Research questions
The research questions that the present study seeks to answer are:
1 What is the students‟ awareness of the importance of vocabulary learning?
2 What vocabulary learning strategies do the first year students at Hai Phong Community College commonly use?
Scope of the study
The research examined the vocabulary learning strategies utilized by first-year students at Hai Phong Community College during the second term of the 2011-2012 academic year.
Significance of the study
Vocabulary learning is crucial in second and foreign language acquisition, as highlighted by Schmitt and McCarthy (1997) This study emphasizes the significance of vocabulary awareness among students and identifies various vocabulary learning strategies that necessitate training from teachers Additionally, it uncovers the most and least frequently used strategies by students, providing valuable insights to enhance vocabulary teaching and learning at Hai Phong Community College.
Methods of the study
To achieve the study's objectives, a semi-structured interview and survey questionnaire were employed English teachers at Hai Phong Community College provided insights into the vocabulary learning strategies utilized by their students, which informed the survey The vocabulary learning strategies included in the questionnaire were derived from a comprehensive literature review and the interview data Following the analysis of the results, the findings were discussed, and several suggestions were proposed to enhance vocabulary learning strategies.
Structure of the study
The study is divided into four chapters Each chapter deals with an important aspect of the study
Chapter 1 is the introduction of the study, which includes the rationale, aim, research questions, scope, significance the study as well as the methods and structure of the study
Chapter 2 explores fundamental concepts associated with language learning and vocabulary acquisition strategies It also reviews the classifications of these strategies to establish a theoretical framework for the subsequent investigation in the following chapter.
Chapter 3 covers the pilot study and main study They include the context of the study, research questions, participants, data collection instruments, procedures, data analysis and implications
Chapter 4 summarizes the main issues of the whole study and gives the future directions for further research and limitations of the study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language learning strategies
Over the past two decades, the focus in language learning and teaching has shifted significantly towards learners and their learning processes, rather than solely on teachers and their methods This change has prompted researchers to investigate how learners process new information and the strategies they use to comprehend, learn, and retain it Consequently, understanding language learning strategies (LLS) for foreign language acquisition and the teacher's role in facilitating strategy training has become increasingly vital.
Research into Language Learning Strategies (LLS) began in the 1960s, heavily influenced by advancements in cognitive psychology The primary focus of this research has been to identify the techniques employed by effective language learners, as noted by Rubin and Wenden (1987) A significant milestone occurred in 1966 when Aaron Carton published "The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study," marking the first exploration of learner strategies Following this, in 1971, Rubin concentrated on the strategies used by successful learners, proposing that these strategies could be shared with those who struggle in language acquisition.
Numerous researchers, including Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), and Naiman et al (1978), have explored the various strategies employed by language learners in the process of acquiring foreign languages Notable contributions also come from Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and O'Malley (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), and Conti and Kolsody (1998), highlighting the importance of understanding these strategies for effective language learning.
1.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies
Research on learning strategies, especially language learning strategies, is gaining significant popularity However, linguists have yet to reach a consensus on the definitions of learning strategies.
Learning strategies are essential mental processes that learners utilize to acquire and use a target language, as defined by Nunan (1991) However, Richard et al (1992) expand this definition to include intentional behaviors and thoughts that enhance understanding, retention, and learning of new information Similarly, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) emphasize that these strategies are purposeful, aiming to facilitate learning and positively influence the learner's motivation and emotional state while effectively organizing and integrating new knowledge.
Oxford (1990:8) defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to new situation.”
Learning strategies, as defined by Ellis (1997:76), are specific techniques or approaches that learners use to acquire a second language (L2) These strategies can be categorized as either behavioral or mental, and they are generally focused on solving problems encountered during the learning process.
Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin 1987:19) clearly defines a learner as someone who engages in processes that facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and application of information This highlights the active role learners play in both their learning and self-regulation.
Learning strategies, as defined by O'Malley and Charmot (1990), are specific methods of processing information that improve comprehension, learning, and retention These strategies encompass unique thoughts and behaviors that individuals employ to effectively understand and remember new information.
Learning strategies are understood through various lenses, including cognitive, social, and pragmatic perspectives As a result, researchers have developed a taxonomy of learning strategies rather than providing a singular definition This approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of how learning strategies function.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, research concentrated on categorizing strategies identified in previous studies, leading to the development of various taxonomies These classifications aimed to organize language learning strategies (LLS) broadly, as well as specific strategies related to language sub-skills.
One of the most famous to date that proposed by O'Malley and Chamot
(1990) Their hierarchical framework of strategies distinguishes three major strategy types:
O'Malley and Chamot's strategy framework is widely appreciated and utilized by educators for lesson planning However, the lack of examination into the construct validity of their taxonomy raises concerns about its effectiveness in teaching and training students to effectively employ these three distinct strategies.
According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These are:
Stern (1992:262-266) stated that, there are five main LLS These are as follows:
Oxford's classification of learning strategies is widely regarded as the most comprehensive, featuring six strategies divided into direct and indirect categories According to Oxford (1990:17), this taxonomy provides a detailed framework for understanding language learning strategies.
Recent research in this field highlights a comprehensive understanding of Language Learning Strategies (LLS), extending beyond cognitive processes to encompass social and communicative techniques.
1.1.4 The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching
Bridging the gap between students' learning styles and teachers' teaching methods is essential for fostering successful learning outcomes It is crucial to teach students effective learning strategies, which Oxford (1990) defines as specific actions that enhance the learning experience by making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and transferable to new contexts By implementing these strategies, educators can address the weaknesses of various learning styles while effectively amplifying their strengths.
To emphasize the importance of LLS, Chamot et al (1999) stated,
Effective learners utilize a greater variety of strategies and apply them more appropriately to tasks compared to less effective learners Consequently, teaching effective learning strategies is particularly beneficial for those who struggle By equipping these learners with the right strategies, they can enhance their vocabulary acquisition and improve their overall study skills.
Vocabulary learning strategies
In the realm of language learning strategies, there is currently no official definition for vocabulary learning strategies However, this may not be necessary, as vocabulary learning strategies are inherently integrated within the broader category of language learning strategies, which themselves are a subset of general learning strategies.
With reference to the definitions of learning strategies mentioned above, in this research, following Oxford (1990:8), the working definition of vocabulary learning strategies is as follows:
Vocabulary learning strategies are targeted actions that learners employ to enhance their vocabulary acquisition These strategies aim to make the learning process easier, quicker, and more enjoyable, while also promoting self-direction and effectiveness Ultimately, they help learners transfer their vocabulary knowledge to new contexts.
1.2.2 Classification of vocabulary learning strategies
Word knowledge is an essential component of communicative competence (Seal, 1991), and it is important for both production and comprehension in a foreign Knowing a word involves knowing:
a great deal about its general frequency of use, syntactic and situational limitations on its use
its underlying form and the form that can be derived from it,
the network of its semantic features and,
the various meaning associated with the item
Understanding a word encompasses its spelling, pronunciation, collocations, and appropriateness, highlighting that lexical competence extends beyond merely defining words It involves a broad spectrum of knowledge and necessitates diverse strategies for acquisition Consequently, foreign language learners employ various methods to develop their vocabulary Language researchers have sought to categorize these vocabulary learning strategies, as evidenced by taxonomies proposed by Gu and Johnson.
(1996), Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001) which are briefly discussed below
1.2.2.1 Classification of Gu and Johnson (1996)
Gu and Johnson (1996) list second language (L2) vocabulary learning strategies into metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies
Metacognitive strategies encompass selective attention and self-initiation techniques Learners utilizing selective attention can identify key vocabulary essential for understanding a text Meanwhile, those who adopt self-initiation strategies employ various methods to clarify the meanings of vocabulary items.
Cognitive strategies outlined in Gu and Johnson’s taxonomy include guessing strategies, effective dictionary use, and note-taking techniques Learners employing guessing strategies utilize their background knowledge and linguistic cues, such as grammatical structures, to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Memory strategies are classified into rehearsal and encoding categories
Rehearsal strategies, such as word lists and repetition, play a crucial role in memory retention Encoding strategies include various techniques like association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding, which enhance the learning process Additionally, analyzing words through their prefixes, stems, and suffixes is an effective method known as word-structure encoding.
Activation strategies include those strategies through which the learners actually use new words in different contexts For instance, learners may set sentences using the words they have just learned
All these suggested strategies can be summarized in a table as follows:
Metacognitive Selective attention: identifying essential words for comprehension
Self-initiation: using a variety of means to make the meaning of words clear
Cognitive Guessing: activating background knowledge, using linguistic items
Memory Rehearsal: word lists, repetition, etc
Encoding: association (imagery, visual, auditory, etc.)
Activation Using new words in different contexts
Table 1: Gu and Johnson’s (1996) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
Norbert Schmitt (1997) developed a comprehensive inventory of vocabulary learning strategies, categorizing them into two main groups: strategies for determining the meaning of new words and strategies for consolidating meaning upon re-encounter The first group includes determination and social strategies, while the second encompasses cognitive, metacognitive, memory, and social strategies, highlighting the versatility of social strategies in both contexts This classification draws on Oxford's (1990) framework, providing a structured approach to vocabulary acquisition.
Strategies for the discovery of a new word’s meaning
Analyze parts of speech Analyze affixes and roots Check for L1 cognate Analyze any available pictures or gestures Guess the meaning from textual context Bilingual dictionary
Ask teacher for an L1 translation Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of a new word Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word
Ask classmates for meaning Discover new meaning through group work activities
Strategies for consolidating a word once it has been encountered
Study and practice meaning in a group Teacher checks students‟ flash cards or word lists for accuracy Interact with native speaker
Study word with a pictorial presentation of its meaning Image word‟s meaning
Connect word to a personal experience Associate the word with its coordinates Associate the word with its synonyms and antonyms Use semantic maps
Use „scales‟ for gradable adjectives Peg method
Loci method Group words together to study them Group words together spatially on a page Use new word in sentences
Group words together within a storyline Study the spelling of a word
Study the sound of a word Say new word aloud when studying Image word form
Underline initial letter of the word Configuration
Use keyword method Affixes and roots Parts of speech Paraphrase the word‟s meaning Use cognates in study
Learn the words of an idiom together Use physical action when learning a word Use semantic feature grids
Verbal repetition Written repetition Word lists
Flash cards Take note in class Use the vocabulary section in your textbook Listen to tape of word lists
Put English labels on physical objects Keep a vocabulary notebook
Use English-language media (songs, movies, newscasts, etc.) Testing oneself with word tests
Use spaced word practice Skip or pass new word Continue to study word over time
Table 2: Norbert Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
In 2001, Nation proposed a taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, categorizing them into three main classes: planning, sources, and processes Planning strategies focus on selecting which words to study, choosing appropriate strategies, and determining the frequency of attention given to specific words Source strategies involve methods for acquiring information about words, which can include analyzing word parts, inferring meaning from context, consulting reference materials like dictionaries, or using first language analogies The final category, processes, encompasses techniques for remembering words, divided into three sub-categories related to vocabulary learning conditions: noticing, retrieving, and generating This comprehensive taxonomy illustrates the multifaceted approach to vocabulary acquisition.
General class of strategies Types of strategies
Planning: choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it
Choosing the aspects of word knowledge
Planning repetition Sources: finding information about words Analyzing the word
Consulting a reference source in L1 or L2
Using parallels in L1 and L2 Processes: establishing knowledge Noticing
Table 3: Nation’s (2001) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
In general, although the taxonomies cited above may slightly differ in terms of strategies they categorize, they all provide a list of widely applicable vocabulary learning strategies
Nation's taxonomy stands out for its simplicity, utilizing straightforward terminology to categorize only classes and types of strategies This approach contrasts sharply with Schmitt's taxonomy, which identifies up to 58 distinct strategies, and Gu and Johnson's taxonomy, which incorporates complex psychological terms such as metacognitive and cognitive strategies, as well as activation and self-initiation concepts.
Schmitt's taxonomy serves as a valuable research tool for examining vocabulary learning strategies among specific learner groups This effectiveness was demonstrated in Schmitt's 1993 study on Japanese learners of English Given its established research significance, the taxonomy has been selected as the foundation for analyzing the vocabulary learning strategies of first-year students at Hai Phong Community College.
METHODOLOGY
The context of the study
Hai Phong Community College offers a General English course for all students across various departments, which is conducted during their first and second years This comprehensive program spans four terms, totaling 240 periods of English instruction For the initial two terms, students utilize the "New Cutting Edge – Elementary (Students' Book)" by Sarah Cunningham and Peter Moor, published in 2005 In the subsequent two terms, the curriculum transitions to the "New Cutting Edge – Pre-intermediate (Students' Book)" by the same authors, enhancing students' English proficiency.
In 2005, a selection of materials was introduced to enhance the course, combining a comprehensive syllabus with reliable teaching resources This blend has contributed to the course's popularity, while new features have made it even more accessible and user-friendly.
The New Cutting Edge – Elementary (Students' Book) for first-year students features fifteen theme-based modules along with three review modules Each module focuses on a specific topic and includes six components: Language Focus, Vocabulary, Reading/Listening, Task, Further Skills, and Study Practice Typically, each module is designed to be completed in seven periods, while the three review modules serve as "Consolidation Modules" to assist students in assessing their understanding and academic progress independently.
Each vocabulary section addresses familiar themes such as people, places, daily life, transportation, food and drink, films, clothing, and weather, which are essential components of each module This vocabulary is intricately linked to the topics and tasks within the modules, creating a vital foundation for practicing all other aspects effectively.
By the time of the survey, the first year students at Hai Phong Community College have finished one-half of the second term
In this term, they study vocabulary of seven modules (from module 9 to
- Going out and staying in; the weather
At the end of the term, the students have to take an online exam called
The "Online Multiple Choice Test on LAN Network" features 35 questions that cover phonetics, vocabulary, grammar, and reading comprehension Students have 30 minutes to complete the test after signing in, and their scores will be automatically sent upon completion or when the time is up This assessment serves as a final examination format, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation of students' language skills.
Number Test items Number of questions
Multiple choice questions & short answers
Multiple choice questions & short answers
Multiple choice questions & short answers
Table 4: Table of test specifications
As can be seen from table, the Vocabulary contains at least fifteen multiple- choice questions in a test, which holds 15 points in total 35 points Besides, in the
The pronunciation and reading comprehension sections each consist of five multiple-choice questions Students who are unfamiliar with new and challenging vocabulary may struggle to answer correctly Consequently, vocabulary knowledge accounts for over half of the total marks on a test.
As mentioned above, the study was conducted to answer the following questions:
1 What is the students‟ awareness of the importance of vocabulary learning?
2 What vocabulary learning strategies do the first year students at Hai Phong Community College commonly use?
Prior to the main study, a pilot study was conducted with the same sample to assess the reliability of the research instruments and determine if students were familiar with the vocabulary learning strategies listed in the survey questionnaire The pilot study involved four randomly selected students and two teachers.
The interview was conducted in English with selected teachers, focusing on open-ended questions as per the interview guidelines (refer to Appendix 2) Participants were encouraged to share their thoughts openly during the fifteen-minute session, which took place in the Faculty of Foreign Language office.
Following a comprehensive literature review and analysis of reported data, a survey questionnaire was developed and administered to students, utilizing the same version as in the main study (refer to Appendix 3) Participants were instructed to respond to preliminary questions before indicating their frequency of using various strategies for learning and retaining new vocabulary, selecting from options ranging from always to never This process took place over half a day in a single classroom at HPCC.
Finally, the data were analyzed and some results were drawn from pilot study
Results for research question 1: What is the students‟ awareness of the importance of vocabulary learning?
All students participating in the survey have over seven years of English learning experience, indicating a strong familiarity with the language The survey results highlight that all students acknowledge the significance of vocabulary acquisition in mastering English Notably, 75% of the students believe that vocabulary learning is crucial, while the remaining 25% still regard it as important Consequently, it is clear that none of the students underestimate the vital role vocabulary plays in their English education.
A recent survey revealed a lack of consensus among students regarding vocabulary learning strategies, with only 25% acknowledging familiarity with such strategies, while 75% reported never having heard of them Despite this, all students agreed on the importance of teaching vocabulary learning strategies in the classroom Many expressed a desire to enhance their vocabulary acquisition independently, rather than relying solely on classroom instruction.
It can be concluded that the students were all aware of the importance of and the need to learn and to be taught vocabulary learning strategies
Results for research question 2: What vocabulary learning strategies do the first year students at Hai Phong Community College commonly use?
Participants employed various vocabulary learning strategies for discovering the meanings of new words, although they struggled to articulate these methods Table 5 highlights the three most frequently utilized strategies in this process.
Always use Often use Sometimes use
5 Use an English – Vietnamese dictionary 4 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.00
7 Ask the teacher for the meaning 3 75 1 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.75
4 Analyze any available pictures or gestures 2 50 1 25 1 25 0 0 0 0 4.25
Table 5: Vocabulary learning strategies for discovery a new word’s meaning used by the Pilot study participants
According to the data presented in Table 5, the most frequently utilized vocabulary learning strategy among participants was the use of an English-Vietnamese dictionary, employed by all 4 students (100%) This indicates a strong reliance on bilingual dictionaries for language acquisition The second most common strategy, asking the teacher for meanings, had a high mean score of 4.75, suggesting that students heavily depend on their teachers for vocabulary understanding Additionally, the strategy of analyzing available pictures or gestures was also frequently used, with a mean score of 4.25 However, it is noteworthy that students rarely utilize methods such as analyzing parts of speech or examining prefixes, suffixes, and roots, despite these features serving as valuable tools for lexical inference.
The following table shows three most used vocabulary learning strategies for consolidation a word in memory
Always use Often use Sometimes X use
Table 6: Vocabulary learning strategies for consolidation a word in memory
Participants showed a strong preference for repetition, both written and verbal, in learning encountered words, with mean scores of 4.75 and 4.25, respectively This indicates a reliance on rote learning for understanding the meaning and form of words Additionally, note-taking in class emerged as a frequently used vocabulary learning strategy, with half of the participants consistently utilizing it, reflecting their perception of the teacher as a primary source for vocabulary acquisition.
In conclusion, the pilot study demonstrated that students were enthusiastic about supporting the project and showed a keen interest in vocabulary learning strategies For the main study, the same list of strategies will be utilized, but it will include a larger participant group, allowing for a more detailed analysis of the results.
Implications
A Chinese proverb states, “Give a man a fish and he eats for a day Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime,” highlighting the importance of teaching skills over providing temporary solutions This principle is especially relevant in language learning, particularly in mastering English Students must be equipped with effective learning strategies, while teachers should focus on facilitating this process to ensure long-term success in language acquisition.
Many students utilize various vocabulary strategies from the survey, albeit with varying frequency However, a significant number still do not engage with these strategies, highlighting the need to enhance their awareness of the importance of vocabulary learning techniques.
Many students lack formal instruction in vocabulary learning strategies, often relying on personal struggles or peer support to acquire new words To enhance their language learning experience, it is essential to introduce and teach effective vocabulary learning strategies in the classroom Providing strategy training will empower students and facilitate their overall language acquisition.
While no one has complete knowledge of language learning, English teachers can effectively assist their students by sharing their insights and strategies.
Students must recognize their responsibility in vocabulary learning, as research highlights that learner initiative and independence are essential for achieving higher levels of success (Gu, 1997) Their commitment to practicing vocabulary beyond the classroom significantly contributes to their academic achievement Therefore, teachers should engage students in discussions about the purpose of various vocabulary activities and learning strategies to enhance motivation.
The study revealed that the English-Vietnamese bilingual dictionary was the most commonly utilized strategy among students for understanding word meanings, as it allows them to confirm their guesses (Fraser, 1999) Many students focused on finding Vietnamese equivalents instead of interpreting words in context To enhance their vocabulary acquisition, students should learn to extract contextual information to select the correct meanings from sub-entries Additionally, dictionaries offer valuable grammatical insights and word collocations, often illustrated through example sentences, which help students grasp the syntactic properties and usage of words Furthermore, phonemic transcriptions aid in pronunciation, and advancements in technology now enable students to hear accurate pronunciations through electronic and online dictionaries.
2.5.4 Teaching and learning in context
Students often rely heavily on L1 equivalents for vocabulary learning, which is evident in their preference for bilingual dictionaries However, finding exact Vietnamese equivalents for certain English words can be challenging, leading students to choose similar or relevant meanings This reliance can result in incorrect word usage and collocations, as they frequently overlook context Consequently, only 5.1% of students consistently use contextual clues to infer word meanings To help students move away from L1 translation dependence, vocabulary should be taught within discourse rather than as isolated items Incorporating context-embedded lexical learning, such as context sentences, conversations, and stories, is essential Emphasizing the semantic meaning of vocabulary across various contexts will enable students to grasp that word meanings are sensitive to context.
Students primarily used written and verbal repetition to memorize words, highlighting the complementary role of inferencing skills and memory strategies in vocabulary acquisition Many low-proficiency students depended on rote learning for understanding word meanings and forms, which made vocabulary learning tedious and challenging due to excessive repetition To enhance their spelling and word retention, it is essential to introduce phonemic transcription, phonological processing, and semantic processing strategies.
Word features like prefixes, suffixes, and stems are valuable tools for understanding new vocabulary and reinforcing memory Despite their importance, a study revealed that only 23.6% of students frequently analyze these elements to determine a word's meaning, while 26.8% use them to aid memory retention It is crucial for students to avoid over-relying on morphological analysis alone; they should integrate morphemic and syntactic information to accurately deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words Additionally, students must recognize that certain suffixes, such as "un-," convey specific meanings, while others, like "-tion," denote grammatical categories Furthermore, they should understand that some words, such as "superficial," cannot be broken down into distinct stems and affixes.
Research indicates that students struggle with vocabulary usage and practice, which can lead to forgetting To enhance their lexical competence, students require ample opportunities for meaningful interaction While a natural English-speaking environment may be lacking, implementing more group and pair work activities focused on applying newly learned vocabulary can help students internalize both the vocabulary and the language effectively.
This study aims to enhance English teaching and vocabulary learning at Hai Phong Community College by exploring students' awareness of the significance of vocabulary acquisition, examining commonly used vocabulary learning strategies, and providing recommendations for improving English instruction at the institution.
Effective data collection instruments revealed that students recognize the importance of vocabulary learning and commonly used strategies Most students highly value vocabulary acquisition in their English studies, yet few were familiar with vocabulary learning strategies All participants agreed that these strategies should be incorporated into classroom instruction Additionally, the survey highlighted the strategies frequently employed by the majority of students.
The study highlights several issues in vocabulary learning among students Firstly, many students undervalue the importance of vocabulary acquisition and lack awareness of effective vocabulary learning strategies While bilingual dictionaries, particularly English-Vietnamese, are commonly used to understand new words, students often focus on finding direct Vietnamese equivalents instead of grasping the contextual meanings Additionally, to reinforce vocabulary retention, students frequently employ written and verbal repetition, with lower proficiency learners relying heavily on rote memorization of word meanings and forms Lastly, understanding word features such as prefixes, suffixes, and stems can provide valuable insights for lexical inferencing.
In this study, analyzing prefixes, suffixes, and roots emerged as the least utilized strategies for vocabulary acquisition The findings indicate that students lack consistent practice with vocabulary, highlighting the necessity for regular usage to prevent forgetting To transition words from passive to active vocabulary, regular practice is essential.
The study presents several recommendations to enhance vocabulary learning, emphasizing the importance of raising students' awareness regarding vocabulary learning strategies and the necessity of training in these strategies It highlights the need for learners to recognize their responsibility in the vocabulary acquisition process Additionally, it suggests incorporating effective dictionary strategies and teaching vocabulary in context The study also advocates for the use of memory strategies and an analysis of word features, ultimately underscoring the significance of actively using vocabulary in various contexts.
2 Limitations and suggestions for further study