speaking and actively participating in the activities In contrast, another learner might be more interested in contributing significantly to class activities and actively participating in arguments As a result, not every language student acquires knowledge in the same way In order to help students try to develop their chosen learning style and improve other non-preferred learning styles, it is crucial to recognize the different learning styles among students

Wong Fillmore (1986) conducted research on the English language learning process in bilingual and EFL classrooms, focusing on the significance of cultural elements in the learning of second languages Research has also been done on EFL students' conscious learning strategies, such as practicing, monitoring, inferencing, memorization, and self-directed learning (Bialystok and Frohlich, 1978; Carver, 1984; Krashen, 1982; Oxford-Carpenter, 1985; Wenden, 1984, 1986)

Gordon (1998) asserts that learning styles preferences have an impact on the educational process and student performance According to Dunn and Griggs (1998), a learner's learning style preferences is their attitude, preferences, and behaviors In addition, they claimed that there can be significant or minor variations in the learning methodology For instance, can you recall someone's name when you see it written down? You are a visual learner if you would rather learn the name by looking at the written version You are an auditory person if, on the other hand, you prefer to learn by hearing (Slavin, 2000)

Learners acquire and absorb knowledge in a variety of ways Their genetic make-up, cultural background, and prior educational experiences may all have an impact on their learning styles While some students enjoy mathematical models and theories, others are more at ease with statistics and facts According to Felder (1996), some students are visual and prefer to learn through charts, while others are auditory and prefer to learn through oral explanations Additionally, while some students prefer to learn in groups, others prefer to learn alone

Every student stands out from the others in a classroom because each learner receives and processes information in a unique way Numerous factors, some of which are unique to each learner, influence pupils' academic performance The preferred ways that various students perceive, process, assimilate, and comprehend information vary It is beneficial for teachers to choose their teaching styles and for students to choose the learning tactics that best fit their dominant learning style if they are both aware of the preferred learning style of the students The behaviors that students like to engage in are highlighted by Soo (1999), who also supports the idea that "differences in learners' learning styles affect the learning environment by either supporting or inhibiting their intentional cognition and active engagement" (p 289)

Even within a family, there are variations in learning styles preferences Children frequently inherit one parent's learning style preferences but not the others since parents' learning styles preferences are so dissimilar Additionally, learners can create their unique learning styles preferences thanks to genetics and experience The desire for more or less structure, motivation, and conformity or nonconformity are developmental components of learning styles Preferences for learning styles evolve over time However, over time, people tend to develop strong style preferences that make it easier for them to learn when they are exposed to teaching methods that match those preferences

The definition of learning styles given by Reid (1995) is "individual natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills." Additionally, she demonstrated how every learner has unique characteristics when it comes to the learning process For instance, some students could respond well to hands-on exercises while others might prefer visual presentations People learn in a variety of ways, and EFL environments are no exception to this rule Six learning styles were mentioned in Reid's (1987) study, with the Perceptual Learning Style preferred She defines perceptual learning style preference as the preferred perceptual learning pathways used by students These are separated into auditory (listening to lectures and cassettes), visual (reading and studying diagrams), kinesthetic (physical activity and movement), tactile (hands-on, completing lab experiments), group (studying with others or in group), and individual learning (studying alone)

Learning style, according to Dunn (1990), is "the way in which people start to concentrate on, process, internalize, and retain new and difficult information" Dunn and Dunn (1978/1992) claimed that a person's learning style could be identified using 21 factors arranged into five stimulus groups: environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological stimuli These stimulus groups influence how well learners learn When learners are attempting to learn, there are various qualities that can be linked to the four components that are referred to as the environmental stimulation group, including sound, light, temperature, and design For instance, some students prefer to learn in a calm setting, while others prefer to learn while listening to music According to the preferences of the students, teachers could adjust the environmental factors to create a comfortable learning environment

VARK is a model that Fleiming (2001) proposed A person's qualities and preferred methods of gathering, organizing, and thinking about knowledge are referred to as their learning style VARK deals with perceptual modes, hence it falls under instructional preferences VARK stands for visual, auditory, read/write, and kinesthetic Fleming (2001) asserts that visual learners like to study through maps, charts, graphs, diagrams, photographs, highlighters, and various colors Aural learners prefer to learn by talking about the subjects with their instructors and fellow students, sharing new concepts with others, and using a tape recorder Essays, textbooks, definitions, readings, and taking notes are all good ways for read-and-write learners to learn Field trips, doing things to understand them, labs, and hands-on learning are preferred learning methods for kinesthetic learners An individual's propensity for more than one learning style is considered multimodal

Many scholars have also researched on the role of individuals' learning styles in foreign language learning They have looked at the relationship between learning styles and multiple intelligences and their involvement in learning second and foreign languages It is essential to recognize each person's unique learning preferences and multiple intelligence kinds Understanding the many sorts of multiple intelligences and one's learning style can be highly helpful for pupils They will be able to recognize their individual strengths and limitations and take lessons from them by investigating this learning style and multiple intelligence type In the Turkish setting, Tekiner (2005) investigated the relationship between multiple intelligences and the perceptual and social learning styles of university students Positive correlations between logical- mathematical intelligence and individual learning style, intrapersonal intelligence and individual learning style, interpersonal intelligence and group learning style, linguistic intelligence and individual learning style, and interpersonal intelligence and kinesthetic intelligence were discovered Ahanbor and Sadighi (2014) looked into whether or not integrating diverse intelligences and learning styles will improve students' academic performance The findings demonstrated that each participant possessed naturalistic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences

The association between learning styles and multiple intelligences was also found to be statistically significant Similar research was done in the Iranian setting by Panahandeh et al (2015) to determine how learners' multiple intelligences and learning preferences relate to one another Additionally, they looked at the most and least prevalent learning methods and gender differences

Thus, only a statistically significant difference between genders was discovered

Gender differences in learning style preferences

The question of whether gender differences may have an impact on students' learning preferences has been one of the topics of discussion There are disparities between the preferred learning styles of men and women, according to numerous research There are differences between males and girls' preferences for passive and group learning methods, for instance, even though Chuang's study from 2009 revealed that both sexes more frequently preferred active learning methods Studies have indicated that pupils of different genders prefer diverse learning styles when learning a language Tatarintseva (2002), for example, came to the conclusion that gender variations in preferred learning styles were present in numerous nations around the world This holds true for English majors who major in language acquisition as well Some researchers have hypothesized that learning preferences among English majors are significantly influenced by gender differences

There is a long history of studies looking into how language skills and learning styles differ between genders The researcher concurs with Wernersson (1989), who came to the conclusion that gender differences in classroom interaction are the focus of the majority of investigations The pattern of horizontal or vertical divide between males and females in schooling has received very little explanation from studies of language and skill development during the school years This problem is of evident pedagogical interest because one of the goals of education is to provide equal opportunities for males and females (Lpo, 1994: 4)

Gender affects how people behave (Greb, 1999; Pizzo, 1990) There are differences between how men and women learn Compared to women, men often have stronger kinesthetic, tactual, and visual senses and require more mobility in less formal settings Male students are more nonconformist and driven by their peers than their female counterparts Males typically learn less by listening in groups Males are less likely than females to be auditory, authority-oriented, or able to sit quietly at typical classroom tables and chairs Studies by Leet-Pellegrini (1980), Aries (1976), and Fox (1990) suggest that while males feel comfortable in a lecturing role, which is a demonstration of expertise and status, females feel comfortable in a listening role, which demonstrates a desire to cooperate, bond, and be liked by-products of a world of connections, not status and thus are more comfortable in this role Women feel more at ease sharing their knowledge with others than competing with others

It demonstrates how the gender factor affects choices for learning styles and how those preferences vary by gender This claim is corroborated by Hlawaty (2008), who wrote in his research of German students that "male and female students demonstrated significantly different preferences for their learning styles."

As English language instructors, we are aware that making decisions is one of the most crucial aspects of learning the language Here, too, we may observe two quite different universes According to Ong (1989), whereas women are encouraged to maintain peace, men are centered on

"adversativeness" in their environment Male recommendations are perceived by females as annoying and dictatorial, whereas male orders are perceived by females as needlessly provocative, confrontational, and hostile Both genders seem to want men to behave like men and women to behave like women There are obvious distinctions between boys and girls when it comes to problem solving, which we frequently encounter in English instruction (Dorval, 1990) Boys sat at an angle to each other and their gazes were not fixed on the other's face, whereas girls sat close to each other and their gazes were fixed on the other's face The guys' discourse consisted primarily of a large number of brief verbal bursts While the girls gave lengthy monologues and were obedient, there was also a lot of teasing, which Leaper (1988) refers to as "negative reciprocity" and a lot of rebellion There was also a lot of close listening and empathizing

However, gender differences were noted as a function of text task themes, according to Taube and Munck (1996) There was a general pattern that both 8-year-old and 14-year-old females performed better on most tests, but especially on narrative texts containing themes of humans, animals that act like humans, and human activities

For the purpose of understanding patterns of gender disparities within the cognitive domain, cultural, sociological, and biological hypotheses are advanced Although there is some debate about the relationship between reading habits and reading proficiency, examinations of reading may, in part, reveal reading habits In many nations, reading in the sense of intentional reading, at least during adolescence, may be regarded a typical feminine habit According to Guthrie and Greaney (1991), the majority of surveys indicate that women read more frequently and with greater pleasure than men

Numerous research has revealed a connection between pupils' learning styles preference and gender Studies on gender inequalities among students in higher education, both globally and in Vietnam, have recently attracted increasing interest The question of whether gender differences may impact a person's learning preferences has, however, been discussed extensively in the literature Consequently, the study of gender differences in learning methods also became a focus of this research According to Lohri-Posey (2003), teachers can utilize effective learning tactics by being aware of their students' preferred learning styles Students who have similar learning styles to their teachers retain information better and have higher learning aspirations

This investigation interested in assessing the preferred learning style among male and female because gender is one of the factors that has been found to influence the learning practice include age, academic, achievement, brain processing and creative thinking This information may assist in the development and implementation of gender specific teaching approaches which would maximize student motivation and learning by tailoring instruction to student needs.

Related studies

Each student has his own learning preferences, and as Brooks (1997, cited in Wade, 1990) explained, all strategies do not work for all students and some of them are strength in a strategy but some may be weak in the same one These weaknesses and strengths are referred to as learning preferences or learning styles Although learning styles just show their learning preferences, and it does not mean that it categorizes learners into separate categories, but the consideration of learning styles is important in professional teaching As different people possess different characteristics, so they learn in different ways known as learning styles

According to numerous studies (e.g., Tatarintseva, 2002; Tercanlioglu, 2004; Viriya and Sapsirin, 2014), students of different genders prefer distinct learning styles For instance, Tatarintseva came to the conclusion that gender discrepancies were prevalent around the world This is also true of English majors learning the language, where some researchers have hypothesized that preferences for learning styles are significantly influenced by gender differences (e.g., Tabanliolu, 2003; Karthigeyan and Nirmala, 2013; Yi, Hui, and Jasmine, 2011; Vaseghi, Ramezani, and Gholami, 2012) At the University of Bahỗeşehir, students taking English for Academic Purposes (EAP) were divided by gender according to their preferences for perceptual modalities Tabanliolu looked into this issue He discovered a statistically significant difference between the preferences of males and females for the category of tactile learning styles Tabanliolu claimed that his study is parallel with Reid

(1987), who also came to the same conclusion that there was a difference in the use of the tactile learning style category between males and females However, there was no discernible gender difference, according to certain research For instance, Zokaee, Zaferanieh, and Naseri (2012) examined the effects of gender and perceptual learning style on Iranian undergraduate EFL learners' decisions on vocabulary learning tactics The results of the study revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two genders' preferred vocabulary acquisition strategies

The findings showed that preferences for mobility and afternoon learning varied by gender Additionally, Dunn (1993) discovered that Mexican and Anglo-American elementary school students' preferences for learning styles were influenced by their gender The findings showed that male students from Mexico and Anglo-American backgrounds disliked auditory learning styles Compared to female students, they preferred the tactile learning style of learning According to two additional studies by Philbin and Meier (1995) and Matthews and Hamby (1995), there were notable differences between male and female students' preferred learning styles, with males favoring traditional analytical learning and females favoring nontraditional learning (concrete experience) Hamby and Matthews (1995) The same two latter researchers also came to the conclusion that while female students preferred to come up with ideas, male students preferred abstract and active experimentation

According to Tai (1999), male and female traditional EFL junior college students in Taiwan had different learning styles preference; in addition to the auditory style, female students preferred the kinesthetic style, whereas male students preferred the group learning style Female nontraditional EFL junior college students, on the whole, preferred all learning styles more than male students According to Dunn et al (2001), students will learn differently depending on their gender Honigsfeld and Dunn (2009:3) summarized their findings by stating that "generally speaking, in almost every study, the following results were revealed: The learning styles of adult males and females were very dissimilar from one another

The results of comparing male and female students revealed that male students preferred more peer interaction over independent learning and more kinesthetic activities, whereas female students needed higher temperatures and were more persistent, more self-motivated, and more parent- and teacher- motivated With the exception of auditory learning style, there were significant and more pronounced differences when learning styles of adolescents were compared by country

The existence of such minor or slight differences between males and females' learning styles was supported by a few studies Dobson (2009) used the VARK test to examine the preferred learning styles of 1,037 undergraduate students of physiology The findings showed that male and female students had different preferences for learning styles While males preferred Visual at a higher rate (49%), followed by Read/write (29%), Aural (17%), and Kinesthetic (5%), females preferred Visual at a lower rate (46%), followed by Aural (27%), Read/write (23%), and Kinesthetic (4%)

While male students were more independent learners, female students were more relational learners According to Canfield and Cafferty's Learning Style Inventory, "most of the male students preferred to learn by applied learning style (i.e., using real-world experiences as a basis for learning), while most of the female students liked abstract learning style (i.e., where copious reading assignments are necessary, learning materials are organized, and teachers' demonstrate knowledge)" Reese and Dunn (2007) used the Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model to conduct a survey of 1500 students at a private urban university The results showed that the elements of Sound, Light, Temperature, Motivation, and Responsibility were statistically different among the students Female students preferred formal seating, a warm, bright environment, motivation, and learning either by themselves or with other female students They claimed that male students were more visually oriented, required more structure and mobility, and preferred to study in the afternoon, while they claimed that female students were typically auditory and kinesthetic

The final subcategory of these studies includes those few or limited studies on learning styles in terms of gender impact that have demonstrated that there are no differences in learning styles between males and females or that both groups use nearly identical or similar types of learning styles The first study that stands out the most is the one by Baxter Magolda (1992:217), which used the Kolb Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to survey 101 freshmen (51 female and 50 male) at a sizable midwestern state university The study found that "the percentage of men and women preferring each style was nearly equal and chisquare analysis revealed no significant differences in learning style by gender."

There has been much research into Asian students’ learning styles and strategies, both in those Asian countries themselves and “host” countries where Asian students study For the most part, learners in a particular Asian country will show a bias towards a particular learning style For example, Chinese, Korean and Indonesian choose auditory learning as their major learning style whilst Thai, Malay and Japanese students favor other methods (Saracho, 1997) Although Asian learners have varying learning styles, a few common factors can apply to all of them Vietnamese people value harmony, family, achievement and hierarchy (Triandis, 1995) because China’s Confucian ideologies are deeply ingrained in Vietnamese culture, which focus on virtue, respect, obedience and the relationship between ruler and subjects, father and son, older brother and younger brother, husband and wife, seniors and juniors Moreover, in Vietnamese culture, self-respect and respectful attitudes are very important This is expressed through politeness and obedience They will even avoid eye contact with their teacher and tend to copy down everything on the board This is due to the belief that being quiet in class demonstrates respect towards the teacher, and they do not raise questions because of their beliefs that it is enough to receive knowledge transferred from their teachers (Nguyen,

2002) However, this behavior is often “misunderstood as a passive or noncooperative attitude” (Nguyen, 2002) Furthermore, in line with the common stereotypes of Asian learners, Vietnamese learners employ more frequently “repetitive learning strategies” (Helmke and Tuyet, 1999), but

“repetition appears to have a different psychological meaning” (Helmke and Tuyet, 1999) for them This is to say that the stereotype of being rote learners is not applied to Vietnamese learners

These studies were conducted with the same goal in mind, but they came to different conclusions because they had different outcomes Some offered proof of the existence of gender-related, significant differences in learning styles, but other studies have found no evidence of such differences between males and females A few studies, however, found that gender had no effect on how learning styles were used or that both males and females used or applied learning styles in essentially the same ways As a result, the purpose of this study is to present and discuss the key findings from a number of prior studies that sought to determine how gender affected students' learning styles preferences in various learning contexts

As a follow-up to the main effect and interaction procedures, many studies mentioned above are about the relationship between gender and learning styles preferences In addition, the researchers conducted tests of simple main effects for country and gender to identify the differences within the levels of the other variable However, each of them has different purposes and focuses on different sources of data

In this study, the researcher examined about learning style and also the same research field in education as the previous researchers did From above previous researches on learning style, those researchers focus on student from college or university as their object research The differences between the writer’s research and previous researches come from the instrument for collecting data and the object of the research VARK Learning Styles Self- Assessment Questionnaire was used as an instrument for collecting data which is created by Neil Fleming and modified by Swinburne University of Technology The object of the research is students from primary school students and gender differences The finding of the research will help students to learn in better way and urge teacher to choose appropriate teaching methodology which accommodate students’ learning style during teaching- learning process.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research design

The present study applied “mixed-methods sequential explanatory design” (Ivankova, Creswell and Stick, 2006) Defined in this way, it means

“collecting and analyzing first quantitative and then qualitative data in two consecutive phases within one study” (Ivankova et al., 2006) Namely, the present study conducted “questionnaire survey with follow-up interview” (Dửrnyei, 2007) More specifically, DeCapua and Wintergerst (2005) suggest the use of multiple methods to collect data for learning styles rather than relying purely on Likert-scale questionnaires Thus, the present study shed a deeper light on style research by combining quantitative data with qualitative one

The study employed a quantitative research design Quantitative research is a scientific method which is closely associated with numerical values and statistics (Dửrnyei, 2007) In quantitative research design the aim is to classify features, count them and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed Quantitative data is more efficient to measure and analyze target concepts The survey method was taken up as the main methodology, which is one of the most common methods of collecting data on attitudes and opinions from a relatively large number of participants As Mackey and Gass

(2005) pointed out questionnaires allow researchers to gather information that learners are able to express themselves

Beside the researcher applied a quantitative approach, which was categorized as a survey research method and provided a quantitative description as tend of numeric about the population by studying a sample that includes cross-sectional studies using questionnaire to collect data, the current project also involved interviews and video recordings for collecting data for qualitative

In summary, the researcher using a mixed research method, which involved the integration of quantitative and qualitative data collection, to identify the most and least preferred learning styles Moreover, testing the hypothesis that males and females have different learning style preferences also was carried out through questionnaire and interviews

To test the hypothesis that males and females have different learning style preferences, the VARK questionnaire developed by Fleming was administered to the participants VARK was selected due to its ease of use (a simple 16-question survey), its free availability online for both students in this study and for readers of this article who may wish to use this tool in their classroom, and its simplicity of online usage for students and instructors to learn more about their own, or their students', learning styles In addition, this tool offers both students and instructors a method to enhance student learning by better understanding preferred modes of information transfer The VARK questionnaire for younger people was administered to 89 students at Australian Languages Center The questionnaire as a hard copy was administered and completed in class This study had been reviewed and approved by the committee of Australian Languages Center

After getting the initial findings, interviews with 9 students were conducted A semi-structured interview where predetermined questions provided was used to guide the interview, especially to apply open-ended questions The interviews were recorded and pseudonyms were given to each participant Both the VARK and semi-structured interview questions were applied in Vietnamese as the students’ foreign language proficiency level was not sufficient to get coherent results.

Participants

The participants of the current study were an intact group of students selected based on convenience sampling The participants were primary school male and female students studying in a language center in Quy Nhon City A language center was chosen due to students’ varied educational background and the diversity of teaching methods from different primary schools Participants prior to data collection were 89 primary school EFL learners that were both male and female They were 45 females and 44 males, between the ages of 9 and 12 with an average of 10 All of the students were native speakers of Vietnam, and they learned English as a foreign language Of all the 89 participants, interviews with 9 volunteer students were conducted after getting the results for the quantitative data, 4 of them were females while 5 of them were males In this study, non-random sampling procedure was benefitted to determine the participants to be investigated.

Data collection

Questionnaires are quick and efficient in obtaining the necessary information They enable participants to give precise answers without elaboration and enable the same amount of data to be obtained from all respondents and uniformly organized for statistical analysis

The survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought to have desired information It is the field that studies the sampling of individuals from a population with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population using the sample

Student’s learning styles preference was determined by method provided by Flemming’s The VARK questionnaire developed by Fleming was used to identify one facet of student learning styles, the sensory modality by which they prefer to take information The instrument is a questionnaire packed in multiple choice and consists of 16 statement items, and is the latest instrument, compared to the previous one consisting of only 13 items Each statement has a different order of learning style choices with each other The questionnaire has an answer key guide, and can generally be completed by students within 15-20 minutes, without significant difficulty Before the students fill out the questionnaire, the researcher gives an explanation of it During the filling of the questionnaires, the researcher and the classroom teacher assist the students The total number of student responses was tallied for each of the four sensory modalities (V, A, R and K) and for all possible combinations of modalities (e.g.,

VA, VRK etc.) The scoring algorithm on the VARK web site was then applied to identify each student’s modality preferences

After having finished the VARK questionnaire, the researcher used the scoring chart to find the VARK category that each of answers corresponds to The acronym VARK stands for the four VARK modalities – Visual, Aural, Read/write, and Kinesthetic – sensory modalities that are used for learning information Fleming and Mills (1992) suggested these four modalities that seem to reflect the experiences of students and teachers

Life is multimodal There are seldom instances where one mode is used or is sufficient, so that is why there is a four-part VARK profile That is why the VARK questionnaire provides four scores and also why there are mixtures of those four modes Those who do not have a standout mode with one preference score well above other scores are defined as multimodal

Data were reported as percentages of students in each category of learning style preferences The number of students who preferred each mode of learning was divided by the total number of responses to determine the percentage

Data from the second group, 9 volunteers, were collected through semi- structured interviews These interviews were tape-recorded and subsequently transcribed Before each interview actually began and the tape-recorded was turned on, the researcher and informant engaged in polite chitchat (e.g ‘‘How do you like this summer holiday we’re having? How is your semester going?’’) for the purpose of putting the informant at ease and establishing rapport After 2–3 mins, the researcher explained very generally the purpose of the interview and asked if the informant had any questions With the tape-recorder turned on, the researcher would begin the interview by asking the informant to state the name and gender When the interview was completed, the researcher turned off the recorder and thanked the informant After the informant left, the researcher wrote down any significant impressions from the interview

The researcher formally requested the approval of a language center director to conduct the study and distribute the questionnaire to the EFL learners during their course of study The instrument was checked for validity and reliability Having the consent of the participants, the questionnaire was distributed and collected after being filled in The researcher processed the results using the appropriate statistical methods to get the findings Based on the findings, relevant conclusions and recommendations were drawn.

Data Analysis

The researcher used the questionnaires that have been collected based on the available answers guides Each statement item contains four choices of answers (V, A, R, and K) Based on the correction’s result of the 16 statements, it is known the student's response to each question and the total score for each choice of learning style, for example: student X, 3, A = 7, R = 2, K = 4, The student X belongs to learning style A If student X has the following gain V 5, A = 2, R = 4, K = 5, then the student X is determined to have a bimodal learning style (VK) Thus, students' preferred learning styles can be determined by the overall correction outcome depending on their selection as unimodal, bi- modal, tri-modal or quad modal

Within the scope of the research questions, the data gathered from the questionnaires were analyzed by using various procedures of analysis Descriptive statistics were conducted to seek answers to particular research questions Data using percentages and frequencies were used to describe categorical variables

Meanwhile, the data obtained through the interview was analyzed by transcribing the voice recording during the interview Then, it was analyzed to categorize them appropriately between learning styles preferences and gender Some relevant quotations were chosen and put in the finding session

This research is descriptive and cross-sectional The researcher used questionnaire and interviews to non-native speakers from primary schools at Australian languages center From the total correction result based on the students' choice, students' learning style preferences are either unimodal or multimodal Therefore, it is concluded that each student has a particular learning style The data of the research were presented in the form of percentage and in pie chart or column chart to describe determination of students’ learning style.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Learning style preferences of primary school students

Based on the learning style’s result analysis to all 89 students, it was found that generally students had unimodal learning style (Visual, Aural, Read/write, Kinesthetic) Figure 1 showed these results

Figure 1 Overall Learning Style Preferences distribution

Figure 1 showed that 86.5% of all students had only one learning style (V, A, R, and K) Multimodal learning styles that students tended to have were bi-modal (9%), tri-modal (3.3%), and quad modal (1.2%) based on the frequency sequence and percentage from highest to lowest From Figure 1, it was known that primary school students were more likely to have unimodal learning styles (V, A, R, and K)

Figure 2 Students’ Learning Style Preferences Frequency Percentage

Data analysis on student’s learning styles preference (Figure 2) showed student’s learning styles in order was: Kinesthetic (50.57), Aural (17.98%), Read/Write (12.36%), Visual (5.62%), Aural-Kinesthetic and Read/Write- Kinesthetic (4.5%), Visual-Kinesthetic, Aural-Read/Write, Aural-Read/Write- Kinesthetic and quad modal, preferring all four modes of information processing (1.12%) Furthermore, none of them had Visual-Aural, Visual- Read/Write, and Visual-Aural-Read/Write and Visual-Aural-Kinesthetic Learning Styles

The majority of students preferred one sensory modality for learning The percentages of students who preferred two, three, and four sensory modalities of learning were shown in Figure 2 The most common VARK mode distribution among students was unimodal, followed by bi-modal, tri-modal and quad modal The preferred combinations of sensory modalities among the bi-modal and tri-modal groups were shown, in which student’s learning styles showed the most students had Kinesthetic learning styles

From Figure 2 above, the researcher tried to conclude and display the data in a simple way It was found that 50.57% of 89 students were kinesthetic learners The kinesthetic learners are the type of person who never look at instruction first and love to do an experiment The teacher should prepare many teaching media for kinesthetic learners Then aural learners came as second place with 17.98% from 89 students The aural learners love to listen and pay attention during teaching learning process For aural learners, a teacher should be skillful in way of delivering the material The read/write learners were slightly more than the visual learners, with 12.36% from 89 students They prefer printed text, which are included in textbooks and notes In the end, 5.62% of the learners were the visual type The visual learners who love to learn by observing things like pictures, diagrams, films, displays and demonstrations are dominated the samples.

Learning style preferences by gender

The determination of unimodal learning styles, as well as their distribution to both male and female students is shown in Table 1 and Figure 3

Table 1 VARK Learning Style by Gender

Figure 3 Determination of Unimodal VARK Learning Style by Gender

These results indicated that kinesthetic was the dominant learning style found in elementary students, both in male students (59.5%) and females (57.5%) Despite in a much different frequency than kinesthetic, the aural learning style was also favoured by male students (21.6%) and female students (20%) Similarly, 13.5% of males preferred read/write style compared to 15% of females Visual mode of learning was preferred by 5.4% of males compared to 7.5% of females

Though there were considerable differences in learning style preferences between male and female students with respect to Read/write, Visual and Kinesthetic, the results were not statistically significant

At the level of multimodal learning style, it was differentiated into 3 parts of learning styles namely the combination of 2 learning styles (bi-modal), the combination of three learning styles (tri-modal), and the combination of 4 learning styles (quad modal) The data were shown in Table 2 and Figure 4

Table 2 Multimodal Learning Style Based on Gender

VK AR AK RK ARK VARK

Fre % Fre % Fre % Fre % Fre % Fre % Male 1 14.3 1 14.3 2 28.55 2 28.55 1 14.3 0 0

Figure 4 Determination of Multimodal VARK Learning Style by Gender

In processing information during learning, there were students who functioned more than one sensory In bi-modal learning style found four models of combination, that was RK, AK, AR, and VK The four models were found in male students, except for VA and VR, which was also not found in female students There were only two combinations on women's gender The blend model showed that there was a significant difference in both genders Such as

AK (male 28.55%, female 40%), RK (male 28.5%, female 40%), VK (male 14.3%), and AR (male 14.3%)

In the tri-modal learning style, there was also one combination, of the four types of unimodal learning styles that existed, ARK dominated (male 14.3%) In the quad modal model, there was only one combination of VARK (female 20%) Thus, in the multimodal learning style, it was found that kinesthetic (K) was always present and the result of its combination became a combination of learning styles with more frequency and presentation than others

Figure 5 Specific Learning Style Preferences distribution in males

Figure 5 showed the specific preferred model among males Of the 44 male students who participated, 4.55% had a V-learning preference, 18.18% had an A-learning preference, 11.36% had an R-preference, and 50% had a K- learning preference As high as 2.27% had a VK-learning preference, 2.27% had an AR-learning preference, 4.55% had an AK-learning preference, 4.55% had a RK-learning preference Some students had tri-modal learning style who preferred A, R and K with 2.27%

Figure 6 Specific Learning Style Preferences distribution in females

Figure 6 showed the specific preferred model among females Of the 45 female students who participated, 6.67% had a V-learning preference, 17.78% had an A-learning preference, 13.34% had an R-learning preference, and 51.11% had a K-learning preference As high as an AK-learning preference, 4.44% had an RK-learning preference It also showed that 2.22% had a VARK-learning preference

Of all the male learners, the percentage whose learning style preference contained K somewhere in their profile (whether it was their unimodal choice or contained within one of the male multimodal combinations, such as VA, AK,

RK, or ARK) was 63.64% In contrast, 62.21% of females preferred K in their modality mix Similarly, percentage of males and females preferred R in their modality mix (20.45% vs 20%), either as a unimodal preference or part of a multimodal combination A was preferred by 27.27% of male of 24.44% of females in their modality mix; and V was preferred by 6.82% of males to 8.89% of females in their modality mix Although none of these differences reached statistical significance, these differences need further investigations

The data about major learning style preferences indicated how frequently the students used learning style preferences in learning English Based on Figure 5 and 6, they showed that the descriptive statistics analysis for the mean score of the data obtained from the students’ questionnaire It revealed that both the male and female students used dominantly kinesthetic major learning style preference with 51.11% and 50%, respectively

Kinesthetic students learn more effectively through concrete complete body experience (whole-body movement) Kinesthetic students like lots of movement and enjoy working with tangible objects, collages, and flashcards Sitting at a desk for long is not for them; they prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room Tactile learners also learn by manipulating objects They need to involve their whole body in learning It was revealed that with around 2 minutes ice-breaker activities lead by the lecturer that involved some body movements allowed the students to avoid awkward feeling in making conversation each other between the students

“The games and activity that my teacher delivered in the class just now is helping me, so I’m not shy to talk with my friends although I make several mistakes in speaking English.” (Female 1)

“I don’t like to sit down many times so I really enjoy to stand up and talk with my friends I can be free to talk I like the way I stand up to talk because it gives me freedom to express anything I want.” (Female 3)

“It is so fun to make noise and talk with loud voice Walk around the class and learn how to reject and offer I like this.” (Male 2)

“Learning by doing is good for me and I like it I can learn a lot by doing it directly Because if I don’t do it sometimes, I don’t understand it That is why

Additionally, the participants admitted in their interviews that classroom project increased their mood to absorb the lesson and as a result they understood well what the lecturer tried to deliver in the class

“Project class is my mood booster It increases my interest to learn more and makes me understand the lesson well I am happy to have a class that the lecturer assigned us a project that we should do It affects me so much, really really interesting hehehehe….”(Female 1)

“…about craft is very good, which is cutting and sticking in the paper

So fun and I enjoy it with my friends.” (Female 2)

“I’m immersed myself in the class today because my teacher gave me project and chose me as a leader So, I could pick up my partner then I chose my best friend…” (Male 2)

“It is quite good and fun while my lecturer gave me project because I can work with my friends in the class Trying to do and act based on the instruction provided by our lecturer; I feel happy and use all my senses to explore.” (Male 5)

Discussion

Learning style preferences become personal strengths that can be used to create a positive attitude towards learning Brain dominance, sensory modalities, timely physical needs, attitude (self-directed/ motivated), environment and social aspects are the factors which determine learning styles Student’s approach of learning can be influenced by the perception that they gain from their learning environment Learning the second language usually requires several simultaneous skills involving sensory components such as Visual, in which the learner relies on visual perception and visual memory, and he learns better by seeing the educational material, such as drawings, shapes, graphic and graphic representations, graphic presentations, and display devices and other visual techniques; Auditory, in which the individual relies on auditory perception and auditory memory, and they are characterized by an understanding of auditory experiences, and they have a high ability to listen and prepare audio experiences and information, such as listening to lectures, recorded tapes, discussions, oral conversations, and other oral and audio practices; Read/write learning style which the learner depends on the awareness of the ideas and meanings read and written, where he learns better, by reading or writing ideas and meanings, which require books, references, dictionaries, articles, pamphlets and worksheets, in addition to written works, and noting notes and their summaries; and Kinesthetic, in which the learner relies on his tactile perception to learn ideas and meanings, and the learner who prefers the kinesthetic style learns better through manual work, in addition to the laboratory and the work of models, designs and models, and conducting experiments and movement activities, decoding, synthesis, presentations, procedures and applications In order to improve their academic performance, the knowledge of learning style preferences may create awareness among the students and promote their learning to focus on recommending and motivating the appropriate learning style (unimodal, bi-modal or multimodal) to bring out the hidden potentials in them

Based on the data of learning styles as a whole, primary school students were determined by unimodal learning style It means that students are more likely to use only one sensory to receive information during learning Related to these findings, the logical argument needs explaining The argument was obtained based on the results of observations related to the pattern of learning that teachers used during this time Teachers generally tend to use learning models or conventional teaching methods that focus more on teachers, lectures, assignments, group work No matter, if the students are bored, teachers tend to force students to follow the pattern of teaching The variation of less maximized learning strategy or learning model is thought to be the cause of the students tend to activate only one of the senses Such processes take place continuously, thus ultimately forming the student habits of optimizing unimodal learning styles, resulting in a less explored multimodal pattern

Elementary school students tend to have unimodal learning styles, and kinesthetic is the dominant learning style referenced by students More than half of the students in one class show their preferences in kinesthetic learning style, then auditory, read/write, and visual Along with the cognitive development of students, there is a change in learning style from the nature of unimodal to the multimodal It is very clearly seen at the college level, where students tend to use several ways of learning to manage the learning process

Another study from Peyman (2014) conducted in Iran has reported some findings, saying that medical students prefer to use multimodal learning styles compared to unimodal support this finding They use a variety of learning activities and presentations in the classroom Related to that, it has been mentioned that junior high students are more likely to use multimodal learning styles than unimodal ones The findings informed that they used a variety of activities and classroom presentations

In the VARK dimension that includes four learning style choices, kinesthetic is a learning style that has a higher preference than the others do Elementary students generally learn by doing it directly do it Direct participation takes precedence, as well as shows students are concerned and active in building their knowledge and not relying on other students More information is received, processed or transferred again, and is used in the decision-making process of a condition The best learning is to experience yourself or directly what is being studied Learn to take a role in creating meaningful experiences for students to be able to determine the best decisions on other conditions in the future

In the active age of growing and developing elementary school children have a desire to know many things Students feel happy if they are involved or directly perform certain instructions while learning takes place By doing something directly or self-directed practice, students are trained to store more information and experience Information processing theory by the brain explains that the brain's ability to receive information takes place optimally in

10 minutes; the rest has led to saturation Therefore, that information is no longer meaningful in the student's knowledge structure

Based on gender aspect, it is known that female students tend to use kinesthetic learning style Read and visual are also used but the comparison is not the same as kinesthetic This similar information has also been found by another study by Wehrwein, Lujan, and DiCarlo (2007) saying that kinesthetic was the preferred unimodal learning style for female students (women 33.3%, men 4.2%) Women have a strong preference for kinesthetic learning styles compared to men Likewise, auditory and visual are referenced in female students rather than male students This implies that female students prefer to obtain information or knowledge through the activation of the sense of hearing and sight

Multimodal learning style is a combination of several learning styles Multimodal describes that one does not only use one method to access information but also combine more than one-way In this study, it is revealed the multimodal learning style combination between kinesthetic, auditory, and read learning styles more often found from other combinations This condition ensures that the determinants of unimodal learning styles of elementary students are kinesthetic, aural, read/write and visual sequentially from highest frequency to lowest frequency in accordance with the results presented in Table

Multimodal learning styles are also owned by students other than unimodal Its existence is very dependent on the situation, where each learning style has its own unique strength and weaknesses Each student can develop his skills or agility in using all learning styles It has also been found that certain students have high sensitivity to their learning process They begin to recognize the need to broaden their own learning style preferences Teachers naturally like the students’ preferred learning styles, but an expansion of student learning styles is expected so that they can work optimally with all members of their class

Female students are more likely to use multimodal learning styles in the form of quad modal compared with bi-modal and tri-modal In other words, bi- modal and tri-modal percentage in men is greater than female, but inversely proportional to quad modal Overall, it is found that male students have a greater preference in using multimodal learning styles than women In connection with my study, Wehrwein, Lujan, and DiCarlo (2007) founded that multimodal learning styles were more likely to be found in male students (87.5%) than in women (45.8%)

Moreover, based on the results of research and discussion concluded that elementary school is more likely to optimize just one learning style (unimodal) in accessing information Along with the level of cognitive development of children in the formal operational phase, facilitate students in accessing information by way of engaging or conducting directly Kinesthetic becomes the student's choice, followed by aural, read/write and visual Descriptively, it was found that male students had more preference for kinesthetic, aural, read/write and visual learning styles, while female stood out with kinesthetic learning styles Although multimodal learning styles are of little frequency, they are still found with different frequencies in boys and girls The combination of unimodal learning styles that form multimodal with high frequency, found only in dominant learning styles such as kinesthetic, auditory, and read/write combinations

The findings from this study show the male population has more combination of learning preferences than female Regarding unimodal and multimodal preferences, it seems that both genders prefer multimodal preference Our study found that females prefer multimodal preference more than males (50% females, 35.38% males)

My study showed no huge variation observed in the favored learning model or preferred learning styles between males and females in primary school students These conclusions support Balasubramaniam et al (2018) in which they deny any similarity among males and females regarding learning style preferences Besides, the study lends support to previous studies on undergraduate ESL students that have found non-significant difference between males and females in their LSP For instance, this finding is consistent with Mohamed Ismail and Yusof (2012) which explored the English language learning styles among undergraduates in a Malaysian public university, whereby it was reported that gender does not help differentiate the students’ preferences of learning orientations Kashefian-Naeeini et al (2011) also revealed that gender did not have any effect on Malaysian ESL learners’ language learning strategies

Therefore, in this technological era, the so-called gender factor might not be enough to optimize and develop a conducive learning environment for language learners as there are other dimensions as well that need to be considered, such as technological proficiency, prior learning exposure, as well as social and cultural influences

VARK has support among practitioners and encourages a range of teaching and assessment techniques VARK encourages flexibility and imagination in designing resources and in changing environmental conditions

It changes the teachers focus as they begin to respond more sensitively to the different learning preferences of their students VARK also encourages teachers to reexamine their own learning and teaching styles Finally, VARK encourages teachers and students to talk about learning and gives them a language (e.g., kinesthetic) that may legitimize behaviors, such as moving about the room, etc The more the instructors know the students, their learning styles, their gender differences, and their learning needs, the more successful achievements they will reach in their study.

Summary

Primary school students tend to have unimodal learning styles, and kinesthetic is the dominant learning style referenced by students More than half of the students in one class show their preferences in kinesthetic learning style, then aural, read/write, and visual Along with the cognitive development of students, there is a change in learning style from the nature of unimodal to the multimodal It is very clearly seen at the college level, where students tend to use several ways of learning to manage the learning process

On the other hand, it is important to note that the results do not suggest that there is an innate difference in aptitude between genders, nor is it promoting separation of genders in the learning process (i.e., separate science classes for male and females) This study asserts that male and females have difference preferences in learning style According to Lie et al (2004), males and females are unique as far as their learning style preference is concerned Males have preference for rational evaluation and logic, while female use elaborative processing in which they try to seek personal relevance or individual connection with the material being taught Nevertheless, as suggested by Lie et al (2004), this actually supports mixed gender classrooms and study groups to allow both genders to learn from each other.

The question remains whether research on gender and learning can contribute to the discussion on gender inequality in education People think it can Some studies mention a link between the way students learn and gender differences in study choices and success But the nature of this relationship was virtually never elaborated on, theoretically nor empirically In this review the researcher has shown the lack of investigation of the role of education in creating the differences in learning styles Do certain learning styles lead to more study success, or is this only the case in a converging context? In order to be able to draw conclusions on the processes involved in and the causes of gender differences in learning, it seems important to investigate the gender sensitive dimensions more thoroughly These dimensions should not only be interpreted, but also empirically investigated, as resulting from interaction between factors outside and inside the school environment.

CONCLUSION

Summary of the key findings

The current study was performed on primary school students of Australian Languages Center The aim of this research was to determine primary school learners’ learning style preferences and the relationship between gender with learning style preferences based on the VARK standard questionnaire Awareness of learning styles of learners is very helpful in education systems and helps instructors identify and solve learning problems of learners Similarly, it helps learners learn more efficiently According to Lujan (2006), being aware of learning style preferences of learners can provide motivation for instructors to move towards learning styles of student from their own teaching method and help overcome a single style in students of a specific group Moreover, they can help improve teaching structure considering the students preferred teaching style and lead to development of educational approaches

In short, based on the explanation has been described in the previous chapter, this research aimed to find out the most preferred learning styles and the correlation of the learning style preferences between male and female students of primary school students The data were conducted by using questionnaires and interviews from the researcher and from previous study

Based on the data analysis in the previous chapter, it can be concluded that the learning style of students varied, both unimodal and multimodal

However, more students tend to use unimodal learning styles compared to multimodal Furthermore, the female and male students learning style they used to do is almost similar and have a same the most frequently learning style Kinesthetic is the most preferred between primary school learners, which is followed by Aural, Read/Write, and Visual

In addition, no statistically significant differences were observed between male and female students concerning their learning preferences However, a few studies reported that differences do exist in learning styles among the students from different gender and such differences should be taken into account when teaching foreign languages

From all the reasons above, the researcher recommends research that correlates student's learning style with teacher's teaching style, other factors that also influence student's learning style need to be revealed besides gender Although learning has not been entirely constructivist which means that students are active in building their knowledge, students are likely to use a kinesthetic pattern of access to information Therefore, teachers should use various learning strategies that facilitate students in order to experience learning directly It also needs to be studied the influence of VARK learning style on student learning motivation, how teachers can accommodate different student learning styles in learning The study also revealed that primary school students are less dominant in using the multimodal learning style, so it needs to be studied, whether this applies to all subjects or only certain ones and why such patterns occur in students at the elementary level

Diagnosing and understanding students’ learning styles is no doubt, important from pedagogical aspect It is clear that each student has a specific learning style, and as noticed, but the preference is not different between the two genders And, although being aware of gender-marking styles may not lead to effective teaching, science teachers, in order to be more effective, still need to recognize these differences as a whole and subsequently need to broaden their range of teaching styles accordingly.

Implications

First of all, before a child starts their education, they should know what types of learning style they have After they know their type of learning style, they will find out the best strategy for their learning process in education institution In a simple word, the students’ knowledge about their learning style will help them to receive information from their teacher more effective than common students

In students’ daily life, some students feel that their parents tend to compare their achievement with another student This will put the student under pressure which leads to students unmotivated to learn In fact, the parents should support their children in education or other activities, because every child has different skill and achievement This support will grow children’s confidence to reach in their dream

With regard to the teachers, it is better for them to be able to identify the students’ learning style preferences and use an appropriate teaching method which can accommodate all types of learning style learners Even the teacher feels difficult to use some appropriate teaching methods for all learning styles in one way, they can manipulate or switch another teaching method as well as teaching strategies for every meeting

Last but not least, educator or the education expert is a main part or an important person in education field Educator’s duty is to ensure that teaching method which is used by teacher is appropriate for the students Then educator should more understand about learning style than teacher, so they can hold a discussion’s event or seminar about the knowledge for students, parents, teachers and all people whom participate in education field.

Limitations

This study had some potential limitations that may affect the results The study was limited to a language center, with a limited, yet diverse student population It is unlikely for the results of the statistical analysis to be attributed to chance, but this does not necessarily imply that they are valid outside this center or that they can be generalized to other settings

Another limitation of this study, and any study using the VARK questionnaire, is that it does not account for confounding factors such as socioeconomic status, race, culture, etc However, the relatively homogenous population surveyed in this study is likely to be less effected by these factors

A strong point of the VARK questionnaire is that its questions and options are drawn from real-life situations and respondents identify with the results that they receive – they affirm the face validity of the tool For example, 60% of respondents on the VARK website reported that their VARK results match what they perceive to be their learning preferences Fewer than 5% reported that their results do not describe their preferred modalities The remaining respondents say they do not know whether their results match their preferences However, although self-perceptions are not always reliable, these data support the validity of the VARK questionnaire.

Suggestions for further research

Based on the findings and discussion, the following suggestions are recommended Considering the learning styles used by the successful language learners in Australian Languages Center, all instructors as well as educators should be attentive to increase their awareness of learning styles Learning styles applied by the student in the learning process could be a prior knowledge for other students, hence, they can set a better learning phase for their own to achieve quick and efficient English learning Language learners should be aware of what strategies work best for themselves in learning English Consequently, the learning strategies used by the student in this research could be an example for other language learners who might have similarities to achieve the learning goals The research is also expected to provide theories of learning styles and learning strategies in English for instructors and encourage students to know their strategies

As well as students, teachers play a critical role in the teaching or learning process The researcher recommended further investigation into teaching and learning styles There is also a lack of research on high school students’ language learning styles Further research related to their classroom learning styles should be done in order to improve the quality of high school education Furthermore, additional variables could also be investigated, while most of the previously presented and discussed studies on learning styles focused on categorizing learners into groups based on their age and gender, a few studies examining learning styles concentrated on another criterion of group categorization of the participating learners Finally, there are some research studies that showed both group and individual learning styles are minor learning styles This may reveal that students have unsure approaches towards the mentioned learning styles Finding students’ preferences towards both individual and group learning styles can be done in further studies

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Bảng câu hỏi khảo sát VARK

Cách học nào là tốt nhất đối với em?

Hãy chọn những đáp án giải thích rõ nhất về sở thích của em Chọn thêm đáp án khác nếu đáp án thứ nhất chưa đủ để phản ánh hiểu biết của em Bỏ trống bất cứ câu hỏi nào mà em thấy không phù hợp

1 Em cần tìm đường đến 1 cửa hàng mà bạn em đã giới thiệu, em sẽ: a tìm xem cửa hàng đó có liên quan đến 1 địa điểm mà em biết hay không b nhờ bạn em chỉ đường c viết ra những chỉ dẫn về đường đi mà em cần nhớ d sử dụng bản đồ

2 Trong một trang web có chứa video hướng dẫn cách vẽ 1 biểu đồ đặc biệt mà em cần tìm hiểu, em sẽ học tốt nhất bằng cách: a nhìn vào sơ đồ b nghe video c đọc hướng dẫn những việc cần làm d xem các hành động của người vẽ

3 Khi em muốn tìm hiểu nhiều hơn về chuyến du lịch em đang đi, em sẽ: a xem thông tin chi tiết về những nơi đẹp nhất và những hoạt động trong chuyến đi b sử dụng bản đồ để thấy được vị trí của các địa điểm c đọc thông tin về chuyến đi trên lịch trình di chuyển d nói chuyện với người lên kế hoạch cho chuyến đi hoặc những người khác cùng chuyến đi

4 Khi lựa chọn các môn để học, điều này là tiêu chí rất quan trọng khiến em chọn môn đó: a áp dụng được các kiến thức của em vào các tình huống thực tế b giao tiếp với người khác thông qua những cuộc nói chuyện c làm việc với các bản thiết kế, bản đồ và biểu đồ d sử dụng được từ ngữ trong giao tiếp bằng văn bản

5 Khi học, em thường: a thích nói chuyện và bàn luận về mọi thứ b nhìn thấy các đặc điểm và họa tiết trong mọi thứ c sử dụng các ví dụ và các ứng dụng d đọc sách, báo và các bảng tin

6 Khi em muốn đề xuất các cách gây quỹ cho một đội thể thao, em sẽ: a tập trung vào những cách mà em biết là nó sẽ có hiệu quả b lên danh sách chi tiết những cách gây quỹ khác nhau c so sánh đồ thị của các cách thức gây quỹ d nói chuyện với những người đang gây quỹ

7 Em muốn học cách chơi một trò chơi cờ hoặc một trò chơi thẻ bài Em sẽ: a xem những người khác chơi trò chơi đó trước khi tham gia b lắng nghe ai đó giải thích và hỏi những câu hỏi c xem một sơ đồ giải thích các giai đoạn và các bước di chuyển trong trò chơi đó d đọc các hướng dẫn về trò chơi

8 Em có vấn đề với đầu gối của mình Em mong muốn rằng bác sĩ sẽ: a đưa cho em bệnh án để đọc có chứa giải thích về cơn đau của đầu gối b sử dụng mô hình nhựa để chỉ ra bệnh c nói cho em nghe về bệnh d đưa ra sơ đồ thông tin về bệnh

9 Khi em muốn học để làm một việc gì đó mới trên máy tính, em sẽ: a đọc các chỉ dẫn được viết đi kèm với các phần mềm b nói chuyện với người biết về các phần mềm c bắt đầu sử dụng máy tính và và học bằng cách tự mò mẫm d sử dụng các sơ đồ trực tuyến

10 Điều em thích khi học trên mạng: a những video hướng dẫn cách làm mọi thứ b những thiết kế thú vị và các đặc điểm mang tính hình ảnh c các bảng miêu tả và những giải thích thú vị bằng văn bản d các kênh âm thanh nơi em có thể lắng nghe các chương trình thu âm hoặc phỏng vấn

11 Sau khi xem một bộ phim, em muốn làm một dự án mới về bộ phim đó Em sẽ: a vẽ và phác thảo một cảnh trong bộ phim b viết về vở kịch đó c đọc các bài tóm tắt về bộ phim d diễn lại các cảnh trong bộ phim