INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the Study
Systemic Functional Linguistics, developed by M.A.K Halliday in the early 1960s, offers a comprehensive model for understanding language through Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) Unlike traditional formal grammar, which prioritizes written language and prescriptive rules, SFG emphasizes the meaning and context of both spoken and written communication This approach views language as a dynamic communicative resource, focusing on how linguistic structures convey meaning As a result, functional grammar serves as an effective analytical tool, addressing the limitations of conventional grammar and deepening our understanding of human language.
Systemic Functional Grammar encompasses a framework of meanings linked to three key Metafunctions that illustrate the structural use of language The first Metafunction, Interpersonal meanings, emphasizes the social role of language and the participants involved The second, Ideational meanings, highlights the verbal choices made in communication Lastly, Textual meanings concentrate on the organization of the message, determining the sequence of information presented in sentences or texts.
The third metafunction, known as the Textual metafunction, focuses on the concepts of Theme and Rheme, which are fundamental to my research Numerous grammarians, including Mathesius (1975), Halliday and Hasan (1976), and Fries (1981), have extensively studied the Theme Other notable scholars such as Firbas (1986), Halliday (1985, 1994), Downing (1990), Davies (1987), Eggins (1994), Matthiessen (1995), and Thompson (1996) have also contributed to this area of study According to Halliday (1994), understanding these concepts is crucial for analyzing text structure and meaning.
The theme of a text serves as the speaker's point of departure, guiding the message's organization (Halliday, 1994) According to Halliday, the thematic structure of clauses is crucial for text development, allowing readers to discern the writer's concerns Eggin (1994) emphasizes that thematic meanings enable different organizational potentials within clauses to achieve various purposes Researchers often analyze texts clause by clause to uncover their texture and the writer's intentions This article aims to examine the theme-rheme structure in O Henry's short story "The Last Leaf," renowned for its unexpected endings, to understand how the author develops the narrative and conveys his purpose.
In this study, the focus is on the cohesive ties within text, which establish semantic connections that enhance meaning Cohesion is achieved through dependent links between items in the text This analysis will utilize the short story "The Last Leaf" to explore how cohesion contributes to the textual aspect of meaning.
Understanding the theme-rheme structure and the role of cohesion in text is essential for students learning English as a second or foreign language, as it aids in deciphering meaning effectively.
For those reasons, I have decided to choose “A study on Theme-Rheme and
Cohesive Ties in the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry” as the title of my
MA Thesis, using Halliday‟s functional grammar as a theoretical framework.
Aims of the Study
This study aims to analyze O Henry's story "The Last Leaf" through a systemic functional framework, focusing on theme-rheme patterns and cohesive ties To achieve this objective, two key research questions are posed for investigation.
1 How is the text organized and developed in terms of theme-rheme patterns?
2 How are the different cohesive ties of contexts hung together to make the text cohesive?
This article will explore essential concepts such as the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion in Chapter Two In Chapter Three, I will examine the theme-rheme patterns and the primary cohesive ties present in the narrative.
Scope of the Study …
This minor thesis examines select aspects of functional grammar, specifically the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion The primary aim of the study is not to delve deeply into theoretical findings but to utilize these foundational theories to enhance text analysis.
To analyze the theme-rheme structure and cohesive ties in an English text, both descriptive and analytical methods are employed The descriptive method focuses on outlining the key aspects of functional grammar, while the analytical method is used to examine the text for in-depth discussion.
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, is featured in his 1907 collection "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories," published by Philips & Co in New York.
This thesis is divided into four chapters as follows:
Chapter one – Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, scope of the study, methods of the study, data collection, and the research design
Chapter two – Theoretical Background – supplies some fundamental and theoretical concepts for the study: linguistic system, metafunctions and cohesion analysis
Chapter three – The Analysis of the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry focuses on its thematic structure and cohesive ties
Chapter four – Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study and offers some suggestions for teaching and learning as well as for further studies.
Data Collection
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, is featured in his collection "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories," originally published by Philips & Co in New York in 1907.
Design of the Study
This thesis is divided into four chapters as follows:
Chapter one – Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims of the study, scope of the study, methods of the study, data collection, and the research design
Chapter two – Theoretical Background – supplies some fundamental and theoretical concepts for the study: linguistic system, metafunctions and cohesion analysis
Chapter three – The Analysis of the short story “The Last Leaf” by O’Henry focuses on its thematic structure and cohesive ties
Chapter four – Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study and offers some suggestions for teaching and learning as well as for further studies.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND …
Introduction
This chapter delves into fundamental concepts that establish the theoretical framework for the study, focusing on the linguistic system, metafunctions, and cohesion Key insights and examples are drawn from the influential works of renowned linguists, including Halliday (1985, 1994), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Geoff Thomson (1996), and Hoàng Văn Vân (2002, 2005).
2006), and other researchers like Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2006), etc.
The Linguistic System
Language serves as a system of meaning potential in human interaction, realized through various structures within specific contexts, which are analyzed under the concept of register In systemic grammar, register is defined by three key parameters: field, tenor, and mode.
The field of discourse encompasses the activities and social actions occurring within a specific context, highlighting the engagement of participants In this framework, language serves as a crucial element that shapes and influences these interactions.
The tenor of discourse encompasses the participants involved in a conversation, highlighting their roles, statuses, and the nature of their relationships It examines the dynamics of speech roles assumed by individuals and the broader spectrum of socially significant interactions that shape their dialogue.
Mode of discourse encompasses the role of language in communication, highlighting participants' expectations from the text in a given context It involves the symbolic organization, status, and function of the text, considering whether it is spoken, written, or a blend of both Additionally, it examines the rhetorical mode, focusing on the text's purpose, such as whether it aims to persuade, inform, or educate the audience.
These three contextual variables are deemed to be the only aspects of the context of situation of a text that are linguistically relevant to accomplish a particular social goal
It will be embedded in the text by being realized in the semantic and grammatical structures of the text.
Metafunctions
From a sociological perspective, Halliday (1970, 1985) proposed a theory outlining three fundamental functions of language: ideational, interpersonal, and textual These functions align with the parameters of register, where field corresponds to ideational, tenor to interpersonal, and mode to textual This study will focus particularly on the textual metafunction.
The ideational meta-function plays a crucial role in how we express content and encode our experiences of the world, shaping our perception of reality (Butt et al., 1995: 13-14) It is vital for effective communication in everyday situations, as the accurate expression and transfer of information are essential for achieving desired outcomes This function emphasizes the importance of language in facilitating actions and producing real-life results Central to this concept is the System of Transitivity, which illustrates how our representations of the world are conveyed through language, influenced by our verbal choices and the types of processes—such as verbal, material, behavioral, mental, relational, and existential—selected by participants based on their circumstances.
( cause, location, manner , etc.) they are involved with Below are some examples (1a)
The interpersonal metafunction focuses on the dynamic interaction between the speaker and the audience, utilizing grammatical resources to establish social and speech roles within dialogue Through language, the speaker expresses personal comments, attitudes, and evaluations, shaping the relationship with listeners This includes adopting various communication roles such as informing, questioning, greeting, and persuading, thereby influencing the nature of the speech event (Halliday, 1994)
Mood and Residue are essential components of a clause that serve the interpersonal function in communication The Mood indicates the speaker's role and the role assigned to the addressee, making the clause "negotiable." In English, the Mood comprises Finite, Subject, and Modal Adjuncts The Finite element allows a clause to be negotiable by indicating positivity or negativity and grounding it in time or modality The Subject serves as the reference point for affirming or denying the proposition Modal Adjuncts contribute additional meanings related to the speaker's judgment or the Finite's positive or negative aspect Meanwhile, the Residue represents "the remainder of the clause."
The exhausted bushwalker dropped his pack
(Halliday, 1994: 74) which consists of three functional elements: Predicator, Complement and Adjunct Here are some illustrations:
Unfortunately the girl has already done it
Mood Residue Modal Adjunct Subject Finite Modal Adjunct
These flowers have just been given my aunt out of pity
Predicator Complement Adjunct Mood Residue
The textual metafunction focuses on the organization of information within a text, particularly how clauses convey messages It plays a crucial role in structuring interpersonal and ideational meanings as they develop This metafunction is influenced by the choices made regarding the placement of information, specifically the initial focus of a sentence, known as the Theme Thematic structure is essential, as it shapes the character of the clause as a message and establishes its relevance within the context (Halliday, 1994: 37).
In message structure, a clause is composed of a Theme and a Rheme, which are essential for understanding the message The Theme acts as the starting point of the message and typically aligns with the initial elements of the clause, while the Rheme elaborates on the Theme According to Halliday (1994: 34), in the Systemic Functional model of discourse analysis, the Theme represents "what the message is concerned with," serving as the foundation for the speaker's subsequent statements.
According to Halliday (1994), the Theme Structure is essential for defining the message of a clause, alongside other structures like Transitivity and Mood Each clause consists of a Theme and a Rheme, which together form a complete message The thematic organization of clauses plays a crucial role in text development, allowing for an analysis that reveals the writer's intentions and concerns regarding message organization.
The Theme in a clause can be expressed through various structures, including nominal groups, prepositional phrases, adverbial groups, or clauses It consists of the first experiential element—such as a participant, process, or circumstance—and any preceding elements like modal adjuncts, conjunctions, or vocatives Themes can be categorized as single or multiple; a single Theme features one constituent, while a multiple Theme includes more than one element in the thematic position of the clause.
There exist three types of theme: topical theme, textual theme and interpersonal one
Topical themes are intertwined with experiential elements within a clause, which can include participants, circumstances, or processes In contrast, textual themes convey meaning that is pertinent to the context, encompassing both co-text and situational context Textual themes can be categorized into continuity adjuncts, such as "yes," "no," "well," and "now," as well as structural adjuncts that enhance the coherence of the discourse.
Structurals, including conjunctions like "and," "or," and "but," play a crucial role in connecting ideas, while conjunctive adjuncts such as "that is," "moreover," and "as a result" enhance clarity and coherence in writing These linguistic tools help to organize thoughts and guide readers through complex information effectively.
The interpersonal theme reflects the nature of interactions between speakers and their respective positions In English, the most prevalent interpersonal theme is the use of the Finite in interrogative clauses Additionally, modal adjuncts such as "perhaps," "always," "usually," "of course," "surely," "in my opinion," "honestly," "kindly," and "wisely," along with vocatives, play a significant role in shaping these interactions.
An unmarked theme is one that is usual or typical and it often conflates with the
In English grammar, a marked Theme refers to an unusual structure within a declarative clause, where the Theme is typically the subject When the clause is organized differently, such as through the use of a conjunction, it presents a marked Theme According to Halliday (1994: 47), the selection of the Theme element in a clause is influenced by the choice of Mood.
Table 1: Mood type and unmarked Theme selection (Halliday, 2004: 78)
In English grammar, the typical mood of a clause is declarative, where a nominal group acts as the subject For interrogative clauses, yes/no questions begin with the finite operator followed by the nominal group as the subject Wh- questions utilize a nominal group, adverbial group, or prepositional phrase as the interrogative element Imperative clauses address the subject "you" with a verbal group as the predicator, and a negative form includes "don’t." Additionally, imperatives can also address "you and me."
Let’s plus preceding don’t if negative exclamative Nominal group or adverbial group functioning as exclamative
Followings are some examples to illustrate thematic structure:
Cohesion
Cohesion in text refers to the semantic connections or relationships that establish the text's meaning (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) It arises when the understanding of one element relies on another, creating a dependency that enhances the overall coherence of the discourse.
Cohesion is achieved through the strategic selection of systematic resources such as reference, ellipsis, substitution, and conjunction, alongside the inclusion of additional elements like repetition, synonyms, antonyms, meronymy, and collocation.
I don’t believe that pudding ever will be cooked
Theme (unmarked) Rheme oh soldier, soldier, won’t you marry me
Theme (Marked) Rheme resolves the presupposition that this sets up We relatively refer to two types of cohesion: grammatical and lexical which will be explained in the following parts
In linguistics, grammar encompasses the logical and structural principles that dictate how sentences, phrases, and words are formed in any natural language Additionally, grammatical cohesion pertains to the structural elements that contribute to the overall coherence of a text.
According to Hoàng Văn Vân (2006), reference in discourse expresses identity relationships and can be categorized into three types: anaphoric, cataphoric, and exophoric Anaphoric reference points backward to previously mentioned information, while cataphoric reference looks forward to information that will appear later Exophoric reference pertains to items within the same nominal group or phrase that follow a presupposed item For cohesion, anaphoric reference is the most significant as it links to earlier text, making it the most frequently used type (Halliday and Hasan 1976).
(4 a) Three blind mice, three blind mice See how they run! See how they run!
(4 b) I would never have believed it They‟ve accepted the whole scheme
Cohesive references play a crucial role in effective communication, and they can be categorized into three main types: personal, demonstrative, and comparative Personal references utilize noun pronouns such as "he," "she," and possessive determiners like "mine" and "yours" to maintain clarity in the speech context Demonstrative references focus on the location of information through terms like "this," "that," "here," and "there." Lastly, comparative references highlight identity and similarity using adjectives such as "same," "similar," and adverbs like "similarly" and "more." Understanding these cohesive references enhances the coherence of written and spoken language.
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 37-39) For instance:
(5 a) Can you hand Mary a program Hers has got lost
(5 b) They broke a Chinese vase That is valuable
(5 c) I didn‟t expect John to beat Peter I never thought he was so strong
(comparative reference) 2.4.2.1.2 Substitution and ellipsis
Substitution and ellipsis serve as linguistic links at the lexicogrammatical level, distinct from referencing functions that connect semantic meanings within text According to Bloor and Bloor (1995: 96), these techniques are employed by speakers or writers to avoid repeating lexical items, utilizing grammatical resources for replacement The classification of substitution and ellipsis into nominal, verbal, and causal types highlights their grammatical functions When an item is substituted in a text, it retains the same structural function as the original item being presupposed.
In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are “one” and “ones” and they substitute nouns Here is an illustration:
(6) These biscuits are stale – Get some fresh ones
Verbal substitution frequently utilizes the verb "do," often paired with "so" in phrases like "do so" to replace other verbs According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 125-126), "do" typically functions alongside reference items such as "it."
“that” but still have the main function as a verbal substitute because of its grammatical role
(7) Has anyone fed the cat? – Somebody must have done
Clausal substitution involves replacing an entire clause, which, while resembling nominal or verbal substitution, is distinct due to its presupposed anaphoric reference Common linguistic substitutes include "so" and "not."
(8) Has everyone gone home? – I hope not
Though substitution and ellipsis are similar in their function as the linguistic link for cohesion, ellipsis deffers in that it is “substitution by zero” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:
Nominal Ellipsis occurs within nominal group It is the ellipsis of a Head with optional modification (premodifier / postmodifier) For example:
(9) Four other Oysters followed them and yet another four (Oysters)
Verbal Ellipsis appears within verbal group An elliptical group presupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group For example:
(10) Have you been swimming? – Yes, I have (been swimming)
Clausal Ellipsis takes clause as the point of departure It relates to the question and answer in a dialogue There may exist Yes / No Ellipsis or Wh – Ellipsis For instance:
(11) Is he at home? – Yes (He is at home.)
Cohesion in language is significantly achieved through conjunctions, which create a cohesive bond between clauses (Halliday, 1994: 180) These cohesive conjunctions facilitate the logical and semantic organization of ideas within a discourse, enabling the speaker or writer to establish meaningful relationships between concepts This article focuses on Halliday's classification of conjunctions, specifically highlighting three key types: Elaboration, Extension, and Enhancement.
Elaboration in clauses enhances meaning by specifying or describing elements, as noted by Halliday (1994) This can occur through apposition, where elements are represented or rephrased with phrases like "for example" or "in other words." Alternatively, clarification involves summarizing or making elements more precise, using terms such as "actually," "to sum up," or "in particular."
According to Halliday, extension occurs when one clause enhances the meaning of another by introducing new information This can be demonstrated through two main categories: (i) addition, which includes positive conjunctions like "and" and "moreover," negative conjunctions such as "nor," and adversative terms like "but" and "however"; and (ii) variation, which consists of replacive terms like "on the contrary" and "instead," subtractive phrases such as "apart from that," and alternative expressions.
According to Halliday (1994), enhancement involves one clause enriching the meaning of another by qualifying it in various ways This concept encompasses four key elements: spatio-temporal indicators (such as then, next, and soon), manner descriptors (like similarly and thus), causal-conditional terms (including therefore and as a result), and matter references (such as here and in that respect).
2.4.2.2 Lexical Cohesion Lexical cohesion difers from the other cohesive elements in text in that it is non- grammatical Lexical cohesion refers to the “cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary” (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 274) The two basic categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation
In this section, based on Hoang Van Van (2006: 81-83), I will provide an overview of reiteration: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate, meronymy and general word
Repetition refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning occuring more than one in the same discourse
(12) I thought it would surely fall during the night I heart the wind It will fall today and I shall die at the same time
Synonymy refers to the relation between different words bearing the same meaning or nearly the same meaning for a particular person, object, process or quality
(13) Accordingly… I took leave, and turned to the ascent of the peak The climb is perfectly easy…
Antonymy describes opposite or contrastive meaning between two word items
(14)He used to be thin Now, he is fat
The main idea of hyponymy is “inclusion”; that is, a lower term (hyponym) is included in an upper term (the superordinate)
(15)There are many kinds of fruit in the garden He likes apples and oranges the best
In the example above, “apples, oranges”‟ are hyponyms of “fruit” and “apples” and
Superordinate refers to the co-occurrence of terms that share a higher level of generality, while meronymy describes a "part-whole" relationship between lexical items This means that the connection between two components is characterized as co-meronymy, highlighting their interdependent nature.
(16)Henry’s bought himself a new Jaguar He practically lives in the car
(17)The house is big He lives upstairs and she lives downstairs
In the examples above, “car” is superordinate of “Jaguar”; “upstairs, downstairs” are meronymy of “house”; “upstairs” and “downstairs” are co-meronymys
General words refer to a category of nouns that encompass broad references within major noun classes Examples include "human nouns" like people, person, man, woman, and boy; "object nouns" such as thing and object; and "place nouns" like place.
(18)There’s a boy climbing that tree The idiot’s going to fall if he doesn’t take care
Concluding Remarks
This chapter explores key concepts essential to the study, including field, tenor, and mode, which constitute the contextual system It examines three primary functions of language that illustrate distinct semantic choices: (i) transitivity patterns convey representational meaning, indicating what the clause is about, including processes, participants, and circumstances; (ii) mood patterns reflect interpersonal meaning, highlighting the verbal exchange between speaker/writer and audience/reader; and (iii) theme patterns organize the message, showing how the clause connects to the surrounding discourse and situational context Additionally, the study considers cohesion concepts and types to establish a foundational framework of systemic functional grammar for analysis The next chapter will focus on analyzing theme-rheme and cohesive ties within the short story.
“The Last Leaf” by O‟Henry based on the systemic functional approached mentioned before hand.
CHAPTER 3: THEME – RHEME AND COHESIVE TIES IN THE
THEME – RHEME AND COHESIVE TIES IN THE SHORT
STORY “THE LAST LEAF” BY O’HENRY
This chapter aims to analyze the thematic structure and cohesive ties of a short story, utilizing the theoretical concepts discussed in the previous chapter The analysis will encompass the context of the chosen text, the theme-rheme pattern, and an examination of grammatical and lexical cohesion.
3.2 The Context of the Chosen Text
"The Last Leaf," a poignant short story by O Henry published in 1907, is part of his collection "The Trimmed Lamp and Other Stories." Set in the artistic enclave of Greenwich Village during the late 19th to mid-20th centuries, it showcases O Henry's signature themes and character portrayals Renowned as one of America's greatest short story writers, O Henry penned this tale among his 381 stories, often focusing on the lives of everyday people in New York.
"The Last Leaf," a renowned short story by O Henry, was published in the New York World Sunday Magazine, captivating readers primarily in New York and reaching audiences globally.
It is an English text and it carries its own features in meaning and structure
3.3 The Analysis of the text in terms of theme - rheme
The thematic organization of clauses is crucial for text development, as the theme serves as the starting point of the message The significance of a clause is influenced by the chosen Theme, and analyzing this aspect can uncover the underlying ideological meaning of the text In total, the text comprises 270 clauses forming 178 clause complexes, with 250 clauses analyzed for theme The analysis reveals various types of themes identified by Halliday (1994), including Topical, Textual, and Interpersonal themes.
Because the Theme is the starting point from which experiences unfolded in a clause, it must include the whole of the first item in the experiential meanings Eggins (1994:
According to 276), an element assigned a Transitivity function that appears first in a clause is termed a "topical theme." This topical theme includes elements that signify a process, a participant in that process, or a related circumstance For a detailed examination, refer to the thematic analysis table.
Appendix II: The Theme – Rheme Pattern), we can see that topical themes in the text account for the highest percentage in which 212 are participants, 26 are circumstances and 12 processes For example,
Participant: Carrier Relational process Participant : Attribute Topical Theme (unmarked) Rheme
Participant: Goal Participant: Actor Material process Topical Theme (marked) Rheme
Circumstance: Manner Participant: Actor Material process Topical Theme (marked) Rheme
In the analysis of the story's topical themes, Johnsy emerges as the most frequently used character, appearing in 47 clauses (approximately 19%), followed closely by Sue with 44 clauses (about 18%), and Behrman with 25 clauses (around 10%) The narrative primarily conveys the author's ideas through character development, highlighting the significance of Johnsy, Sue, and Behrman as the main figures driving the story's progression.
Clause by clause, the development proceeds as follows:
The article analyzes the first eleven clauses, focusing on eight that highlight the theme through adverbs of place and nominal groups Key phrases such as “In a little district west of Washington Square,” “The places,” and “One street” establish a vivid setting in an old village where impoverished artists reside The author effectively sets the stage in quaint Greenwich Village, inviting readers to anticipate the unfolding narrative.
In the section from the 12th to the 139th clause, the narrative centers on the main characters, Sue and Johnsy, who form a deep friendship after meeting by chance Johnsy, a talented painter suffering from pneumonia, becomes fixated on the ivy leaves falling outside her window, believing that her life will end when the last leaf falls In contrast, Sue, a compassionate and supportive artist, dedicates herself to comforting Johnsy during her illness, demonstrating unwavering care and encouragement as she navigates her own artistic journey.
In clauses 140 to 154, the primary focus shifts to "Old Behrman," establishing him as the central theme of the narrative As one of the three main characters, Behrman emerges as the story's hero, although he is not introduced until the middle of the tale, with the initial attention directed towards the other two protagonists Thus, Behrman’s character serves as a pivotal thematic element that unfolds later in the story.
O Henry's stories are renowned for their surprise endings, which serve to enhance the emotional impact on readers In this narrative, the thematic structure is intentionally crafted, revealing deeper meanings behind the characters' actions The unexpected sacrifice of the protagonist for Johnsy underscores the story's poignant conclusion, leaving a lasting impression on the audience.
In the story, the central focus shifts back to “Sue” and “Johnsy,” particularly as Johnsy, inspired by the last leaf on the tree, realizes that “It’s a sin to want to die.” This newfound optimism leads her to believe in her recovery and the possibility of fulfilling her dreams Ultimately, she does recover The character of “Old Behrman” reemerges briefly in the narrative, particularly in clauses 242 and 244, where his illness is mentioned, and again at the story's conclusion in clause 257 It is revealed through Sue that Behrman painted the last leaf on a cold, dreary night, restoring Johnsy's hope to live His presence is felt in just a few clauses at the end, underscoring his significant yet understated role in the story.
- Mr Behrman died of pneumonia to-day in the hospital (Clause 257)
- He was ill only two days (Clause 258)
- His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold (Clause 260)
- He painted it there the night that the last leaf fell (Clause 269-270)
The concluding themes of "Old Behrman" and "The Last Leaf" mark the story's climax, where the author strategically withholds crucial information until the very end The lasting impression left on readers is that of Old Behrman and his masterpiece, The Last Leaf This symbol not only represents the enduring nature of true friendship, akin to the evergreen ivy leaf, but also embodies the noble spirit of selfless sacrifice.
Interpersonal themes are crucial in “The Last Leaf,” with dialogic interactions comprising nearly half of the narrative The story's discourse type fosters significant character interaction, highlighting various interpersonal themes identified by Halliday (1994), including “vocative,” “modal,” and “mood-marking.” Among the twenty clauses featuring interpersonal themes, fourteen are mood-marking, appearing in clauses such as 36, 40, and 265 Additionally, five vocatives, like “doctor” in clause 44 and “Johnsy, dear” in clause 116, are present, while two modal clauses express the speaker's attitude in complexes CXV and CXXXVI.
Didn’t the doctor tell you?
Interpersonal theme: Mood-marking Topical theme
(Clause 235) Sudie, some day I hope to paint the Bay of Naples
Interpersonal theme: Vocative Topical theme
(Clause complex CXV) But I think you are a horrid old-old flibbertigibbet
The article highlights the prevalence of textual themes, particularly structural elements, in the analyzed text Key connectors such as the additive "and," the adversative "but," and the temporal "then" are utilized across 31 clause complexes to enhance cohesion and coherence These connectors effectively express logical relationships, facilitating a clearer understanding of the text's flow and meaning.
- It will fall today, and I shall die at the same time (Clause complex CXXXVIII)
- There is no hope for him; but he goes to the hospital to-day to be made mor comfortable (Clause complex CLXIII)
- Then they looked at each other for a moment without speaking (Clause complex CXXXVI)
There are only 2 continuatives which signal a new move: a response in dialogues
(“well” in clause 25 and “oh” in clause 93) Conjunctives also appear in the text
(“besides” in 126 and “for the rest” in 152) which together with structurals and continuatives make the story more coherent and easy to follow
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION
This study explores the rheme structure and cohesive ties within a short story through the lens of systemic functional grammar It summarizes the key findings and evaluates how effectively the research objectives established at the outset have been met.
In Chapter 2 of this thesis, I established the foundational framework by reviewing systemic functional grammar, focusing on context elements such as field, tenor, and mode Additionally, I explored the three metafunctions: the ideational metafunction related to field, the interpersonal metafunction pertaining to tenor, and the textual metafunction associated with mode Furthermore, I examined cohesion, differentiating between grammatical cohesion, which addresses structural content, and lexical cohesion, which involves the lexical ties connecting clauses within a text.
Chapter 3 analyzes O Henry's short story "The Last Leaf" in terms of theme and cohesion Out of 270 clauses in the text, 250 were examined for thematic elements The analysis revealed three types of themes, with topical themes being the most prevalent, followed by interpersonal and textual themes The most significant themes center around the character "Johnsy."
The story prominently features the characters "Sue" and "Behrman," with Behrman’s unexpected role as a hero providing a surprising twist that revitalizes the dying Johnsy's hope The narrative includes both marked and unmarked themes, with 27 unmarked themes contributing to the overall structure Marked themes, indicated by adverbs of time and place, help establish the story's setting Thematic progression, as described by Danes, is present but not always consistent, affecting the text's development An analysis of cohesion reveals that grammatical cohesion, primarily through reference, along with conjunctive devices, substitution, and ellipsis, enhances the text's coherence Additionally, lexical cohesion is strengthened through the use of repetition, synonyms, meronyms, and antonyms, resulting in a more cohesive and concise narrative.
Systemic functional grammar is a paradigm focused on the functions of structures and their meanings within context This approach serves as an analytical tool, enabling a comprehensive examination of the text and its distinctive features.
This study is useful for teachers and learners in that they can orient themselves in language teaching and learning
Understanding the theme-rheme structure is essential for English learners, as it helps them comprehend text development and enhances their discourse skills, particularly in writing This structure provides various options for focusing on and highlighting key elements, allowing learners to effectively stage their information Therefore, it is crucial to introduce the theme-rheme organization before advancing their speaking and writing skills By teaching students how to arrange old and new information, language teachers equip them with a valuable tool for managing the meanings in their writing.
The theme-rheme structure is essential for understanding the organization of information within a message The theme serves as the starting point of the message, indicating what the clause focuses on By grasping the concept of theme, students can enhance their reading skills, particularly by concentrating on the introductory paragraph, the topic sentence of each paragraph, and the theme of individual clauses.
Understanding the similarities and differences in themes between two languages is crucial for translators to convey ideas accurately In translation classes, learners should be guided to competently adapt themes from one language to another, ensuring that the translations are natural and easily comprehensible for the target audience A translator must grasp the thematic meaning in each clause to ensure that their translation accurately reflects that meaning.
Understanding cohesive ties is essential for English learners, particularly in writing and speaking These ties connect various parts of a text, enhancing its cohesion Effectively utilizing cohesive ties enables learners to establish semantic links between sentences and paragraphs, resulting in a more unified and coherent text.
All in all, the full understanding of the theme – theme structure and cohesive ties is extremely useful not only to language teachers and learners but also to the translator
This study focuses on the theme-rheme structure and cohesive ties in an English short story, employing analytical tools from a functional framework Future research should expand to include transitivity, mood, logico-semantic relations, and various text types across different genres, such as novels, poems, and conversations in multiple languages Additionally, it is recommended to explore the similarities and differences between Vietnamese and English texts using the same analytical tools.
1 Collins English Dictionary (1990) Sinclair J (Ed.) London: Harper Collins
2 Butt, D., Fahey, R., Spinks, S., Yallop, C (1995) Using Functional Grammar: An explorer’s Guide Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and
3 Eggins, S (1994) Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics.Wellington: Continuum Wellington House
4 Halliday, M.A.K (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar Second Edition, London: Edward Arnold
5 Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1985) Language, Context and Text: Aspect of
Language in Social – Semiotic Perspective Geelong, Victoria: Deakin
6 Halliday, M.A.K & Hasan, R (1976) Cohesion in English London: Longman
7 Halliday, M.A.K., Language as Social Semiotic: the Interpretation of Language and
8 Hasan, R., Coherence and Cohesive Harmony (In) Fllod, J (Ed) (1984)
Understanding Reading Comprehension: Cognition, Language and the Structure of Prose
9 Đỗ Tuấn Minh (2007) Themantic Structure in Vietnamese Unpublished PHD Thesis Department of Post graduate studies, ULIS
10 Nunan, D (1993) Introducing Discourse Analysis London: Penguin
11 Thomson, G (1996) Introducing Functional Grammar Oxford: Oxford
12 Hoàng Văn Vân (2002) Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú Tiếng Việt: Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống Hanoi: NXB KHXH
13 Hoàng Văn Vân (2006) Introducing Discourse Analysis Hanoi: NXB Giáo dục
14 Hoàng Văn Vân (2009) Về phạm trù chủ ngữ Tạp chí Ngôn Ngữ số 8 Hanoi:
I (1) In a little district west of Washington Square the streets have run crazy and broken themselves into small strips
II (3) These "places" make strange angles and curves III (4) One Street crosses itself a time or two
IV (5) An artist once discovered a valuable possibility in this street
(6) Suppose a collector with a bill for paints, paper and canvas should, in traversing this route, suddenly meet himself coming back, without a cent
(7) having been paid on account!
(8) So, to quaint old Greenwich Village the art people soon came prowling, hunting for north windows and eighteenth-century gables and Dutch attics and low rents
(9) Then they imported some pewter mugs and a chafing dish or two from Sixth Avenue,
(11) At the top of a squatty, three-story brick Sue and Johnsy had their studio
IX (12) "Johnsy" was familiar for Joanna
(15) They had met at the table d'hôte of an Eighth Street
(16) and found their tastes in art, chicory salad and bishop sleeves so congenial that the joint studio resulted
XII (17) That was in May
In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his icy fingers
(19) whom the doctors called Pneumonia, XIV (20) Over on the east side this ravager strode boldly, smiting his victims by scores‟,
(21) but his feet trod slowly through the maze of the narrow and moss-grown "places."
(23) what you would call a chivalric old gentleman
(24) A mite of a little woman with blood thinned by California zephyrs was hardly fair game for the red-fisted, short-breathed old duffer
XVII (25) But Johnsy he smote;
(26) and she lay, scarcely moving, on her painted iron bedstead, looking through the small Dutch window-panes at the blank side of the next brick house
XVIII (27) One morning the busy doctor invited Sue into the hallway with a shaggy, gray eyebrow
(28) "She has one chance in - let us say, ten,",
(31) as he shook down the mercury in his clinical thermometer
XX (32) "And that chance is for her to want to live
XXI (33) This way people have of lining-u on the side of the undertaker makes the entire pharmacopoeia look silly
XXII (34) Your little lady has made up her mind
(35) that she's not going to get well
XXIII (36) Has she anything on her mind?"
XXIV (37) "She - she wanted to paint the Bay of Naples some day."
XXV (39) "Paint? - XXVI (40) bosh! Has she anything on her mind worth thinking twice - a man for instance?"
(42) said Sue, with a jew's-harp twang in her voice
XXVIII (43) "Is a man worth XXIX (44) but, no, doctor; there is nothing of the kind."
(45) "Well, it is the weakness, then,"
XXXI (47) "I will do all that science, so far as it may filter through my efforts, can accomplish
(48) But whenever my patient begins to count the carriages in her funeral procession
(49) I subtract 50 per cent from the curative power of medicines
XXXIII (50) If you will get her to ask one question about the new winter styles in cloak sleeves
(51) I will promise you a one-in-five chance for her, instead of one in ten."
XXXIV (52) After the doctor had gone
(53) Sue went into the workroom and cried a Japanese napkin to a pulp
XXXV (54) Then she swaggered into Johnsy's room with her drawing board, whistling ragtime
XXXVI (55) Johnsy lay, scarcely making a ripple under the bedclothes, with her face toward the window XXXVII (56) Sue stopped whistling, thinking
(59) and began a pen-and-ink drawing to illustrate a magazine story
(60) Young artists must pave their way to Art by drawing pictures for magazine stories
(61) that young authors write to pave their way to Literature
(62) As Sue was sketching a pair of elegant horseshow riding trousers and a monocle of the figure of the hero, an Idaho cowboy,
(63) she heard a low sound, several times repeated
XLI (64) She went quickly to the bedside
(65) Johnsy's eyes were open wide
XLIII (66) She was looking out the window and counting - counting backward
XLIV (67) "Twelve," she said, and little later "eleven"; and then "ten," and
"nine"; and then "eight" and "seven", almost together
XLV (69) Sue look solicitously out of the window XLVI (70) What was there to count?
(71) There was only a bare, dreary yard to be seen, and the blank side of the brick house twenty feet away
(72) An old, old ivy vine, gnarled and decayed at the roots, climbed half way up the brick wall
XLIX (73) The cold breath of autumn had stricken its leaves from the vine
(74) until its skeleton branches clung, almost bare, to the crumbling bricks
(78) said Johnsy, in almost a whisper
LII (79) "They're falling faster now LIII (80) Three days ago there were almost a hundred
LIV (81) It made my head ache to count them
LVI (83) There goes another one
LVII (84) There are only five left now."
LXI (88) On the ivy vine
(89) When the last one falls
(91) I've known that for three days
LXIV (92) Didn't the doctor tell you?"
(93) "Oh, I never heard of such nonsense,"
(94) complained Sue, with magnificent scorn
(95) "What have old ivy leaves to do with your getting well? LXVII (96) And you used to love that vine so, you naughty girl
(98) Why, the doctor told me this morning
(99) that your chances for getting well real soon were LXX (100) let's see exactly what he said
(101) he said the chances were ten to one!
(102) Why, that's almost as good a chance as we have in New York
(103) when we ride on the street cars or walk past a new building
LXXIII (104) Try to take some broth now,
(105) and let Sudie go back to her drawing,
(106) so she can sell the editor man with it,
(107) and buy port wine for her sick child, and pork chops for her greedy self."
(108) "You needn't get any more wine,"
(109) said Johnsy, keeping her eyes fixed out the window
LXXVI (111) No, I don't want any broth
LXXVII (112) That leaves just four
(113) I want to see the last one fall
LXXIX (115) Then I'll go, too."
LXXX (116) "Johnsy, dear," "will you promise me to keep your eyes closed, and not look out the window
(118) said Sue, bending over her, LXXXI (119) I must hand those drawings in by to-morrow
(121) or I would draw the shade down."
(122) "Couldn't you draw in the other room?"
(124) "I'd rather be here by you,"
LXXXV (126) "Beside, I don't want you to keep looking at those silly ivy leaves."
(127) "Tell me as soon as you have finished,"
(128) said Johnsy, closing her eyes, and lying white and still as fallen statue,
(129) "because I want to see the last one fall
LXXXIX (133) and go sailing down, down, just like one of those poor, tired leaves."
XCI (136) "I must call Behrman up to be my model for the old hermit miner
XCII (137) I'll not be gone a minute
141 who lived on the ground floor beneath them
XCV 142 He was past sixty and had a Michael Angelo's Moses beard curling down from the head of a satyr along with the body of an imp
XCVI 143 Behrman was a failure in art
XCVII 144 Forty years he had wielded the brush without getting near enough to touch the hem of his Mistress's robe
145 He had been always about to paint a masterpiece,
146 but had never yet begun it
IC 147 For several years he had painted nothing except now and then a daub in the line of commerce or advertising
148 He earned a little by serving as a model to those young artists in the colony
149 who could not pay the price of a professional
CI 150 He drank gin to excess,
151 and still talked of his coming masterpiece
152 For the rest he was a fierce little old man,
153 who scoffed terribly at softness in any one,
154 and who regarded himself as especial mastiff-in-waiting to protect the two young artists in the studio above
CIII 155 Sue found Behrman smelling strongly of juniper berries in his
CIV 156 In one corner was a blank canvas on an easel
157 that had been waiting there for twenty-five years to receive the first line of the masterpiece
158 She told him of Johnsy's fancy,
159 and how she feared she would, indeed, light and fragile as a leaf herself, float away,
160 when her slight hold upon the world grew weaker
CVI 161 Old Behrman, with his red eyes plainly streaming, shouted his contempt and derision for such idiotic imaginings
CVIII 163 "Is dere people in de world mit der foolishness to die
164 because leafs dey drop off from a confounded vine?
CIX 165 I haf not heard of such a thing
In a humorous exchange, one character firmly refuses to be a model for another's foolish idea, questioning the rationale behind allowing such nonsense to occupy their thoughts The conversation takes a sympathetic turn as they express concern for the unfortunate Miss Yohnsy, highlighting the mix of humor and compassion in their dialogue.
169 "She is very ill and weak,"
171 "and the fever has left her mind morbid and full of strange fancies
CXIV 172 Very well, Mr Behrman, if you do not care to pose for me,
175 you are a horrid old - old flibbertigibbet."
176 "You are just like a woman!"
CXVII 178 "Who said I will not bose?
CXX 181 For half an hour I haf peen trying to say dot I am ready to bose
CXXI 182 Gott! dis is not any blace in which one so goot as Miss Yohnsy shall lie sick
183 Some day I vill baint a masterpiece,
184 and ve shall all go away
CXXIII 185 Johnsy was sleeping when they went upstairs
CXXIV 186 Sue pulled the shade down to the window-sill,
187 and motioned Behrman into the other room
Peering fearfully out the window, they observed the ivy vine as a persistent, cold rain mixed with snow fell outside They exchanged a moment of silent understanding, their eyes reflecting a shared unease.
CXXVIII 191 Behrman, in his old blue shirt, took his seat as the hermit miner on an upturned kettle for a rock
192 When Sue awoke from an hour's sleep the next morning
193 she found Johnsy with dull, wide-open eyes staring at the drawn green shade
Despite the relentless rain and strong winds that battered throughout the night, one resilient ivy leaf remained clinging to the brick wall.
CXXXIII 199 It was the last one on the vine
The CXXXIV 200 leaf, a deep green near its stem, displays serrated edges tinged with the yellow hues of decay Defiantly, it clings to a branch situated twenty feet above the ground.
201 "It is the last one,"
204 it would surely fall during the night
206 It will fall to-day,
207 and I shall die at the same time."
208 said Sue, leaning her worn face down to the pillow,
210 if you won't think of yourself
CXLI 212 But Johnsy did not answer
CXLII 213 The lonesomest thing in all the world is a soul when it is making ready to go on its mysterious, far journey
CXLIII 214 The fancy seemed to possess her more strongly
215 as one by one the ties that bound her to friendship and to earth were loosed
217 and even through the twilight they could see the lone ivy leaf clinging to its stem against the wall
218 And then, with the coming of the night the north wind was again loosed,
219 while the rain still beat against the windows and pattered down from the low Dutch eaves
CXLVI 220 When it was light enough
221 Johnsy, the merciless, commanded that the shade be raised CXLVII 222 The ivy leaf was still there
CXLVIII 223 Johnsy lay for a long time looking at it
224 And then she called to Sue,
225 who was stirring her chicken broth over the gas stove
CL 226 "I've been a bad girl, Sudie,"
CLI 228 "Something has made that last leaf stay there to show me how wicked I was
CLIII 230 You may bring me a little broth now, and some milk with a little port in it,
231 and - no; bring me a hand-mirror first,
232 and then pack some pillows about me,
233 and I will sit up and watch you cook."
CLIV 234 And hour later she said:
CLV 235 "Sudie, some day I hope to paint the Bay of Naples." CLVI
236 The doctor came in the afternoon,
237 and Sue had an excuse to go into the hallway as he left CLVII
239 said the doctor, taking Sue's thin, shaking hand in his CLVIII 240 "With good nursing you'll win."
CLIX 241 And now I must see another case I have downstairs
CLX 242 Behrman, his name is - some kind of an artist, I believe CLXI 243 Pneumonia, too
CLXII 244 He is an old, weak man,
245 and the attack is acute
246 There is no hope for him;
247 but he goes to the hospital to-day to be made more comfortable."
CLXIV 248 The next day the doctor said to Sue:
CLXVI 251 Nutrition and care now - that's all."
252 And that afternoon Sue came to the bed
253 where Johnsy lay, contentedly knitting a very blue and very useless woollen shoulder scarf,
254 and put one arm around her, pillows and all
255 "I have something to tell you, white mouse,"
CLXIX 257 "Mr Behrman died of pneumonia to-day in the hospital
CLXX 258 He was ill only two days
CLXXI 259 The janitor found him the morning of the first day in his room downstairs helpless with pain
CLXXII 260 His shoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold
262 where he had been on such a dreadful night
A lit lantern was discovered alongside a displaced ladder, scattered brushes, and a palette featuring a blend of green and yellow hues.
264 and - look out the window, dear, at the last ivy leaf on the wall CLXXV
266 why it never fluttered or moved
CLXXVI 268 Ah, darling, it's Behrman's masterpiece CLXXVII 269 - he painted it there the night
CLXXVIII 270 that the last leaf fell."
Topical Theme Markedness of Theme
I (1) In a little district west of
(11) At the top of a aquatty, three-story brick marked
(20) Over on the east side marked
(24) A mite of a little woman unmarked
XX (32) And That chance unmarked
XXII (34) Your little lady unmarked
XXIX (44) but doctor There unmarked
(72) An old, old ivy vine unmarked
XLIX (73) The cold breath of autumn unmarked
(74) until Its skeleton branches unmarked
LIII (80) Three days ago marked
(89) when The last one unmarked
LXIV (92) Didn‟t The doctor unmarked
IC 147 For several years marked
160 When Her slight hold upon the world unmarked
CXX 181 For half an hour marked
CXXVII 190 A persistent, cold rain unmarked
CXXXII 198 but After the beating rain and fierce gust of wind marked
CXXXIV 200 Still dark green near its stem, with its serrated edges tinted with the yellow of dissolution and decay marked
CXLII 213 The lonesomest thing in all the world unmarked
217 and Through the twilling marked
218 And then With the coming of the night marked
CXLVII 222 The ivy leaf unmarked
CLIV 234 and Hour later marked
CLV 235 Sudie Some day marked
CLVIII 240 With good nursing marked
CLXIV 248 The next day marked
CLXVI 251 Nutrition and care unmarked
CLXXII 260 His shoe and clothing unmarked
CLXXVI 268 Ah, darling It unmarked