INTRODUCTION
Aims and objectives of the study
This paper explores the mapping of conceptual metaphors related to Life and Death in selected short stories by Jack London The findings aim to provide a comprehensive overview of these metaphors within the literature, along with implications for enhancing language teaching and learning.
The objectives of the study can be elaborated into the following research questions
- What are the common types of metaphors for the Life and Death image in Jack London‘s short stories seen from the cognitive perspective?
- What are the markers of coherence and consistence of Life and Death metaphors based on the framework advocated by Lakoff & Johnson?
- What are the possible implications for language teaching and learning?
Significance of the study
Metaphor plays a fundamental role in human language, influencing both linguistic use and our understanding of the human mind This study not only holds theoretical importance but also offers valuable insights for second language teaching and learning The thesis focuses on analyzing metaphorical expressions related to Life and Death through the lens of Conceptual Metaphor Theory, employing both theoretical analysis and empirical research to explore this topic.
Scope of the study
This study is grounded in the theoretical frameworks established by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), Lakoff & Turner (1989), and Lakoff (2006), which conceptualize metaphorical expression as a manifestation of cross-domain mapping.
This paper explores the conceptual metaphors of Life and Death in selected works by Jack London, utilizing the theoretical framework established by G Lakoff and M Johnson, while acknowledging the constraints of time, space, and the author's capabilities.
Structure of the study
The study consists of five chapters
Chapter 1, Introduction, is spared for the presentation of the rationale, aims, significance, scope, and the structure of the study
Chapter 2, Literature review, provides the necessary information about the theoretical background related to metaphor based on Lakoff & Johnson‘s perspective
Chapter 3, Methodology, provides information about the principles that govern the research and the methods to be employed
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, presents the findings obtained and sound discussions on those findings
Chapter 5, Conclusion, summarizes the key issues and challenges identified in the study, offering specific conclusions related to each research question It also discusses the implications for teaching and provides suggestions for future research, highlighting the practical value of the thesis for readers seeking to gain insights and benefits from the findings.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview of different theories on metaphor
In the study of metaphor, two primary approaches emerge: the traditional approach, which includes various theories grounded in shared fundamental assumptions, and the cognitive approach, a more recent yet highly influential theory that has reshaped our understanding of metaphor.
Traditionally, According to website http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor,
A metaphor is a literary device that compares two unrelated subjects by stating that one is the other, highlighting similarities between them It functions as a type of analogy and is interconnected with other rhetorical figures such as allegory, hyperbole, and simile, all of which create meaning through association and comparison.
According to Lakoff and Johnson, our cognitive framework is inherently metaphorical, influencing how we think, act, and communicate We unconsciously employ metaphors in our daily language and experiences, highlighting that our conceptual system is predominantly shaped by metaphor This indicates that metaphors are not just linguistic expressions but are rooted in cognitive conceptual metaphors.
Lakoff and Johnson analyze our conceptual framework through the lens of language, asserting that communication reflects the underlying system we use for thinking and acting They highlight the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, demonstrating its presence in everyday language with phrases like "Your claims are indefensible," "I demolished his argument," "I've never won an argument with him," and "If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out."
The concept of "argument is war" extends beyond mere language, influencing our behaviors during disputes This metaphor shapes the way we engage in arguments, reflecting a cultural framework that guides our actions and interactions in conflict situations.
Conceptual metaphor
2.2.1 What is meant by “conceptual metaphor”?
The word ―metaphor‖ means to ―carry over‖ or to ―transfer‖ For Lakoff & Johnson (1980: 5), metaphor is used for us to realize ―one kind of thing in terms of another‖
A metaphorical expression can be just one word, or it can be a phrase or a sentence
An entire story can be interpreted as a metaphor for life or the world (Goatly, 2011: 109) This section will examine the structure and mechanics of metaphor to establish a clear definition that will guide this study.
2.2.2 How metaphor structures our thoughts
Lakoff and Johnson's theory of conceptual metaphor posits that metaphors are not just linguistic expressions but also cognitive concepts that shape our understanding of the world This theory expands the traditional view of metaphor by emphasizing the relationship between conceptual metaphors and their linguistic manifestations, highlighting the cognitive processes involved in metaphorical thinking (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003: 50).
The metaphor "TIME IS MONEY" illustrates that time holds significant value, similar to financial resources This perspective encourages us to view time as an asset that should not be squandered, prompting expressions like "that flat tire cost me an hour." By adopting this metaphor, we are motivated to spend and invest our time wisely, emphasizing its importance in our daily lives.
Metaphors significantly influence our perception of the world and shape our interactions with it To convey unconventional conceptual metaphors, unique linguistic expressions are often necessary.
2.2.3 Mapping as a major function of metaphors
A conceptual metaphor consists of two key components: the source domain and the target domain The process of mapping the source domain onto the target domain facilitates the transfer of meaning between different areas Essentially, a metaphor serves as a relationship between these conceptual domains, allowing language used for the source domain to apply to the target domain through systematic correspondences This systematic nature means that various aspects of the source domain, such as its appearances, functions, and relationships, can be effectively mapped onto the target domain.
A mapping refers to the systematic correspondences between elements of a source and a target domain, where many target concepts are derived from source domains Understanding a conceptual metaphor involves recognizing the set of mappings associated with a specific source-target pairing According to the invariance principle proposed by Lakoff and others, the image-schematic structure of the source that aligns with the target is mapped onto the target Kửvecses emphasizes that these mappings are grounded in the "main meaning focus" of the source domain, which represents the central knowledge relevant to a specific entity or event within a speech community.
Küvecses (2003) highlights the complexity of conceptual metaphor structures, emphasizing that two domains of thought coexist simultaneously He identifies ten key components that constitute a conceptual metaphor, including the experiential basis, source domain, target domain, the relationship between the source and target, metaphorical linguistic expressions, mappings, entailments, blends, non-linguistic realizations, and cultural models.
Highlighting and Hiding
Metaphorical structuring, as explained by Lakoff and Johnson, is inherently partial, meaning it cannot fully encapsulate a concept This limitation arises because if two concepts were identical, one would not effectively structure the other Certain aspects of a metaphor are emphasized while others are omitted, leading to a skewed understanding For instance, in the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, the focus is on conflict elements like attack and defense, overshadowing the cooperative nature of arguments Lakoff and Johnson highlight that during an argument, the other party can also be viewed as someone offering their time for mutual understanding, yet this cooperative dimension remains obscured by the metaphor Thus, metaphorical concepts consist of both highlighted and hidden elements.
Lakoff and Johnson's metaphorical framework illustrates the relationship between the utilized and unused aspects of theories, exemplified by the metaphor "THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS." This metaphor highlights how certain expressions reflect the active components of theories while emphasizing the foundational elements that remain unexplored.
The foundation of a theory requires more than just basic support; it must encompass various elements, much like a building While we often focus on the outer shell and construction, buildings also include essential features such as doors, windows, roofs, rooms, and hallways These components are often overlooked in everyday language when using the metaphor of a building to describe a theory.
Coherence and Consistence
Lakoff and Johnson distinguish between consistent and coherent metaphors, noting that consistent metaphors create a singular image, while coherent metaphors represent subcategories of a broader concept, sharing a common entailment Although coherent metaphors do not form a single image, they effectively fit together to convey meaning To illustrate this distinction, the authors employ two metaphors.
The metaphor of TIME AS A MOVING OBJECT is illustrated through phrases like "Time flies," "The time will come," and "The time for action has arrived," emphasizing the dynamic and inevitable nature of time.
The second illustration is TIME IS STATIONARY AND WE MOVE THROUGH
IT metaphor with the manifestation in the sentences ―We‘re approaching the end of the year‖, ―As we go through the years‖
The two metaphors discussed illustrate contrasting perceptions of time: one where we remain stationary as time progresses, and another where we advance while time remains static Despite this disparity, as Lakoff and Johnson highlight, both metaphorical concepts share a significant commonality: the notion that time moves past us from front to back This shared understanding allows the two concepts to align cohesively, even if they lack consistency.
Conceptual metaphors differ across cultures, with Lakoff and Johnson highlighting the metaphor TIME IS MONEY, which is predominantly linked to Western culture While this metaphor reflects the values of modern industrialized societies, it does not hold the same significance in all cultures.
Previous studies related to the theme of this thesis
The abstract concepts of Life and Death have captivated linguists and scholars, leading to numerous studies exploring their metaphors from various perspectives Notably, several significant research efforts have emerged that directly relate to the focus of this paper.
Hurtado's (2011) research analyzes metaphorical language in poetry, revealing the presence of conceptual metaphors The study argues that poetic thought is deeply embedded in human cognitive experiences.
The analysis of various metaphor theories reveals the undeniable cognitive aspect of metaphor It is not simply a case of literal falsehood or a breach of the Cooperative Principle; rather, metaphor exists fundamentally in thought, transcending mere words.
This research demonstrates that poetic metaphors are essential to our conceptual systems, allowing poets to tackle fundamental issues such as life and death By skillfully employing metaphoric processes, poets enhance our understanding of reality through the extension, composition, and critique of basic metaphoric tools.
Nguyen (2011) explores the metaphors of life, death, and time in English and Vietnamese through the lens of cognitive semantics, based on Lakoff and Turner's framework The study identifies both similarities and differences in the use of conceptual metaphors between the two languages, contributing to the theory of metaphors and enhancing translation practices It emphasizes that cultural awareness is crucial for effective intercultural communication, which encompasses language, behavior, pragmatics, beliefs, and values The research advocates for recognizing both commonalities and divergences in cultural and linguistic behaviors, cautioning against oversimplified stereotypes By adopting a conceptual approach to language, the study highlights deeper understandings of linguistic and cultural norms Furthermore, it stresses the importance of developing "metaphoric competence" among advanced learners to achieve proficiency in English, essential for navigating professional environments that demand high levels of language awareness and adaptability.
In his 2007 study, Ruiz examines various death metaphors, such as "Death is departure," "Death is cold," and "Death is sleep," to analyze their significance in over thirty popular tales and myths He proposes a classification system for these tales based on the primary metaphors they embody or the combinations of metaphors they contain Furthermore, the research delves into how these metaphors help elucidate the eerie elements present in the stories Ruiz concludes that these metaphors may have facilitated the transmission of numerous fairy tales and contributed to their similarities across different socio-cultural contexts.
Sánchez (1999) highlights Stephen Dobyns' imaginative manipulation of conventional metaphors, showcasing how he modifies them for greater impact By utilizing partial elements, such as in the metaphor "the body is a vehicle," Dobyns creates a more potent expression Additionally, he employs negative metaphors like "people are not plants" to further enhance meaning Furthermore, the metaphor "life is a journey" is expanded to encompass a broader perspective, including the concept of life beyond physical death.
Summary
This chapter presents an overview of various metaphor theories, emphasizing the conceptual metaphor theory established by Lakoff and Johnson in their seminal work, "Metaphors We Live By."
In 1980, a comprehensive review led to the formulation of a working definition of metaphor for this thesis Additionally, to gain a deeper understanding of conceptual metaphors, notable studies relevant to the topic will be discussed at the conclusion of the chapter.
METHODOLOGY
Principles governing the research
3.1.1 Principles governing the research type
This qualitative study aims to explore the conceptual metaphors related to Life and Death in Jack London's short stories According to Shank (2002), qualitative research is a systematic and empirical inquiry focused on understanding meaning, which is planned and public, adhering to established community rules This approach emphasizes the importance of grounding research in real-world experiences Denzin and Lincoln (2000) further explain that qualitative research adopts an interpretive and naturalistic perspective, where researchers investigate phenomena in their natural contexts, striving to comprehend the meanings that individuals attribute to their experiences.
In their seminal book "Metaphors We Live By" (1980), Lakoff and Johnson revealed that metaphors play a crucial role in shaping our understanding and interactions with the world This linguistic phenomenon is so prevalent and intuitive that we often overlook the metaphorical nature of our everyday language and thoughts.
This research aims to explore the conceptual metaphors of Life and Death in Jack London’s short stories Lakoff and Turner (1989) identify a prevalent metaphor in Western culture: "Death is departure," where phrases like "someone is gone" or "has passed on" replace direct references to death In Western discourse, life and death are frequently expressed through basic conceptual metaphors, which often go unnoticed due to their commonplace nature, as noted by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) They assert that human thought is fundamentally metaphorical, making metaphor a vital tool for understanding our existence and the world around us.
Metaphors are deeply embedded in our thoughts rather than solely in language, allowing readers to intuitively grasp fundamental metaphors that shape their understanding of life Consequently, writers can confidently use these metaphors without extensive explanation, trusting that readers will recognize them based on their inherent knowledge of basic conceptual frameworks.
3.1.2 Principles for the formulation of research questions
The researcher examines the metaphors of Life and Death in selected short stories by Jack London to understand the range of metaphorical expressions he employs Citing Lakoff and Turner (1989), the study posits that numerous metaphors for Life and Death in Western literature stem from a limited set of fundamental conceptual metaphors The researcher aims to determine if these foundational metaphors are also present in London's works, exploring their potential origins and extensions within the broader context of Western literary tradition.
The hypothesis posits that Jack London's works feature a rich variety of metaphors related to life and death, predominantly derived from a limited set of fundamental conceptual metaphors As noted by Goatly (1997), distinguishing between metaphorical and non-metaphorical language can be challenging, often requiring interpretative analysis The researcher acknowledges that interpretations may vary among readers, as metaphors can be subjective This hypothesis is grounded in the researcher’s personal reading experiences and understanding of metaphorical usage in literature.
The researcher concludes the first research question by examining the conceptual metaphor mapping proposed by Lakoff and Kővecses (2003: 84), which asserts that the image-schematic structures of the source are consistently mapped onto the target.
To explore the connection between Life and Death from a cognitive perspective rooted in Western culture, the researcher examines the insights of Lakoff & Johnson on metaphorical structuring They argue that metaphorical concepts are inherently partial, with consistent metaphors creating a unified image, while coherent metaphors serve as subcategories of a broader category, sharing common implications This distinction highlights the need to investigate how the Life and Death metaphors interrelate, as they may not form a singular image but instead fit together within a larger conceptual framework.
The aim of this study is not to identify every individual metaphor related to life and death in the selected short stories, but rather to achieve a broader understanding of how these metaphors are utilized in literature Additionally, the research seeks to explore the potential implications for teaching and learning the English language.
Methods employed for the research
The primary methods utilized in this research are documentary analysis and observation Official documents, such as journals and textbooks, are collected for valuable insights; however, they must be contextualized to align with the research objectives, as not all provide objective information Researchers are tasked with critically examining these documents to understand their construction, usage, and interpretation Consequently, observation becomes a preferred approach, allowing researchers to immerse themselves in American society and gain a deeper understanding of life and death as expressed in everyday language.
In conducting this research, reading and reviewing documents emerged as the most effective methods for material collection, particularly due to the difficulty in accessing original printings of Jack London's short stories The researcher primarily utilizes reliable online sources, which offer updated, abundant, and authentic information After gathering data, the information is systematically categorized to facilitate analysis Additionally, relevant references from the library at Hanoi National University are selectively reviewed to provide essential support and useful insights for the research.
The researcher examines the portrayal of Life and Death in Jack London's short stories through conceptual metaphor analysis By selecting compelling and concrete examples from these narratives, the researcher aims to highlight key points of interest The subsequent synthesis of the analyzed information is aligned with the thesis, with all processes conducted manually Through this thorough analysis and synthesis, the researcher aspires to effectively map out the depiction of Life and Death in London's literary works.
The study explores the theory of conceptual metaphor as established by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Lakoff and Turner (1989), utilizing data gathered from Jack London's short stories The researcher meticulously selects relevant information during the reading process, followed by an analysis and classification of the collected data according to the study's objectives This synthesis of metaphors leads to conclusions regarding the first research question, employing image-schematic structures to illustrate the mapping from source to target domains, as informed by Lakoff and Kűvecses Additionally, the study investigates the cognitive connection between Life and Death, interpreting whether these concepts can form a unified image or represent subcategories of a broader metaphor, in line with Lakoff's perspective.
In conclusion, this chapter has outlined two key methodological aspects: the fundamental principles guiding the research and the primary methods utilized, including data collection instruments, data analysis techniques, and the procedures for analyzing the data.
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Life Metaphors
Metaphor, along with similes and hyperboles, has traditionally been seen as a linguistic embellishment rather than a core component of language According to Deignan (2005), it is often regarded as a peripheral element, serving primarily to enhance language or fill lexical gaps.
―Metaphors We Live By‖, Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 4) maintained the idea that
―the essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another‖ but suggested that metaphors do not have a linguistic basis, but rather a conceptual one
Lakoff and Turner highlight the metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY as a fundamental concept in understanding poetic metaphor This metaphor establishes a framework that maps correspondences between two conceptual domains: the source domain, JOURNEY, and the target domain, LIFE.
In Jack London's short stories, the metaphor "LIFE IS A JOURNEY" illustrates life as a travel experience, where birth marks the beginning and death signifies the end This conceptual framework uses the journey as a means to explore and understand the complexities of life, emphasizing the transitions and experiences encountered along the way.
In a manner that closely resembles ―LIFE IS A JOURNEY‖ metaphor mapped by Lakoff & Johnson, ―LIFE IS A JOURNEY‖ in works by Jack London can be mapped out in the following way
Life is often likened to a journey with a clear beginning, direction, destinations, obstacles, and an eventual end In Jack London's writings, this concept of life is vividly illustrated through imagery related to travel, employing nouns such as "trail" to evoke the complexities and experiences encountered along the way.
―routine‖, ―peregrination‖, ―journey‖, ―the way of life‖, and verbs like ―follow‖,
The conceptual metaphor "pass out" and "come to the end" is illustrated through various short story examples, highlighting how specific lexical items effectively convey these meanings.
―The long trail waited while the short day refused to linger Life called her, and the duties of life, not death.‖ (The law of life)
―Ah, there it was that the long trail began Well, he had lasted longest.‖ (Lost face)
In "An Odyssey of the North," Prince is guided by unsung heroes who have witnessed significant moments in history, viewing the extraordinary and romantic as mere aspects of everyday life.
My life has been a continuous journey across the globe, from the East to the West and from the North to the South At thirty, I found myself as a capable seaman, full of vitality, yet tragically drowning in San Francisco Bay due to a failed attempt to abandon my ship.
The depiction of a traveler within the "LIFE IS A JOURNEY" metaphor highlights profound insights into the human experience The phrase "sole speck of life journeying across the ghostly wastes of a dead world" evokes a sense of isolation and fragility, emphasizing the traveler’s vulnerability This imagery conveys a stark realization of the transient nature of existence, as the traveler reflects on his existence, acknowledging that it may amount to little more than a "maggot's life."
A traveler's physical challenges represent significant obstacles in achieving their goals, highlighting the intricate relationship between the traveler and their human experience When a traveler arrives at their destination injured, blind, or in pain, it signifies an unforeseen layer of difficulty that complicates their journey.
In a haunting portrayal of survival, a sick man and a wounded wolf embody the struggle for existence, both dragging their weakened bodies through a desolate landscape while relentlessly pursuing each other Their tragic encounter highlights the raw instinct to fight for life, even in the face of despair.
Death metaphors
Death is an inevitable and final aspect of life that underscores the journey we all undertake The interconnectedness of life and journey highlights that our existence is akin to a traveler with a specific destination in mind This perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding our life's path in relation to the ultimate reality of death.
The conventional understanding of life is deeply intertwined with the concept of death, as both are essential components of the human experience Lakoff and Turner (1989) illustrate this connection by describing life as a journey, emphasizing that death serves as a crucial stopping point along this path.
In Jack London's short stories, the metaphor of "life as a journey" culminates in the inevitable destination of death While travelers may encounter various experiences along their path, their journey ultimately concludes This physical representation of nearing death mirrors the approach to a final stop, evident in the language surrounding death, which often includes terms like "close to," "in the end," "pass away," "meeting," and "down to the dark gate of death."
As individuals reach the end of their life journey, it signifies the completion of their travels This conclusion is often articulated through various verbs, including "pass away," "come to the end," "meet," and "go down," which all convey the finality of life's path.
In Jack London's short stories "The Law of Life," "The Grit of Woman," and "Love of Life," the themes of struggle and endurance are poignantly illustrated The protagonist follows the trail of another man, signifying the shared human experience of perseverance, yet he ultimately confronts exhaustion and the inevitability of death This journey reflects the profound connection between life's challenges and the resilience required to face them.
The metaphor of "Death is the end of a journey" is poignantly illustrated in the phrase, "And in the end, Death waited, ever-hungry and hungriest of them all," from "The Law of Life." This imagery emphasizes death's inevitability and its role as the final destination in the journey of life.
―They had passed out of his life, and he faced the last bitter hour alone.‖ (The law of life)
―They had passed away like clouds from a summer sky He also was an episode, and would pass away.‖ (The law of life)
The journey for Passuk concludes here, but Charley's path continues endlessly over the Chilcoot Pass, towards Haines Mission and the sea This trail is illuminated by countless suns, traversing uncharted territories and mysterious waters, filled with years of experiences, honors, and significant achievements It will guide you to the homes of many admirable women, yet none will compare to the profound love that Passuk offers.
Other examples taken from two shorts stories such as To build a fire, The God of his fathers also reveal this concept of this metaphor
―When he had recovered his breath and control, he sat up and entertained in his mind the conception of meeting death with dignity.‖ (To build a fire)
He envisioned the boys discovering his lifeless body the next day In a surreal moment, he found himself alongside them, searching for his own presence along the trail As they rounded a bend, he came upon his own figure lying in the snow, feeling a profound disconnection from himself Even in that moment, he was separate, standing with the boys and observing his own body in the cold snow.
―And he felt a great envy of the man who could go down serenely to the dark gates of death.‖ (The god of his fathers)
In many cultures, death is often linked to cold, a connection likely influenced by seasonal changes Warm seasons like spring and summer symbolize life and fertility, as they bring growth and animal reproduction Conversely, the cold is associated with death, as a deceased body loses its heat, dropping below the normal body temperature of 37 degrees Celsius This phenomenon is particularly evident in colder climates, such as those in America, where residents frequently contend with low temperatures, making fire essential for survival This struggle against nature is vividly depicted in Jack London's short stories set in the Northland, highlighting the harsh realities of life in a cold environment.
To describe the feeling of desperation, fear and death, the cold is painted with an amazing brush through numerous metaphorical expressions in the following examples
―It was very like a sea, this deadly languor, that rose and rose and drowned his consciousness bit by bit.‖ (Love of life)
The idea of succumbing to sleep felt akin to receiving an anaesthetic, offering a sense of peace Contrary to popular belief, freezing to death wasn't as terrible as it seemed; in fact, there were far more agonizing ways to meet one's end.
―But the tremendous cold had already driven the life out of his fingers” (To build a fire)
―He was losing in his battle with the frost.” (To build a fire)
Sleeping into death felt like a form of anesthesia, he mused Contrary to popular belief, freezing wasn't the worst way to die; there were far more painful alternatives.
In a desolate landscape where life was absent, the silence enveloped everything, with no signs of wildlife such as ptarmigan, squirrels, or snowshoe rabbits The river lay still beneath a blanket of snow, and the forest was frozen in time The cold intensified as night fell, bringing forth large, dancing stars, while during the day, sun-dogs created illusions of multiple suns, making the air shimmer like diamond dust Amidst this stark beauty, there was an overwhelming absence of warmth and sound, leaving only the biting cold and profound silence.
As she became unresponsive in my embrace, I stood up, retrieved my well-stocked pouch, donned my snowshoes, and made my way along the trail, determined to continue despite the challenges.
4.2.3 Death is night/ Death is darkness
Life, with all that it means, is most important to us and, together with death, is often spoken of metaphorically and entails each other
Lakoff and Turner (1989) argue that many metaphors are interconnected not as specific instances of a broader metaphor, but due to their common grounding in everyday experiences and shared knowledge This connection gives rise to metaphors like LIFE IS LIGHT and DEATH IS DARKNESS/NIGHT, which are linked by the understanding that daytime symbolizes life and activity, while nighttime represents coldness, inactivity, and rest The physical attributes of death—coldness and immobility—mirror the characteristics of night, reinforcing the metaphorical relationship where DEATH IS NIGHT/DARKNESS is derived from the metaphor LIFE IS LIGHT.
In Jack London's short stories, darkness is conveyed through direct references like "darkness," "shade," and "no sun," as well as through associated terms that evoke coldness and stillness.
Coherence and consistence of Life and Death metaphors
Metaphors serve as a systematic way to structure one concept through another, highlighting the partial nature of their equivalency While they maintain coherence within our conceptual framework, allowing different metaphorical interpretations to logically overlap, they often lack consistency, as multiple images for a single concept rarely converge into one unified representation For instance, when discussing love, it can be metaphorically viewed as a journey, represented through various modes of travel such as a car trip, a train journey, or a sea voyage Each of these metaphors shares the theme of a journey, demonstrating coherence, yet they do not coalesce into a singular image, showcasing their inconsistency.
Life and death are complex concepts that cannot be fully understood through a single metaphor Instead, a variety of metaphors exist, particularly evident in the short stories of Jack London These metaphors are interconnected, demonstrating coherence and consistency throughout his works.
4.3.1 Coherence of Life and Death metaphors
The analysis of Jack London's short stories reveals that metaphors of Life and Death are prevalent, showcasing a diverse range of expressions Notably, four prominent conceptual metaphors emerge: LIFE IS A JOURNEY, LIFE IS A FIGHT/BATTLE, LIFE IS LIGHT, and LIFE IS A GIFT.
IS LIGHT and corresponding four conceptual metaphor for Death known as, DEATH IS THE END OF THE JOURNEY, DEATH IS COLD, DEATH IS DARKNESS, and DEATH IS REST/ SLEEP
According to Lakoff and Turner (1989), many metaphors are interconnected not only because they share the same target structure but also due to their common grounding in everyday experiences and shared knowledge In the works of Jack London, the Life and Death metaphors are clearly related through both their target structure and their foundation in human life experiences.
Metaphors such as "death is night," "death is cold," "death is darkness," "death is sleep," and "death is rest" are interconnected through shared knowledge that links their source and target domains Night is typically associated with coldness and darkness, while sleep represents rest, creating a coherent relationship The coldness of the deceased parallels the chill of night, and the immobility of death resembles the stillness of sleep This correlation among night, darkness, cold, sleep, and rest establishes a cohesive understanding of these metaphors, affirming that "death is cold," "death is darkness," and "death is rest/sleep" are interrelated concepts.
The metaphors "LIFE IS LIGHT" and "LIFE IS FIRE" both illustrate the journey of life, emphasizing the transition from brightness to darkness at death The "LIFE IS LIGHT" metaphor suggests a life cycle that begins with illumination and culminates in shadow, aligning seamlessly with the "LIFE IS FIRE" metaphor, which also conveys the essence of life through its dynamic and transformative nature.
4.3.2 Consistence of Life and Death metaphors
Life is often viewed as a journey, characterized by various destinations and paths leading to them, encapsulated in the metaphor "LIFE IS A JOURNEY." This perspective is reflected in expressions like "Since then my life had been one long peregrination," highlighting the ongoing nature of existence As individuals age, they may feel they have "come to the end of it," emphasizing the life cycle The phrase "It was the way of life, and it was just" illustrates how people navigate their experiences Concerns about progress and direction are common, with many questioning if they "are getting anywhere" in life Those who possess clarity about their goals, often described as knowing "where they're going in life," are typically admired When faced with choices, individuals may express uncertainty by saying, "I don't know which path to take."
Life is a journey that ultimately leads to death, which we often perceive as a destination This perspective allows us to view death as a transition to the great beyond, a better place, or our final resting place Thus, we can encapsulate the idea that death signifies the end of a journey.
Jack London's works explore profound themes of life and death, which can be understood through the cognitive linguistic perspective on metaphor The conceptual metaphors "LIFE IS A JOURNEY" and "DEATH IS THE END OF THE JOURNEY" provide a framework for interpreting these themes This journey metaphor serves to connect the experiences of life and death, allowing readers to grasp the underlying significance of the imagery presented in his writings Thus, the coherence of these metaphors reinforces our understanding of the intricate relationship between life and death in Jack London's narratives.
CONCLUSION
CONCLUDING REMARKS
5.1.1 Concluding remarks on objective 1 – The common type of metaphor for Life and Death image in Jack London’s short stories
The investigation into Jack London's short stories reveals significant insights into the conceptual metaphors of Life and Death, analyzed through the cognitive lens of Lakoff and Johnson This research highlights the intricate ways in which these metaphors shape our understanding of existence and mortality within London's narratives.
Life and Death are polysemous concepts, with four primary metaphors representing Life: LIFE IS A JOURNEY, LIFE IS A FIGHT/BATTLE, LIFE IS LIGHT/DAYTIME, and LIFE IS LIGHT Among these, the metaphors LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A FIGHT/BATTLE are the most prevalent, as evidenced by the higher density of related sentences in the analyzed short stories.
The image of Death also evokes four senses of metaphor namely DEATH IS THE END OF THE JOURNEY, DEATH IS REST/ SLEEP, DEATH IS COLD, and DEATH IS DARKNESS
5.1.2 Concluding remarks on objective 2 – The markers of coherence and consistence between the Life and Death metaphors
This study reveals intriguing findings regarding the coherence and consistency of LIFE and DEATH conceptual metaphors in short stories The results indicate a significant interrelation between various life and death metaphors, suggesting that they often imply one another.
Metaphors like "DEATH IS NIGHT," "DEATH IS COLD," "DEATH IS DARKNESS," and "DEATH IS SLEEP" are interconnected through shared knowledge that links their source and target domains This common grounding in life allows for a deeper understanding of death's complex nature, illustrating how these metaphors shape our perceptions and experiences of mortality.
NIGHT, DEATH IS COLD, DEATH IS DARKNESS, and DEATH IS REST/ SLEEP are coherent with each other
In terms of Life metaphor, The LIFE IS LIGHT is coherent with the metaphor LIFE
The relationship between life and death can be understood through the lens of cognitive linguistics, particularly the conceptual metaphor of viewing life as a journey This perspective establishes two key metaphors: LIFE IS A JOURNEY and DEATH IS THE END, highlighting the inherent connection between these fundamental aspects of existence.
The journey serves as a powerful metaphor for understanding life and death, encapsulating the idea that "Life is a journey" and "Death is the end of the journey." These two concepts align seamlessly, offering a coherent framework for interpreting our experiences and the inevitability of life's conclusion.
5.1.3 Concluding remarks on objective 3 - The possible implications for English language teaching and learning
Learning a new language involves not only mastering its vocabulary and grammar but also understanding the cultural context it embodies Literature, as a vital component of culture, plays a crucial role in language education by igniting interest and providing deep insights into themes, writing styles, and the profound messages conveyed by authors Jack London, a prominent figure in American literature at the turn of the twentieth century, is renowned for his use of realism and naturalism in his works This study aims to explore the metaphors of LIFE and DEATH in Jack London’s short stories, offering a comprehensive analysis of conceptual metaphors within his narratives.
Researching conceptual metaphors reveals their universal implications, as highlighted by Lakoff and Turner (1989), who assert that metaphors are essential for understanding our world and ourselves Engaging with powerful metaphors provides insights into the essence of human life Identifying and mapping these universal metaphors can illuminate fundamental aspects of cognitive functions and human existence Therefore, metaphor studies should be a focal point for researchers across diverse fields, including linguistics, anthropology, history, and cognitive sciences.
Teaching literature, particularly short stories, requires a careful examination of figurative language, especially metaphors, as they serve as vital tools for creating analogies, connecting ideas, and elucidating abstract concepts Without metaphors and other figures of speech, literature can feel lifeless and bland When readers encounter an author's ideas and messages without engaging in contemplation, association, or interpretation, the reading experience becomes unenjoyable and lacks depth.
Literature and metaphor play a crucial role in language development, and educators should guide students in exploring conceptual metaphors This exploration helps students understand how metaphors are mapped and the meanings they convey, enhancing their comprehension of complex concepts.
Cultural awareness is essential for effective communication, deeply intertwined with language, behavior, pragmatics, beliefs, and values As noted by Lakoff and Johnson (1989), the core values of a culture align with its metaphorical structures A conceptual approach to language highlights both differences and similarities, enhancing the understanding of linguistic and cultural norms Advanced learners, in particular, must cultivate "metaphoric competence" to achieve proficiency in English, which is crucial for professional success requiring high language awareness and resourcefulness For these students, grasping the conceptual nature of language presents a valuable and enriching challenge.
LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
This study explores the use of conceptual metaphors related to Life and Death in Jack London's short stories While it provides valuable insights, it represents only a small portion of the broader research on conceptual metaphors Due to the concise nature of the paper, many topics could be further developed, and some areas may have been addressed only superficially, indicating that numerous aspects remain unexplored.
Further research is needed to explore additional conceptual metaphors related to love, happiness, sadness, and fear Additionally, a cross-cultural analysis of these conceptual metaphors warrants more in-depth investigation.
This study aims to establish a foundation for further exploration of the LIFE and DEATH metaphor, extending its relevance beyond literature to various other disciplines.
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WEBSITES AS SOURCE FOR THE DATA OBTAINED IN THE THESIS
1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_metaphor
2 http://www.jacklondons.net/northstories.html
3 http://www.jacklondons.net/writings/ShortStories/index.html
THE TARGET, SOURCE DOMAIN AND THE SET OF MAPPINGS
OF LIFE AND DEATH METAPHOR
APPENDIX A: LIFE IS A JOURNEY APPENDIX B: LIFE IS A FIGHTING/ LIFE IS A BATTLE APPENDIX C: LIFE IS FIRE/ HEAT/ WARMTH
APPENDIX D: LIFE IS LIGHT/ LIFE IS DAYTIME APPENDIX E: DEATH IS THE END OF A JOURNEY APPENDIX F: DEATH IS COLD
APPENDIX G: DEATH IS NIGHT/ DEATH IS DARKNESS
APPENDIX H: DEATH IS REST/ DEATH IS SLEEP
1 Journey Life The long trail waited while the short day refused to linger Life called her, and the duties of life, not death (The law of life)
Ah, there it was that the long trail began Well, he had lasted longest (Lost face)
Prince was guided by unsung heroes who had witnessed historical moments, viewing the extraordinary and romantic as merely routine aspects of life.
My life has been a continuous journey across the globe, traversing from the East to the West and from the Arctic to the Antarctic At thirty years old, I found myself an experienced sailor, full of vitality, yet tragically drowning in San Francisco Bay due to a misguided attempt to abandon my ship.
2 Traveler Human He had carried his life too long in his hands, on that weary trail from Warsaw to Nulato, to shudder at mere dying (Lost face)
His bleak life rose up and smote him, - the vain struggle with pitiless forces; the dreary years of frost and famine; the harsh and jarring contact with elemental life
―Sole speck of life journeying across the ghostly wastes of a dead world, he trembles at his audacity realizes that his is a maggot's life nothing more.‖ (The white silence)
―It was the way of life, and it was just.‖ (The law of life)
―There was life in the Northland He would follow it, look upon it, gloat over it.‖ (In a far country)
Upon arriving at that location, I encountered a priest who gently obstructed my path He advised me that in moments of anger, one should not veer to the right or left but should instead focus directly on seeking God.
From the outset, whether in Warsaw, St Petersburg, the Siberian mines, Kamtchatka, or aboard the wild vessels of fur thieves, Fate had been steering him toward this inevitable conclusion.
APPENDIX B: LIFE IS A FIGHTING/ LIFE IS A BATTLE
Life is a perplexing journey that invites deep reflection, and despite our efforts to understand it, its complexities seem to increase rather than diminish This innate desire for life persists, even though it often feels like a game where no one truly emerges victorious.
2 Opponents Life Fate asked too much of him And, dying, he
/Death declined to die It was stark madness, perhaps, but in the very grip of Death he defied Death and refused to die.(Love of life)
The sudden danger, the quick death, — how often had Malemute Kid faced it! (The white silence)
For five years, they stood together through adversity, forging strong bonds of camaraderie while navigating the challenges of rivers, trails, camps, and mines, all while confronting the threats of death from field, flood, and famine.
I had faced death and weighed my chances in many a desperate venture, but never in one of this nature (A thousand deaths)
Then an Indian boy, at the head of half a dozen frightened dogs, racing with death, dashed into the crowd (The man of forty mile)
He rested wherever he collapsed, moving forward whenever the flickering life within him surged with renewed strength As a man, he no longer fought; it was the persistent spark of life in him, reluctant to fade, that propelled him onward.
His bleak life rose up and smote him,—the vain struggle with pitiless forces.( The Great Interrogation)
The vast, untouched forest served as a backdrop for both lively humor and quiet sorrow, embodying the eternal struggle for survival that unfolds with primal intensity.
Across uncharted wildernesses, resilient blue-eyed men emerged as symbols of their restless heritage They arrived unexpectedly, either by chance or intention, often in small groups or alone, coming from unknown origins Their fate was uncertain, as they fought, perished, or simply moved on, leaving their pasts shrouded in mystery.
Countless unnoticed travelers have met their end beneath the chilling glow of the aurora, just as their comrades have perished in scorching deserts and fetid jungles This cycle of sacrifice will persist until the destiny of their people is ultimately fulfilled.
To live is to toil hard, and to suffer sore, till Old
As we age, we confront the inevitability of death, reflecting on the fleeting nature of life From the moment a baby takes its first breath, pain accompanies existence, culminating in the struggles of an old man gasping for his last Throughout life, we face continuous challenges and sorrow, yet we resist the embrace of death, often looking back and fighting against our fate until the very end.
Two died under it; others were injured for life; and the rest took the lesson to heart and ran away no more (Lost face)
And as they shall continue to do till in the fulness of time the destiny of their race be achieved (The grit of woman)
It is a very great medicine It has saved my life many times.(Lost face)
He was losing in his battle with the frost (To build a fire)
When the last stick had surrendered up its heat, the frost would begin to gather strength (Love of life)
And Kid! He stooped lower to catch the last faint words, the dying man's surrender of his pride "I'm sorry – for - you know - Carmen." (The white silence)
APPENDIX C: LIFE IS FIRE/ HEAT/ WARMTH
A life can be a promising flame as There was the fire, snapping and crackling and promising life with every dancing flame ( To build a fire)
El-Soo embodied a vibrant spirit, characterized by her quickness, intelligence, and deftness She radiated life and energy, a captivating blend of will, sweetness, and daring that made her a remarkable personality.
She was an artist, and the fire of her flowed toward creation (The wit of Porportuk)
It was the flame of her, that did not depend upon feature, that was her beauty (The wit of Porportuk)
He rested wherever he fell, crawled on whenever the dying life in him flickered up and burned less dimly (Love of life)
Sole speck of life journeying across the ghostly wastes of a dead world, he trembles at his audacity, realizes that his is a maggot's life, nothing more (The white silence)