Aims and objectives
This study aims at exploring the effectiveness of the application of a discourse-based approach in teaching English reading skill at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism
The specific objectives of the study are:
- To find out changes in the attitude of students at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism after applying a discourse-based approach in teaching English reading skill
- To investigate what extent the application of a discourse-based approach helps students at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism read better.
Scope of research
This thesis explores the application of discourse analysis in reading through various approaches, including top-down, bottom-up, and interactive processes It emphasizes the importance of cohesion elements—such as reference, conjunction, repetition, synonym, antonym, and collocation—in enhancing reading comprehension, particularly at the elementary level, as highlighted in the literature review and action research procedures.
The participants are the first-year students who I am teaching at the moment, which facilitates my research.
Theoretical and practical significance of the study
The thesis serves as a valuable resource for both educators and students at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism, particularly for those focused on developing reading skills.
Design of the study
This study is divided into three main parts:
Part A INTRODUCTION, presents the Rationale for choosing the topic, the aims and objectives, the scope, significance, methodology and the design of the study Part B DEVELOPMENT, has three following chapters:
Chapter One presents the literature review which deals with the theoretical background that precedes and necessitates the formation of our research
Chapter Two presents the methodology applied in the study including, action research, setting, participants, instrumentation and action research procedure
Chapter Three presents results and discussions, and implications for teaching English reading skill
Part C CONCLUSION, reviews the findings and proposes possible solutions to the problems identified Limitations of the study and suggestions for further study are also put forward
PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
This chapter introduces fundamental theoretical concepts essential for understanding reading and reading comprehension, along with discourse and discourse analysis Sections 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 provide key definitions that serve as prerequisites for grasping subsequent notions and models In section 1.4, various approaches to reading comprehension are explored, including bottom-up, top-down, and interactive processes Section 1.5 discusses the relationship between discourse analysis and the teaching of reading comprehension, culminating in an examination of the role of cohesion in enhancing reading comprehension.
There are many definitions about reading Goodman (1971:135) believes that
―reading can be understood as an active, purposeful, and creative mental process where the reader engages in the construction of meaning from a text‖
Hedge (2000) defines that ―reading is the interaction of two types: the reader and the text, and the reader and the writer‖
According to Richards and Schmidt (2002), reading skills, often referred to as reading micro skills, encompass essential abilities for proficient reading, including identifying main ideas, understanding sequences, recognizing specific details, making inferences, drawing comparisons, and predicting outcomes In contrast, Nunan (2003) emphasizes that reading is a fluid process where readers integrate information from the text with their background knowledge to construct meaning.
Research highlights the significance of readers and their role in constructing meaning from texts, leading to an increase in studies focused on reading It is essential to recognize that reading is not a passive skill; rather, it is an active and creative cognitive process Despite numerous definitions of reading, none fully encapsulate the complexity of the process as it occurs in real life.
LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORITICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Definition of reading
Reading comprehension
Reading comprehension is crucial in the teaching and learning of foreign languages, as it involves the ability to recognize written text and grasp the underlying meanings.
Reading comprehension involves two primary modes: the text model, which focuses on understanding the text's direct communication, and the situation model, which requires integrating background knowledge with the text's information (Grabe, 2009) Alderson (2000) identifies two levels of reading understanding: literal understanding and text understanding Additionally, Swan (1975) emphasizes that a proficient reader can accurately and efficiently extract maximum information from a text, while Grellet (1981) defines reading comprehension as the effective extraction of necessary information from written material.
Reading comprehension is a crucial process that enables readers to efficiently extract the necessary information from a text, despite differing perspectives on its nature.
The concepts of discourse and discourse analysis
The term "discourse" varies in meaning across different schools of discourse analysis Cook (1989) defines discourse as "stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified, and purposive." Brown and Yule (1983) emphasize that discourse encompasses language used in real contexts, whether spoken or written Nunan (2003) adds that discourse involves interactions between speakers and listeners, focusing on extended language rather than isolated sentences Overall, discourse represents the communication between a speaker and a listener within a specific context.
―context refers to the situation giving use to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded.‖
Distinguishing between discourse and text is crucial, as conflating these terms can lead to misunderstandings in discourse analysis While some linguists view discourse and text as distinct concepts, others consider them synonymous and interchangeable.
Brown and Yule (1983) define text as the "verbal record of a communication act" and discourse as "language in use." Nunan (1993) elaborates that text refers to any written record of a communication event, which may involve oral or written language, while discourse is the interpretation of that event in context Cook (1992) views discourse as the interaction of text and context, perceived as meaningful by participants Farhady (2005) emphasizes that understanding a text requires grasping the meanings of words and sentences, as well as the underlying logic and reader interpretation In summary, discourse represents the act of communication, whereas text serves as its medium.
1.3.2 The concept of discourse analysis
Discourse Analysis has been interpreted in various ways over the years In 1952, Harris published a seminal paper titled "Discourse Analysis," shifting the focus from single sentences to the examination of linguistic elements within extended texts His work emphasized the connections between texts and their social contexts, highlighting the importance of understanding language in relation to its environment.
British discourse analysis has been significantly shaped by M.A.K Halliday's functional approach to language, which highlights the social functions of language and the thematic and informational organization of both speech and writing.
Discourse analysis, as defined by McCarthy (1991), explores the relationship between language and its contextual usage It involves examining various forms of language in practice, including both written texts and spoken interactions, ranging from casual conversations to formalized discourse.
Discourse analysis is a complex term that examines the purposes and contexts of language use According to Nguyen Hoa (2000), it involves studying how language functions in specific situations and the linguistic tools employed to achieve these purposes Essentially, discourse analysis focuses on the dynamic relationship between sentences, known as discourse sequences, which can shift based on their connections to preceding and subsequent sequences.
Written discourse analysts focus on the relationships between neighboring sentences, highlighting that a text is more than just the sum of its parts (McCarthy, 1991) Through the analysis of written language, unique communicative features, such as the use of "that" to refer back to previous phrases or clauses, have been effectively described, even though these features also exist in spoken language.
Discourse analysis involves examining language within its contextual framework, which encompasses the reader, writer, situation, function, multimodality, and background knowledge According to Thornbury (2005), context is fundamental to understanding discourse.
Discourse analysis involves the examination of spoken or written language utilized for effective communication in real-world contexts This analytical approach focuses on the characteristics and applications of texts, contributing to a deeper understanding of text analysis.
Approaches to teaching reading comprehension
In teaching reading comprehension, two primary approaches are utilized: the bottom-up approach and the top-down approach The bottom-up approach emphasizes detailed language elements, including grammar, vocabulary, and cohesion, allowing students to analyze individual linguistic signals like words, phrases, and grammatical cues This method facilitates a comprehensive understanding by building from specific features to broader concepts.
The bottom-up model of reading, as described by Nunan (1991), posits that readers begin by recognizing individual letters in a text These letters are then combined and sounded out to form words, which are subsequently connected to create sentences Sentences are linked to form paragraphs, and ultimately, paragraphs come together to create complete texts This process culminates in comprehension, representing the final stage of decoding progressively larger units of language.
The bottom-up model, as described by Rayner and Pollatsek (1989), emphasizes the transformation of visual information through sequential stages with minimal influence from general knowledge or contextual cues In contrast, the top-down approach leverages background knowledge to help students grasp the main ideas of a text This model encourages active reader engagement, where comprehension is rooted in the reader's interpretation rather than solely on visual elements Readers utilize their prior knowledge to make predictions that they then confirm or adjust by exploring the text (Nunan, 2003; Rayner & Pollatsek, 1989).
Reading is fundamentally a process of decoding written symbols into sounds, emphasizing a text-centered approach where texts are composed of rules and codes to interpret This decoding requires an understanding of the hierarchical linguistic structures within the language, which is essential for achieving reading comprehension The emphasis lies not on grasping the overall meaning of the text, but rather on the intricate details of linguistic forms, ranging from phonemes to lexical and syntactic levels.
From a top-down teaching perspective, activating a learner's prior knowledge is essential for enhancing language acquisition and facilitating reading comprehension This prior knowledge significantly influences the learner's ability to understand content Hudson (1982) argues that a strong foundation of background knowledge can compensate for linguistic shortcomings, underscoring its importance in the learning process.
(2001) ―top-down model is actually a whole-language teaching approach, in which readers focus on the context, and manage to construct meanings in the text‖
Recent criticism of top-down processing has emerged, particularly highlighted by Stanovich (1980) in his comprehensive review of language-processing models He introduced the interactive process model, arguing that many top-down models overlook the potential for less proficient readers to utilize higher-level processes to offset their lower-level skills Stanovich posits that poor readers, with inadequate decoding abilities, may rely more heavily on these higher-level processes compared to proficient readers.
1.5 Discourse analysis and the teaching of reading comprehension
Discourse analysis has emerged as a pivotal discipline within applied linguistics, significantly impacting language teaching It is essential for students, trainees, and educators alike This field extends beyond the study of spoken interactions; it also encompasses the organization of written texts, including newspaper articles, letters, stories, and instructions Effective discourse is characterized by coherence and meaningful communication, where words and sentences are interconnected according to established conventions.
Understanding macro-level discourse patterning requires an examination of grammar and lexis, just as effective reading development hinges on the simultaneous consideration of both global and local reading skills.
In recent years, the debate in reading pedagogy has focused on the importance of bottom-up versus top-down strategies A consensus has emerged recognizing that effective readers utilize both processing methods simultaneously As McCarthy (1991) notes, reading involves macro-level patterns influenced by local lexico-grammatical choices Optimal reading materials should foster engagement with larger textual structures, such as through problem-solving exercises, while also acknowledging the significance of individual words, phrases, and grammatical elements in navigating the text.
Schema theory highlights the importance of background knowledge in a reader's comprehension of text According to McCarthy (1991), new information is processed coherently when related to existing knowledge frameworks, allowing efficient readers to activate these frameworks to decode the text effectively These frameworks encompass not only world knowledge, such as natural phenomena and typical life events, but also knowledge about text structures and organization Consequently, we can distinguish between two types of schemata: content schemata, which relate to subject matter, and formal schemata, which pertain to the structure of texts.
As for the role of discourse analysis in reading comprehension, Cook (1989:
81) asserts that ―doing discourse analysis helps students adopt top-down approach in reading‖, which he assumes to be natural for L1 speakers He further maintains that an L2 student who is able to set a discourse in its textual and social text may supposedly postpone or neglect dealing with an unknown word if she/ he gets the general idea of text
In contrast to Cook (1989), McCarthy (1991), and McCarthy and Carter
In 1994, an interactive approach to teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading was proposed, emphasizing the interplay between top-down and bottom-up processes This method highlights the importance of both higher-order language operations, such as cultural and ideological meanings, and lower-order language forms, such as individual words and grammatical markers, in understanding a text Discourse analysts are encouraged to focus on both macro-level and micro-level discourse Additionally, the approach underscores two key features of discourse analysis: intertextuality and language awareness Intertextuality, as defined by Fairclough (1992), refers to how texts can evolve by transforming prior texts and reshaping existing conventions to create new genres and discourses Language awareness, as described by Carter (2003), further enhances the understanding of language in context.
64 ) as ―the development in learners of an enhanced consciousness of and sensivity to the forms and functions of language‖
Numerous studies have highlighted the significance of discourse analysis in enhancing reading comprehension (Ivanov, 2009; Wenquan, 2009) Wenquan (2009) demonstrated that by teaching students the common structural and textual organization of paragraphs, activating their background knowledge, and focusing on cohesion and coherence within and between paragraphs, reading comprehension could be significantly improved The findings indicated that students in the experimental group exhibited a marked increase in their reading abilities.
In summary, discourse analysis is essential for enhancing reading comprehension in education By guiding students to examine text structure, as well as cohesion and coherence, teachers can significantly improve their understanding of written material.
Cohesion is an essential component of text structure, as cohesive devices are fundamental elements that enable the construction of coherent texts Without cohesive devices, it is challenging to comprehend texts longer than two sentences Cohesion refers to the formal links between sentences that create a unified text Halliday and Hasan (1976) describe cohesion as a semantic relationship between elements within a text that is vital for its interpretation Therefore, cohesion is crucial for understanding the overall meaning of a text They identified five types of cohesion: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, which includes reiteration and collocation.
Cohesion in reading comprehension
Cohesion is an essential component of text structure, as cohesive devices are fundamental for constructing coherent texts Without these devices, understanding a text longer than two sentences becomes challenging Cohesion refers to the formal links between sentences that enable texts to stick together Halliday and Hasan (1976) define cohesion as a semantic relationship between elements in a text, which is vital for its interpretation This highlights the importance of cohesion in making sense of written material They categorize cohesion into five types: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion, which includes reiteration and collocation.
Referential cohesion in text can be achieved through two main types of references: anaphoric and cataphoric Anaphoric reference directs the reader back to previously mentioned entities, while cataphoric reference leads them forward to identify upcoming elements This mechanism enhances the flow of the text and guides the audience's understanding Various linguistic tools, including personal pronouns, determiners, adverbs, and adjectives, facilitate these references, which are categorized as personal, demonstrative, and comparative.
Ellipsis is a type of substitution where an original element is replaced by zero, leading to the omission of essential structural components in a sentence or clause This omission can only be understood by referencing elements from the preceding text There are three main types of substitution: nominal, verbal, and clausal.
Conjunctions are essential for understanding relationships within a text, categorized into four types: temporality, causality, addition, and adversity Adversative conjunctions highlight contrasts, while additive conjunctions introduce supplementary information Temporal conjunctions indicate the chronological sequence of events, and causal conjunctions establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Reiteration is a crucial writing technique that involves the repetition of words, the use of synonyms or near-synonyms, and the application of superordinate and general terms By repeating specific words, writers enhance the cohesiveness of their text Conversely, to prevent redundancy, they often opt for synonyms or broader terms Superordinate and general words are employed to convey a more inclusive meaning than previously mentioned terms, such as using "illness" to refer to "pneumonia" or "things" to encompass "steamed buns."
Collocation refers to words and phrases that are semantically connected within a specific context It encompasses a wide range of items, as it is formed through open class elements rather than fixed categories Additionally, the relevance of certain words may vary between different texts, meaning that what is collocated in one instance may not hold the same relationship in another.
Substitution and ellipsis are more common in spoken discourse, while reference, conjunction, and lexical cohesion are prevalent in written discourse Malki (2009) emphasizes that recognizing these devices and their referents is vital for enhancing students' reading comprehension Similarly, Demel (1990) highlights that a reader's ability to connect pronouns with the concepts they refer to is essential for effective reading.
Numerous studies highlight the significance of cohesion in enhancing reading comprehension Research by Chapman and Irwin (1986) indicates that understanding cohesion functions can significantly improve readers' comprehension skills Their findings reveal that readers not only enhance their ability to perceive cohesion in texts but also utilize it as a strategy to aid comprehension Furthermore, Irwin suggests that increasing the level of cohesion in a text can reduce wordiness and facilitate better understanding.
In conclusion, cohesion is a very necessary element to construct a text, thus if readers realized cohesive devices in the text, they will understand it
This chapter establishes a theoretical framework for the study, emphasizing the role of discourse analysis in enhancing reading instruction It explores key concepts such as reading, reading comprehension, and various approaches to discourse analysis, highlighting their significance in the educational context.
The article explores the integration of bottom-up, top-down, and interactive strategies in teaching reading comprehension, emphasizing the role of discourse analysis It highlights how a discourse-based approach effectively combines these processes to enhance reading skills, fostering a deeper understanding of texts.
This study focuses on elementary-level English students, examining the importance of cohesion in reading texts It discusses the role of cohesive devices in enhancing reading comprehension.
METHODOLOGY 2.1 Research design
Participants
This study involves 35 first-year cooking technique students from the same class at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism, along with two English teachers serving as observers and a course instructor, to address the thesis objectives and research questions.
Thirty students were male and five students were female aged between 18 and 21 All of them have learnt English for seven years since secondary school.
Instrumentation
In order to pursue this study, the following instruments were employed:
- Pre-test delivered to students before the course was to diagnose their problems relating to reading comprehension
- Two post-test delivered to students after the course was aimed at evaluating their achievements
- A three-item questionnaire before the course was to investigate the students‘ difficulties and limitations in learning reading
A follow-up nine-item questionnaire was conducted after the course to assess student achievements and evaluate how effectively a discourse-based approach enhanced reading skills among students at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism.
Teachers conducted observations to assess students' attitudes towards instructional activities, focusing on discourse analysis of reading texts They evaluated student involvement in tasks, interactions among peers during activities, and the outcomes achieved through exercises.
- Reading texts were collected from ―New Headway (Elementary)‖ (Liz & John Soars, 2000) and ―Lifelines‖ (Tom Hutchinson, 2004).
Action research procedure
At Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism, many students struggle with reading comprehension due to unfamiliar vocabulary and difficulty in identifying key elements and logical relationships within texts This challenge often leads to a lack of engagement and boredom during reading lessons To address these issues, I conducted action research focused on implementing a discourse-based approach to enhance English reading skills among students.
Sep 2: Preliminary Investigation (Collecting data through a variety of means)
In discussions with colleagues and students, I observed that students often translated reading texts into Vietnamese, neglecting cohesive devices that facilitate comprehension To assess their ability to analyze these devices, I administered a pre-test to 35 first-year cooking technique students, using a text from "New Headway" (Elementary) that matched their English proficiency level The pre-test included two parts.
- Section one included pronouns and conjunction in order to test the students‘ ability of identifying the reference of people and things and logical relationships between sentences in the text
- Section two was about comprehension questions to test the students‘ overall comprehension of the text
The test lasted forty five minutes During the time, they were encouraged to do the test on their own
To find out difficulties faced by the students and causes of the problem I conducted a survey to get information from 35 first-year students of cooking technique major by questionnaires
Step 3: Hypothesis (Developing research questions)
Upon analyzing the initial data, I hypothesize that students exhibited a dislike for reading skills, which hindered their ability to complete text-related tasks due to a lack of understanding of cohesive devices.
Step 4: Intervention (Devising strategies and innovation to be implemented)
The selection criterion for reading materials was based on their suitability for students' proficiency levels The study utilized eight reading texts sourced from "New Headway (Elementary)" by Liz and John Soars (2000) and "Lifelines" by Tom Hutchinson (2004), covering topics such as food, places, famous individuals, daily life, adventure, travel, fashion, and survival To assess students' comprehension, a variety of tasks were created for each passage, including identifying references, matching conjunctions with their functions, recognizing repetition, relating words within the same field, finding antonyms and synonyms, answering questions, engaging in discussions, and writing summaries.
The period of applying a discourse-based approach lasts two months with class meeting once a week Each lesson lasts 45 minutes
Week Unit Title of reading text Book
1 Unit 7: Then and now George Washington New Headway
2 Unit 9: Food you like Food around the world New Headway
3 Unit 10: Bigger and better New Orleans New Headway
4 Unit 12: Life‘s adventure Sky- diver New Headway
5 Unit 6: Daily life It‘s a job, not a holiday Lifelines
6 Unit 9: Survivors Chairlift terror Lifelines
7 Unit 10: Travel TorQuay? But I said
8 Unit 11: Fashion Tamara‘s a model pupil Lifelines
While teaching the reading text, I implemented following activities
Teaching how to guess the meaning of unknown words
The meaning of a word can be inferred from the context in which the word is embedded so the knowledge of lexical cohesion can help in some way
In teaching vocabulary, the instructor focuses on synonyms, antonyms, general words, and collocations For instance, in the text "Food Around The World," if students encounter the word "noodles" without prior knowledge, they can infer its meaning by relating it to "rice," as both terms are contextually linked Similarly, in "Torquay? But I Said Turkey," students can deduce the meaning of the verbs "recognize" and "know" from their familiarity with one term, illustrating their synonymous relationship.
The teacher assists students in deciphering the meanings of unfamiliar words by encouraging them to use related words and the overall context for inference.
Teaching how to identify referential relationships
Understanding references in text is crucial for answering questions such as "What does this refer to?" or "Who does he refer to?" Teachers can guide students in identifying words or phrases that are referenced For instance, in the text "Vienna," the pronoun "It" in line 2 refers back to "Vienna" in line 1 Similarly, in "Sky-diver," "he" in line 2 refers to "Clem Quinn" mentioned in line 1 Students should learn to look backward or forward when encountering pronouns (he, she, it) or demonstratives (this, that, those, these, here, there) to accurately identify the items being referred to.
Teaching how to identify logical relationships between sentence boundaries
Conjunctions play a crucial role in helping readers understand the logical relationships between sentences in a text Since some conjunctions can be translated into Vietnamese in multiple ways, teachers categorize them based on their functions By providing students with a comprehensive list of commonly used conjunctions, educators enable learners to recognize and effectively use these connectors in their writing.
Additives: and, in other words, in particular, moreover, furthermore, besides… Adversatives: however, on the contrary, on the other hand, but, yet, nevertheless, although, though…
Temporal: Now, then, first, finally, at first…
Causal: because, therefore, so, thus, hence, for this reason, so that, if, unless, otherwise, in that case…
Step 5: Evaluation (Collecting data again and analyze it to work out the findings)
A survey was conducted to assess the effectiveness of a discourse-based approach in teaching comprehension, utilizing two post-tests and questionnaires to gather student feedback Additionally, class observation results were analyzed to understand the underlying reasons for the outcomes observed.
The results of the action research were reported in this thesis
Step 7: Follow-up (Finding alternative methods to solve the same problem)
This study revealed that employing a discourse-based approach significantly enhances students' reading skills However, my analysis was restricted to cohesive devices In the next phase, I plan to expand the discourse-based approach to include an analysis of discourse patterns for students who have already mastered cohesive device analysis.
In this chapter, the action research procedure was conducted to identify the reasons behind students' difficulties in reading texts Based on these findings, I implemented activities utilizing a discourse-based approach, focusing on teaching students how to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words and recognize referential and logical relationships between sentences The outcomes of this procedure will be discussed in the subsequent chapter.
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 The results of the pre-test
The results of the pre-questionnaire
Chart 1: The students‘ attitude toward reading part
According to Chart 1, only 11.4% of students expressed a genuine enjoyment of reading, while 28.6% engaged with it, possibly due to its compulsory nature in the English curriculum Conversely, a significant 60% of students reported disliking English, likely stemming from their lack of understanding of reading texts and difficulty completing related tasks, which led to feelings of boredom To address these challenges, the teacher conducted an investigation into the students' difficulties and the underlying causes as outlined in questions 2 and 3.
3.2.2 Difficulties faced by the students
2 Pointing out reference in the text 32 91.4
Finding conjunction in the text 23 65.7
Realizing repetition in the text 08 22.9
Relating collocation in the text 28 80
Realizing synonym and antonym in the text 24 68
Table 1: Difficulties faced by the students
Table 1 reveals that a significant number of students struggled with understanding cohesive markers in the text Specifically, only 8 students (22.8%) were able to recognize repetition, while 32 students (91.4%) failed to identify references Additionally, 28 students (80%) had difficulty with collocations, 24 students (68.6%) could not recognize synonyms and antonyms, and 23 students (65.7%) were unable to find conjunctions These findings indicate a clear challenge among students in realizing cohesive markers within the reading material.
3.2.3 Causes of difficulties faced by the students
Not understanding the meaning of conjunction 23 65.7
Not finding out words sharing the same lexical environment
Not guessing the meaning of unknown words in the context
Table 2 Causes of difficulties faced by the students
A recent survey revealed that students face significant challenges in reading comprehension, primarily due to various factors Notably, 85.7% of students reported difficulties in inferring the meanings of unfamiliar words within context, while 80% lacked knowledge about references Additionally, 65.7% struggled to grasp the meanings of conjunctions, and 17.1% consistently overlooked the importance of repetition in their reading practice.
Many students struggle to identify the relationships between pronouns and demonstratives—such as "he," "she," "they," "it," "this," "that," "these," and "those"—and the specific nouns they refer to in texts Even when aware of these relationships, students often find it challenging to locate the corresponding nouns Addressing these fundamental issues with anaphoric and cataphoric references is essential for improving reading comprehension among students.
Many students overlook the significance of conjunctions in texts, viewing them merely as connective words rather than essential components that convey meaning and function While some students recognize the role of conjunctions, their understanding remains insufficient, leading to difficulties in identifying logical relationships across sentences Consequently, this lack of comprehension hampers their overall ability to grasp the text's main ideas.
In foreign language reading texts, students often encounter unfamiliar words, and while teachers provide Vietnamese equivalents to facilitate quick comprehension, this approach can lead to passivity in reading As a result, students struggle to predict the meanings of unknown words within context and fail to infer meanings based on related words in the text.
In conclusion, the analysis of pre-test results and survey questionnaires revealed that students struggled to analyze cohesive devices in reading texts The identified challenges in their learning were primarily linked to these cohesive devices, which hindered their comprehension Therefore, a solid understanding of discourse devices is essential for English learners to improve their reading comprehension It is crucial for teachers to implement a discourse-based approach in their reading lessons to address these issues effectively.
The result of the students‘ post-tests after the course
To assess the effectiveness of a discourse-based approach in enhancing comprehension, two post-tests were administered to 35 students following the completion of classroom activities This evaluation aimed to determine the students' performance and understanding after the course.
The first post-test lasted forty-five minutes in class, while the second post-test was assigned for completion at home to assess student progress The teacher administered two tests of varying difficulty and settings, with the second test being more challenging due to the absence of a time limit, allowing for more reliable results.
The both post-test consisted of two parts:
The first section focused on assessing students' skills in identifying pronouns, recognizing repetition, understanding collocation, and utilizing conjunctions This evaluation aimed to test their ability to discern references to people and objects, grasp logical relationships between sentences, and infer the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Section two focused on comprehension questions designed to assess students' overall understanding of the text In the first post-test, students were required to answer the questions directly, while in the second post-test, they needed to select the best answer and provide a summary of the text.
Below was the result of the two post test in the form of a chart
Graph 2 The first post-test score of the students
The graph 2 indicates that the highest score was 9 and the lowest was 5, the most common was 7 ( twelve students gained 7) We could calculate the Mean was
7.2, the Mode was 7 and the Median was 8 It proved that the course got effectiveness since all the parameters were higher than those of the pre-test
The following chart was about the result of the second post-test
Graph 3 The second post-test score of the students
The data presented in Graph 3 indicates that the highest score achieved was 9, the lowest score recorded was 5, and the most common score was 7, all of which mirror the results from the initial post-test conducted among the students.
The second post-test showed an increase in the number of students achieving a score of 9 compared to the first post-test, with the mean score rising from 7.2 to 7.25 Despite the second post-test being more challenging, students benefited from additional time and collaborative discussions, leading to higher overall scores Therefore, these results can be considered reliable.
The following was the comparison of parameters between pre-test and post- tests
Result of the pre- test
Result of the first post-test Result of the second post- test Mean = 4.25
Table 3 A comparison of parameters between the pre-test and the two post- tests
The discourse-based approach significantly enhanced students' reading comprehension, as evidenced by their improved scores Most students achieved an average mark of 7/10 after the course, a notable increase from their pre-course average of 4/10 The post-course scores ranged from 5 to 9, compared to a pre-test range of 1 to 8, demonstrating the course's effectiveness.
The result of the questionnaires for the students after the course
At the end of the course, 35 students were asked to give their answers to the
A survey was conducted with students who answered nine questions before submitting their papers to the teacher The purpose of the questionnaires was to assess changes in students' attitudes after completing the course, evaluate how effectively a discourse-based approach improved their reading skills, and gather their feedback on the application of this approach.
3.4.1 Change in percentage of the students’ attitude to reading comprehension after the application of discourse-based approach
Chart 2: The students‘ attitude toward reading part after the course
The data presented in Chart 2 indicates that a significant majority of students, 73.4% (26 students), expressed a strong liking for the reading component of the English course, while 22.8% (8 students) engaged with it due to its mandatory nature Only a small fraction, 2.9% (1 student), reported disliking English altogether This shift in student attitudes post-course highlights a positive reception towards reading, as evidenced by the high marks achieved, with most students scoring between 7 and 9, and only one student receiving a score of 5.
6 It may be concluded that the application of discourse analysis has motivated the students to learn English reading comprehension
3.4.2 Extent to which the application of a discourse-based approach help the students to read better
Question The teacher‘ s activities Results
2 Explaining reference in the paragraphs 91.4% 8.6% 0% 0%
3 Relating conjunction with its function in the text
4 Indicating repetition in the text 82.8% 17.2% 2.9% 0%
5 Explaining collocation in the text 85.7% 14.3% 0% 0%
Table 4 Extent to which the application of a discourse-based approach help the students to read better
Table 4 indicates that 91.4% of students improved their reading comprehension through the teacher's explanations, while 88.6% benefited from understanding conjunctions and their functions Additionally, 85.7% of students found explanations of collocations, synonyms, and antonyms helpful, and 82.8% gained from recognizing repetition in the text.
Understanding references to people, objects, and situations is crucial for students to comprehend reading texts effectively Recognizing terms like "he," "it," "they," and "this" helps clarify the subjects of sentences, enhancing overall understanding Additionally, identifying logical relationships between sentences through conjunctions aids readers in grasping connections related to facts, ideas, time, place, and causality Finally, recognizing lexical cohesive devices enables students to infer the meanings of new words, an essential skill for proficient reading.
3.4.3 The students’ assessment on the application of discourse-based approach
The students’ assessment on the activities applying discourse-based approach
Finding out reference in the text 30 85.7 Relating out conjunction and its function in the text
Realizing repetition in the text 20 42.5%
Finding out collocation in the text 28 80 Realizing synonym and antonym in the text
Table 5: The students‘ assessment on the activities applying discourse-based approach
According to the data presented in Table 5, students expressed the highest enjoyment in identifying references in the text, with a satisfaction rate of 85.7% This activity likely engaged them as it involved recognizing pronouns and demonstratives related to "who" and "what," essential for text comprehension The second most favored activity was understanding the function of conjunctions, with an approval rate of 82.9%, which aided in grasping the connections between ideas The third ranked activity involved discovering collocations, synonyms, and antonyms, appreciated by 80% of students, as it enhanced their vocabulary skills Conversely, the least enjoyed activity was recognizing repetition in the text, with only 42.9% approval, possibly due to its simplicity leading to boredom from encountering the same words repeatedly.
The students’ assessment on the exercises applying discourse-based approach
Question Types of exercises Results
8 Finding out reference in the text 32 91.4
Matching conjunction with its function 30 85.7
Find out repetition in the text 20 57.1
Relating given words in the same field 26 74.3 Find out synonym and antonym in the text 26 74.3
Table 6 reveals that 91.4% of students enjoyed exercises focused on identifying references to people and things, while 85.7% appreciated matching conjunctions with their functions These findings suggest that students found these discourse-based exercises engaging and beneficial for their learning.
A mere 74.3% of students expressed a preference for identifying synonyms and antonyms, highlighting challenges related to vocabulary limitations and contextual word guessing Additionally, only 57.1% of students enjoyed recognizing repetition in their studies.
The following table was about the types of exercises to test the students‘ overall comprehension of the text
Question Types of exercises Results
Finding main idea in each paragraph 22 62.9
Writing summary of the text 18 47.7
Table 7: The students‘ assessment on the exercises applying discourse-based approach
According to Table 7, the most favored exercise among students was choosing the best answer (94.3%), followed closely by answering questions (91.4%) These exercises, commonly practiced in the reading section, were perceived as easier during the course The third preferred activity was identifying the main idea (62.9%), while the least liked was writing a summary, also at 62.9% Writing summaries posed a challenge as it required both reading and writing skills However, with a better understanding of conjunctions, references, and lexical cohesion, students could enhance their writing abilities.
The result of class observation
In the course, two colleagues were tasked with observing students' attitudes toward teachers' activities through discourse analysis of reading texts They focused on the students' engagement in the activities, their interactions with peers during task completion, and the outcomes achieved in the exercises.
Teachers observed that students consistently engaged in activities and interacted positively with one another during lessons They showed a keen interest in concepts such as reference, conjunction, repetition, synonym, antonym, and collocation Consequently, most students excelled in exercises focused on grammatical and lexical cohesion They also successfully tackled more challenging tasks, including answering questions and summarizing texts, which effectively assessed their comprehension The enthusiastic participation of students and their strong performance in exercises indicate that the discourse-based approach is highly effective for teaching reading skills.
Implications for teaching English reading skill
Many students struggle with reading comprehension, often translating texts word by word without grasping the overall meaning This challenge stems from both teaching methods and student engagement; teachers frequently emphasize text meaning and tasks over effective reading techniques, while students approach reading passively However, implementing a discourse-based approach in teaching English reading skills has shown promising results through action research To enhance the effectiveness of this approach, several suggestions can facilitate its application in the classroom.
Teachers must have a strong understanding of discourse analysis to effectively implement a discourse-based approach in their teaching Without this knowledge, they cannot accurately apply techniques for helping students infer word meanings or identify referential and logical relationships between sentences Additionally, it is essential for educators to integrate these discourse analysis techniques with strategies that enhance reading interest, motivation, and students' background knowledge.
Teachers must meticulously prepare reading lessons by incorporating three essential stages: Pre-reading, While-reading, and Post-reading The Pre-reading stage, as noted by William (1984:37), is crucial for introducing the topic, sparking interest, motivating learners, and providing necessary language preparation The While-reading stage focuses on comprehending the author's intent, understanding text structure, and clarifying content Finally, the Post-reading stage aims to consolidate learning by reflecting on the material and connecting it to students' existing knowledge, interests, or perspectives.
Teachers equip students with techniques to analyze cohesive devices in texts Once students have mastered these skills, educators should encourage independent practice, fostering active reading rather than passive engagement.
Teachers should provide a variety of exercises to assess students' abilities in identifying people, objects, and situations, as well as understanding logical relationships between sentences Additionally, these exercises should help students infer the meanings of unfamiliar words within context and enhance their overall text comprehension.
This chapter presents the findings of an action research study aimed at improving students' reading comprehension, which was hindered by unfamiliar vocabulary and difficulties in identifying key elements and logical relationships within texts To address these issues, a discourse-based approach was designed and implemented, focusing on grammatical and lexical cohesion in reading materials The effectiveness of this approach was evaluated through two post-tests, survey questionnaires, and personal observations conducted after the course The results indicated that students became more engaged with reading texts, demonstrating improved understanding and performance in related tasks Based on these findings, recommendations for enhancing English reading skills in teaching practices have been proposed.
This section summarizes the key findings in relation to the research questions, highlighting major discoveries, limitations, and recommendations for future research.
This study investigates the effectiveness of a discourse-based approach in enhancing English reading skills at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism Through a critical analysis of the methodology, significant findings are presented.
Firstly, the results which the students got after the course were better and the students‘ attitude toward reading skill has changed, they became more interested in reading skill
The use of a discourse-based approach has significantly enhanced students' skills in deducing the meanings of unfamiliar words within context, recognizing references to people and objects, and understanding logical relationships between sentences Through the teacher's focus on analyzing cohesive devices, students have improved their reading comprehension, resulting in a majority successfully completing related tasks.
Also, the teacher‘s observation sheets during each lesson show that, the students are always ready to participate in the activities and they took part in lesson enthusiastically
The study's findings demonstrate that the implementation of the action research project was effective, as most students showed improved comprehension of reading texts and successfully completed tasks after applying the discourse-based approach.
It will result in making progress in their English language learning
The study reveals that implementing a discourse-based approach significantly enhances students' attitudes towards reading skills As a result, students show increased interest in learning English, as they gain a clearer understanding of texts, moving beyond mere Vietnamese translations to comprehend the connections between words and sentences.
Training students in the discourse-based approach is essential, as it enhances both their reading and writing skills By regularly applying this method, students can expand their vocabulary, learn cohesive devices, and understand the organization of sentences and paragraphs in reading texts.
To enhance students' reading skills, teachers should implement a structured three-stage approach in teaching reading texts, as each stage serves a distinct purpose Additionally, educators must introduce discourse analysis techniques to students, who may initially be unfamiliar with the concept Once students have mastered these techniques, teachers should encourage them to apply the skills independently.
The discourse-based approach should align with student objectives to enhance effectiveness This approach operates on two levels: the micro level focuses on analyzing cohesive devices, making it ideal for students with lower proficiency, while the macro level examines discourse patterns, catering to more advanced learners.
In any research papers, limitations are inevitable The study presented in this thesis is of no exception
The study focused on a classroom of 35 first-year cooking technique students at Thanh Hoa Vocational School of Commerce-Tourism, implementing a discourse-based approach for 45 minutes each week over a period of 8 weeks However, the limited duration and frequency of the treatment may not have been sufficient to produce significant effects on the dependent variables.
- The materials were only collected from ― New Headway (Elementary)‖ (Liz & John Soars, 2000) and ―Life lines ( Elementary)‖ (Tom Hutchinson, 2004)
Thus, any application outside context and other materials requires careful thoughts and considerations