LITERATURE REVIEW
Language learning strategies
1.1.1 Background of language learning strategies There has been a prominent shift within the field of language learning and teaching over the last twenty years with greater emphasis being put on learners and learning rather than on teachers and teaching In parallel to this new shift of interest, how learners process new information and what kinds of strategies they employ to understand, learn or remember the information have been the primary concern of the researchers dealing with the area of foreign language learning So, language learning strategies (LLS) for foreign language learning and the teacher's role in strategy training is very important As vocabulary learning strategies are a component of second language learning strategies, a brief review of the literature on language learning strategies is needed
Research on Language Learning Strategies (LLS) began in the 1960s, significantly influenced by advancements in cognitive psychology The focus of this research has primarily been on understanding the behaviors and techniques that successful language learners employ when acquiring a second or foreign language, as noted by Rubin and Wenden (1987).
1966, Aaron Carton published his study entitled “The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study”, which was the first attempt on learner strategies After
In 1971, Rubin began researching the strategies of successful language learners, proposing that these strategies could be shared with those who struggle He categorized these strategies based on their direct or indirect contributions to language acquisition This foundational work by Rubin was further developed by notable scholars, including Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al (1978), Cohen & Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot & O'Malley (1987), and Politzer & McGroarty, who expanded and refined the understanding of language learning strategies.
(1985), Conti & Kolsody (1998) Before presenting an overview of these studies, a review of the definitions of language learning strategies is needed, and this is presented below
1.1.2 Definition of language learning strategies
Research on learning strategies, especially language learning strategies, is gaining significant popularity However, linguists have yet to reach a consensus on the definitions of learning strategies.
Learning strategies are defined as the mental processes that learners use to acquire and utilize a target language (Nunan, 1991) While Nunan emphasizes these strategies as cognitive functions, Richard et al (1992) expand this definition to include intentional behaviors and thoughts that aid in understanding, learning, and retaining new information Additionally, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) highlight the goal of learning facilitation, noting that these strategies are intentional actions aimed at enhancing a learner's motivation and the effective organization and integration of new knowledge.
Oxford (1990:8) defines learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to new situation.”
Learning strategies, as defined by Ellis (1997), are the specific techniques or approaches that learners use to acquire a second language (L2) These strategies can be categorized as either behavioral or mental and are generally focused on solving problems encountered during the learning process.
Learning strategies, as defined by Rubin (in Wenden and Rubin 1987:19), encompass a variety of operations, steps, plans, and routines that learners utilize to enhance their ability to acquire, store, retrieve, and apply information Essentially, these strategies represent the actions learners take to facilitate their learning process and manage their educational development effectively.
Learning strategies are defined by O’Malley and Charmot (1990) as specific methods of processing information that improve comprehension, learning, or retention These strategies encompass unique thoughts and behaviors that individuals employ to better understand, acquire, and remember new information.
Learning strategies are understood through various lenses, including cognitive, social, and pragmatic perspectives As a result, researchers have focused on developing a taxonomy of learning strategies rather than providing a single definition This approach highlights the complexity and diversity of learning methods.
1.1.3 The importance of language learning strategies in language learning and teaching
Bridging the gap between students' learning styles and teachers' teaching methods is essential for fostering successful learning outcomes It is crucial to teach students effective learning strategies, which Oxford (1990) defines as specific actions that enhance the learning experience by making it easier, faster, more enjoyable, self-directed, effective, and applicable to new situations By implementing these strategies, students can address their learning style weaknesses while maximizing their strengths, leading to a more powerful and effective educational experience.
Chamot et al (1999) highlighted the significance of learning strategies (LLS) by noting that effective learners differ from less effective ones based on their approach to tasks Teaching learning strategies is particularly beneficial for less effective learners, as discovering and applying effective strategies can lead to their success Through targeted strategy instruction, students can enhance their vocabulary and improve their overall study skills.
Effective language learners utilize a diverse range of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) to enhance their skills Oxford (1990) identifies several key strategies: memory strategies assist in storing and retrieving new information; cognitive strategies facilitate understanding and production of the language through various methods; compensation strategies empower learners to communicate despite gaps in knowledge; and metacognitive strategies enable learners to regulate their own cognitive processes.
Effective language learning strategies (LLS) encompass metacognitive, cognitive, and socio-affective skills, enabling learners to gain independence and control over their education According to Lessard-Clouston (1997), LLS are crucial for enhancing students' communicative competence Oxford (1990) emphasizes that these strategies are vital for active, self-directed learning, which is essential for successful communication in a foreign language Teachers who guide students in understanding and utilizing effective LLS contribute significantly to their development as proficient language learners Research indicates that positive LLS can benefit even those who struggle with language learning; however, it is important to note that employing effective strategies alone does not guarantee success, as various other factors may influence a learner's outcomes.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, research predominantly concentrated on categorizing strategies identified in studies from the previous decade, leading to the development of various taxonomies These classifications aimed to categorize language learning strategies (LLS) broadly, as well as specific strategies related to language sub-skills.
The most famous learning strategies are proposed by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) Their hierarchical framework of strategies distinguishes three major strategy types: Metacognitive Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Socio-affective Strategies
O'Malley and Chamot's strategy framework is widely appreciated and utilized by educators for lesson planning However, the lack of an examination into the construct validity of this taxonomy raises concerns about its effectiveness in teaching and training students to effectively employ these three distinct strategies.
According to Rubin, there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning These are: Learning Strategies; Communication Strategies; Social Strategies
Stern (1992:262-266) stated that, there are five main LLS These are as follows: Management and Planning Strategies; Cognitive Strategies; Communicative - Experiential Strategies; Interpersonal Strategies; Affective Strategies
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
David Wilkins, a British linguist, emphasized the crucial role of vocabulary in language learning, stating, “without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (1972, cited in Hoang, 1985, p.1) Vocabulary is a vital component of acquiring a foreign language, garnering significant attention from linguists, researchers, teachers, and learners alike The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines vocabulary as “all the words that a person knows or uses, or all the words in a particular language,” highlighting its importance in effective communication.
According to Michael Lewis (1993, p.89, cited in Hoang, 1985), vocabulary
“…may be individual words or full sentences – institutionalized utterances – that conveyed fixed social or pragmatic meaning within a given community”
Penny Ur, in her book “A course book in language teaching” defined vocabulary as
When teaching foreign languages, it's essential to recognize that vocabulary encompasses more than just individual words; it often includes compounds of two or three words as well as multi-word idioms.
Vocabulary encompasses more than just individual words with fixed meanings; it includes combinations of words such as poly words (e.g., "by the way"), collocations (e.g., "sense of humor"), institutionalized utterances (e.g., "I’ll take it"), sentence frames (e.g., "It can be said that "), and text frames (e.g., "In this presentation, I would like to ") Effective vocabulary teaching and learning focus on acquiring these "chunks" of language rather than solely memorizing individual words.
1.2.2 The importance of vocabulary in second language learning
In his book "Vocabulary," Michael McCarthy (1990) emphasizes that vocabulary is the most crucial component of any language course, stating that without a strong vocabulary, effective communication in a second language (L2) is impossible This highlights the essential role of vocabulary in language learning, as a student's ability to communicate is significantly influenced by their vocabulary size Johnson and Johnson (2004) further support this by noting that words are vital tools for thinking, expressing ideas and feelings, and understanding the world.
In "Understanding Vocabulary" (2000, p.16, cited in Quach, 2007), Alexander emphasizes that comprehension enhances with a solid understanding of word meanings, stating that "words are the currency of communication." He argues that a strong vocabulary significantly benefits all aspects of communication, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
Vocabulary plays a crucial role in language acquisition, particularly in second language learning Therefore, it is essential to incorporate vocabulary instruction into the curriculum, with language teachers dedicating focused efforts to create well-structured lessons that prioritize vocabulary development.
1.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary learning and acquisition Despite the abundance of research on vocabulary acquisition that has been conducted by linguists, psychologists and theorists of L2 acquisition, there is still no general theory of vocabulary acquisition While psycholinguists have a particular interest in vocabulary development and exploration of the formal models of vocabulary acquisition, and ignore the L2 vocabulary literature because it is model free, applied linguists are mainly concerned with the descriptive aspects of vocabulary and do not draw on existing psycholinguistic models of bilingual lexicon even when this implies an immediate pedagogical significance (Singleton,
2008) It was these differences that have made it extremely difficult to list all the significant factors and the ways in which they influence
Singleton (2008) identifies key factors influencing vocabulary learning and acquisition, including the linguistic features of lexical items, the impact of first and additional languages, and the gradual process of vocabulary acquisition He emphasizes the importance of memory in learning, the organization of the L2 mental lexicon, and the significance of exposure to linguistic input Additionally, individual learner differences and the role of teachers in vocabulary instruction and strategies are crucial elements discussed in the literature.
In her research on enhancing vocabulary retention through meaningful practice, Quach (2007) systematically categorized factors into three groups: learner-related factors, teacher-related factors, and learning context She highlighted learner-related factors such as memory systems, individual needs and interests, and diverse learning styles and strategies Teacher-related factors encompassed teaching methods and strategy training, while the learning context group included crucial elements of language input and output.
In short, due to different influencing factors, achieving the goals of L2 vocabulary acquisition is no easy matter This difficulty was stated in Singleton’s book as:
Despite a well-structured vocabulary lesson grounded in modern teaching principles, there is no assurance that students will effectively learn the vocabulary presented The process of acquiring vocabulary through formal instruction is intricate and affected by various elements, including the teacher's vocabulary teaching strategies and their grasp of essential concepts in vocabulary acquisition Additionally, the commitment of learners to vocabulary learning strategies and their willingness to take charge of their educational journey play crucial roles Ultimately, the interplay of these factors significantly influences vocabulary acquisition outcomes.
1.2.4 Retention and factors affecting vocabulary retention
Retention, as defined in the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2005), refers to "an ability to remember things," specifically highlighting the capacity to retain facts and figures in memory While the literature lacks a specific definition for vocabulary retention, this study clarifies it as the storage of vocabulary in memory, making it accessible for use when required.
Acquisition refers to the act of obtaining knowledge, while retention involves remembering that knowledge This study focuses on the factors influencing vocabulary retention, which are memory, language exposure, and effective vocabulary learning strategies These factors are interrelated; learning pertains to the initial acquisition of information, whereas memory deals with its storage and retrieval Effective learning is only achieved when information can be recalled, highlighting the importance of understanding this relationship As Gairns (1986) noted, recognizing why some information is retained while others are forgotten is crucial for language teachers, as it can inform classroom practices that enhance the retention of new vocabulary Therefore, a thorough investigation into these processes is essential for both educators and learners.
1.2.4.1 Memory Types of memory The role of memory is crucial in any kind of learning and vocabulary learning is no exception What people usually think of as “memory” in day-to-day usage is actually long-term memory, but there are also important short-term (working memory) and sensory memory processes, which must be worked through before a long-term memory can be established
Sensory memory is the briefest form of memory, allowing individuals to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ceased This type of memory serves as a buffer for the five senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—accurately capturing these impressions for a fleeting moment For instance, the ability to glance at an object and recall its appearance within a second exemplifies sensory memory, which typically lasts no longer than 200 milliseconds.
The perception of an item occurs within 500 milliseconds (1/5 to 1/2 second) and quickly diminishes afterward This rapid response is a crucial aspect of the perception process and plays a vital role in the storage of information in short-term memory.
Memory strategies
Memory strategies, identified as part of direct learning strategies by Oxford (1990), enhance retention by linking new information to familiar words and images These techniques involve associating new vocabulary with previously acquired knowledge, employing imagery, or organizing information into groups to improve recall.
Thompson (1987) (cited in Schmitt, 1997) defined memory strategies as
Mnemonics leverage established psychological principles by creating a retrieval plan during the encoding process and employing both visual and verbal mental imagery This technique enhances learning speed and recall ability, as it facilitates the integration of new information with existing cognitive frameworks and offers effective retrieval cues.
“Contextualized” and “de-contextualized” are two ways of learning which still raise conflicting views among language professionals concerning about language learning in general and vocabulary learning in particular
Oxford and Scarcella (1994, cited in Nemati, 2009) highlight that 'de-contextualized learning,' such as memorizing vocabulary from word lists, may assist students in preparing for tests; however, this method often leads to quick forgetting of the learned words.
Nielson (2006, cited in Nemati, 2009) emphasized the importance of introducing 'de-contextualized learning' in the early stages of language development, as it is more effective for building fundamental vocabulary compared to contextualized reading This approach suggests that teachers should focus on providing beginner learners with a substantial amount of 'de-contextualized' vocabulary instruction initially, utilizing word lists, and then progressively incorporate contextualized vocabulary learning, such as extensive reading, as students' language skills improve.
Recent research emphasizes that the depth of processing information is more crucial than the recency of learning for effective education To enhance learning, students should be trained in deep processing techniques Among various vocabulary memorization strategies, those that involve deep semantic processing—referred to as "memory strategies"—have proven to be more effective than superficial methods like rote repetition, as highlighted by Oxford (1990).
This study aims to explore memory vocabulary learning strategies that emphasize deep processing, as these methods are believed to enhance vocabulary retention more effectively than other learning approaches.
1.3.3 Oxford’s classification of Memory Strategies Oxford (1990)’s system of memory strategies consists of ten items as following: Grouping: Words are easier to memorize, store and recall if they are put in groups Words can be grouped mentally or in writing according to their class, topic, function, similarity, dissimilarity or opposition, and so on
Associating/ Elaborating: New vocabulary items are easier to learn and use if they are associated to those, which are already in memory
To effectively learn new vocabulary, it is essential to incorporate new words into meaningful contexts, such as sentences, conversations, or stories Additionally, utilizing visual imagery—whether through mental visualization or actual drawings—can enhance memory retention This imagery can include pictures of objects, sets of collocations to remember sequences of words, or even mental representations of a word's letters, making the learning process more engaging and memorable.
Semantic mapping is a powerful technique that places a central concept at the forefront, connecting related words and ideas through lines or arrows This strategy utilizes meaningful imagery, grouping, and associations to visually illustrate the relationships between different words and concepts By organizing information in this way, semantic mapping enhances understanding and retention of interconnected ideas.
Using keywords: A new word is linked to a known word (either in L1 or in L2) which sounds like the new word
Presenting sounds in memory: Students create a meaningful, sound-based association between the new word and known words in L1 or in L2 Rhyme can also be exploited to remember new words
Structured reviewing: New words should be reviewed in spaced intervals, at first close together and then move widely spaced apart Reviewing is essential for vocabulary learning
Incorporating physical responses, such as acting out new expressions or associating them with sensations like warmth, can enhance language learning Additionally, employing mechanical techniques—like organizing vocabulary on cards or categorizing materials in a notebook—provides tangible methods to reinforce new language information These strategies, as highlighted by Oxford (1990), effectively aid in memory retention and understanding of the target language.
This study focuses on four specific memory strategies from Oxford's (1990) ten-item classification: structured reviewing, mechanical techniques, imagery, and contextualizing new words The selection of these strategies is driven by two key factors: the practical limitations of training students in all ten strategies within an action research project and the observation that, despite extensive research on various memory strategies, these four remain underexplored in existing MA theses.
1.3.3.1 Structured reviewing Structured reviewing is scientifically based on memory principles, which highlight the importance of primacy, recency, duration, spacing, pacing, and linking, as noted by Stevick (1976) Oxford (1990b) and Brown-Azarowicz et al (1986) present illustrations of structured reviewing for L2 vocabulary expansion
Structured reviewing is a flexible method that enhances various learning techniques across the contextuality continuum It establishes an organized schedule for revisiting new vocabulary, regardless of the specific approach employed by the learner.
The structured reviewing technique involves revisiting L2 vocabulary at progressively longer intervals, starting with short gaps and gradually increasing them For example, learners initially practice vocabulary words multiple times, followed by a 15-minute break, then revisiting the words after an hour, three hours, the next day, two days later, and weekly until the vocabulary becomes automatic or "overlearned." This method ensures that learners consistently return to specific words while also encountering new vocabulary The time required to achieve automaticity varies based on the complexity of the words, contextual factors, and individual learning differences.
Structured reviewing is a powerful vocabulary learning technique often overlooked in L2 textbooks, which typically fail to provide explicit guidance on its use Additionally, many textbooks do not present L2 words in a spiraled manner that encourages learners to engage in structured reviewing While some effective teachers revisit previously learned vocabulary to aid student retention, many others neglect this practice as they introduce new words Consequently, the potential of structured reviewing as a vital tool for vocabulary acquisition remains largely untapped.
METHODOLOGY
The rationale of using Action Research
The background to the study
The study focused on a class of beginner-level students with limited English knowledge The students attended lessons three times a week on Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday afternoons from 12:30 p.m to 4:15 p.m.
The GE1 course was structured over 45 sessions spanning 15 weeks, with each session lasting 100 minutes Its primary objective was to equip students with essential grammar points and basic vocabulary for effective general communication The course utilized a main textbook to facilitate learning.
In the "Starting Skills 1" program, the teacher effectively guided students through one of four key skills, grammar points, or vocabulary topics outlined in the schedule The study room, approximately 20 square meters, accommodated around 30 students and was equipped with essential facilities, including tables, desks, and a board Students were organized into two rows of desks facing the teacher, with an aisle allowing for easy movement, enabling the teacher to deliver lectures and engage in group activities with the students.
The research process
A typical action research needs to go from one step to another As suggested by Ferrance (2000), an action research cycle will be as follows:
The action research process consists of six key steps: conducting interviews and questionnaires to gather data, analyzing the data to identify problems, designing a plan of action to implement changes, and evaluating the effects of the intervention to determine its effectiveness If the initial action is found to be ineffective, alternative methods should be explored to enhance the situation This cyclical approach to action research was utilized in this study, and the entire procedure is detailed in the following sections.
To investigate vocabulary retention issues among first-year students studying English as a compulsory minor, a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (Wesche & Paribakht, 1996) questionnaire was administered to 28 participants With a 100% response rate, the students' answers were analyzed to inform a subsequent follow-up interview.
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS), created by Wesche & Paribakht in 1996, is a self-report tool consisting of five points that enables students to assess their familiarity with specific vocabulary items Students receive a list of words and select the scale that most accurately represents their understanding, ranging from complete unfamiliarity to full mastery For a comprehensive view of the VKS, refer to Appendix 3.
1.I don’t remember having seen this word before
2.I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3.I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4.I know this word; it means …
5.I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
This study aims to utilize the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) to uncover the common challenges students face in retaining learned vocabulary An analysis of students' responses to the VKS revealed significant issues related to their word retention abilities.
Fifty words included in this first VKS were taken from the book: “Tiếng Anh 12”
Students were expected to have prior knowledge of the vocabulary before starting university The teacher allocated twenty-five minutes for the students to complete the vocabulary test.
After conducting the VKS survey, a group interview was held with all 28 participating students to gather more insights A semi-structured interview format was selected to facilitate a deeper understanding of the students' challenges with word retention, as the larger number of interviewees made individual interviews less feasible.
Group interviews can lead to students echoing each other's answers, potentially stifling individual opinions Despite this risk, the format was chosen for its efficiency and the relaxed atmosphere it fostered, encouraging open dialogue and comfort among participants This approach allowed the teacher to gain insights into the students' challenges, with the primary focus being on understanding the root causes of their difficulties To ease into the conversation, the teacher initiated friendly discussions about students' strategies for vocabulary retention at the start of the course.
To enhance the primary inquiry, several follow-up questions and prompts were provided with clear instructions, facilitating student responses and aiding teachers in data collection Additionally, the teacher's ability to take quick notes proved crucial for subsequent data analysis.
The initial research question was addressed through results from the VKS test conducted during the orientation session This test featured fifty vocabulary words sourced from the book "Tiếng Anh 12" and aimed to assess students' recall of previously learned vocabulary The findings helped identify the challenges students faced in their independent vocabulary learning.
How well students know the words was described in 5 responses ranging from level
1 to level 5 The teacher then counted the number of each mark for each student The figure was expressed as a percentage and illustrated in the table below:
Table 1: Results from VKS test
The chart results indicate that students struggle with retaining learned vocabulary, recognizing words as familiar yet unable to confidently provide their meanings A semi-structured interview conducted in the following lesson revealed discrepancies between students' test performances and their verbal responses Additionally, the interview offered the teacher valuable insights into the specific challenges students face in vocabulary acquisition.
The researcher employed a semi-structured interview to investigate the reasons behind students' challenges, with students expressing their thoughts in Vietnamese, while teachers assisted in translating and consolidating these ideas The translated responses were analyzed and categorized into six main issues: lack of time, inadequate dictionary skills, limited opportunities for productive vocabulary use, ineffective teaching approaches, absence of memory strategies, and misconceptions regarding vocabulary knowledge Detailed insights into these categories are provided below.
Self-study is crucial for students, particularly for mastering English vocabulary Many students acknowledge the importance of English for their future careers but struggle to find time due to the demands of major subjects Some admit that procrastination and distractions, such as socializing and internet browsing, hinder their ability to focus on learning vocabulary.
Two students reported dedicating significant time to studying vocabulary, yet they still struggled to recall words when needed, leading them to conclude that their study methods were ineffective This highlights that while some students may lack time due to busyness or laziness, others who are diligent and have ample time still face challenges due to poor study techniques.
Lack of skills in using dictionaries
Many English language learners face challenges due to limited resources, primarily relying on dictionaries that are often outdated and underutilized Students frequently lack training in effective dictionary use, leading them to only check the first definition of a word, which can be misleading One learner expressed frustration, stating, “I often use my dictionary to look up a new word; however, sometimes I still couldn’t understand the meaning of the sentence.” Additionally, the reliability of their dictionaries is questionable, as highlighted by another student who noted discrepancies between their dictionary and the meanings provided by their teacher This suggests that improving both the quality of dictionaries and training in their use could significantly enhance students' understanding of the English language.
Limited opportunities for using words productively
Opportunities for students to engage in the target language are crucial for second language acquisition According to Krashen (1997, in Brown 2000), the fear of producing language in the classroom can hinder significant language development During a group semi-structured interview, several students expressed similar challenges with language output, with one student noting, “I have learned many words, but because of no regular practice, I have forgotten a lot.” She emphasized the importance of a practicing environment, stating, “After learning words, I often forget since I have no practicing environment.”
Teachers’ approaches to vocabulary teaching
Major findings of the study
Dictionaries play a crucial role in vocabulary acquisition, yet students often face limited opportunities to use words productively Teachers' approaches to vocabulary teaching can vary, but a significant concern among students is the lack of effective memory strategies This gap in memory techniques raises worries, as many students hold misbeliefs about their vocabulary knowledge Addressing these issues is essential for enhancing vocabulary retention and application.
Following the identification of problems, the teacher-researcher developed a teaching plan that introduced four sub-memory strategies: structured reviewing, mechanical techniques, imagery, and contextual placement of new words These strategies were implemented through in-class handouts and at-home assignments, where students maintained diaries detailing their experiences with the strategies Analysis of these diaries yielded positive results, showing that all four strategies received comparable attention from students Notably, imagery emerged as the most popular strategy, utilized by 29.4% of students, followed by contextual placement, mechanical techniques, and structured reviewing, with only slight percentage differences among them.
Research indicates that implementing four memory strategies in vocabulary teaching significantly enhances students' vocabulary retention Despite the absence of a control group for comparison, consistent training throughout the program validated the test results The improvement observed in the immediate post-test (post-test 1) demonstrated enhanced short-term material retention, while the delayed post-test indicated improved long-term retrieval Notably, this positive performance was evident not only in the overall group but also among nearly all individual members, with 28 out of 28 achieving short-term retention and 27 out of 28 excelling in long-term retention.
Limitations of the study
To identify the challenges students face in independent vocabulary learning, the researcher conducted a group interview, fostering a friendly environment for open discussion and idea sharing However, this method had limitations, including instances of idea copying among students and occasional lack of teacher oversight.
One significant limitation of this study is the absence of a control group, which could have strengthened the findings Including a control group would not only enhance the persuasiveness of the test results but also simplify data management for educators.
Despite its limitations, the dedication of both the researcher and participants, along with rigorous data collection efforts, ensures the reliability and validity of the research.
Suggestions for further study
Incorporating an additional control group in research can enhance the validity and reliability of the study without complicating the methodology This approach allows researchers to analyze data with greater confidence, leading to more dependable results from their tests.
In the initial phase of this study, the researcher identified several challenges students face in vocabulary learning Due to time constraints, the focus was narrowed to the most significant issue: the lack of memory strategies This decision opens avenues for future researchers to explore other problems, including insufficient time, inadequate dictionary skills, limited opportunities for productive word use, teaching methodologies, and misconceptions about vocabulary knowledge.
Collaborative action research is an effective approach for future studies on this topic, as involving other teachers as co-researchers can lead to more in-depth investigations and valuable insights for enhancing teaching and learning practices.
Course Books Oxford, R L (1990) Language Learning Strategies - What every teacher should know Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle Publishers
Schmitt, N., & McCarthy, M (1997) Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy: Cambridge University Press
Nation, P (1994) New ways in teaching vocabulary: Pantograph Printing, Bloomington, Illinois USA
Lougheed, D L (2008) 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC United States of America: Barron's
Ferrance, E (2000) Action Research: Northest and Islands Regional Education at Brown University
Wallace, M J (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers New York: Cambridge University Press
Molinsky, S J and B Bliss (N/A) Handbook of Vocabulary Teaching Strategies (Communication Activities with the Word By Word Picture Dictionary) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents
Morgan, J & M Rinvolucri (1991) Vocabulary Walton Street, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Singleton, D (2008) Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language Acquisition Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland: Multilingual Matters Ltd
Gu, P Y (2003) Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, Task, Context and Strategies Nanyang: National Institute of Education
Akbari, Z., & Tahririan, M H (2009) Vocabulary Learning Strategies in an ESP Context: The Case of Para/medical English in Iran The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 11(1)
Ghani, D M (2003) Language Learning Strategies Employed by L2 Learners Journal of Research (Faculty of Languages & Islamic Studies), 4, 31-36 Hiebert, E H., & Kamil, M L (2005) Teaching and Learning Vocabulary London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Zaid, M A (1995) Semantic Mapping In Communicative Language Teaching, Journal for the teacher of English, 33(3)
Xhaferi, B., & Xhaferi, G (2008) Vocabulary learning strategies used by students at SEEU in terms of gender and teachers' attitudes toward teaching vocabulary: UEJL - Tetovở
Tulving, F I (1975) Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words
Nemati, A (2009) Memory learning strategies and long term retention Vocational and
Griffiths, C (2004) Language Learning Strategies: Theory and Research Occational Paper No.1 , 1
Ghazal, L (n.d.) Learning Vocabulary in EFL Contexts through Vocabulary Learning Strategies: Novista- Royal Vol.1(2) , 84-91
Pavlů, B I (2009) Testing Vocabulary Diploma Thesis- Masryk University Brno
Joe, A., Nation, P., & Newton, J (1996) Vocabulary Learning and Speaking
Activities Retrieved from http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol34/no1/p2.htm
Paribakht, T.S & Wesche, M (1996) Enhancing vocabulary acquisition through reading: A hierarchy of text-related exercise types The Canadian Modern Language Review 52(2): 155-178
Unpublished journals Quach, T M (2007) Increasing students' retention of vocabulary through meaningful practice Unpublished M.A thesis, Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
Tran (2008) conducted a study on the effectiveness of cognitive strategies in enhancing vocabulary learning among non-major English students at the Nghe An Continuing Education Center The research, part of an unpublished M.A thesis from the University of Languages and International Studies at Vietnam National University, highlights the importance of cognitive approaches in vocabulary acquisition for learners outside of English majors.
Ngo, X M (2009) Vocabulary Level and Vocabulary Learning Strategies of First Year ULIS Mainstream English Majors Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
Tran, T N (2008) A study on the Effectiveness of Cognitive Strategies in Learning
Vocabulary of Non-major Students of English at Nghe An Continuing
Education Centre Unpublished Minor Thesis Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
Hoang, T T (1985) Towards Teaching Vocabulary to Vietnamese Tertiary Students M.A Thesis Linguguistics Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
Vu, T.A.T (2005) Activities that help students to retain Vocabulary Unpublished M.A thesis Hanoi: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University
Tran (2008) conducted an action research study focusing on the implementation of continuous feedback to enhance English pronunciation among first-year students at the English Department of the College of Foreign Languages This unpublished M.A thesis, presented at the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, emphasizes the significance of consistent feedback in improving language skills.
Appendix 1: Direct and Indirect learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 18-20)
MEMORY STRATEGIES Creating mental linkage
Grouping Associating/ Elaborating Placing new words into a context
Using imagery Semantic mapping Using keywords Representing sounds in memory Reviewing well Structured reviewing
Using physical response or sensation
Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
Recombining Practicing naturalistically Receiving and sending messages
Getting the idea quickly Using resources for receiving and sending messages
Analyzing and reasoning Reasoning deductively
Analyzing expressions Analyzingcontrastive across languages
Translating Transferring Creating structure for input and output
COM PENS ATIO N STRA TEGI ES
Guessing intelligently Using linguistic clues
Using other clues in speaking and writing Getting help
Using mine and gesture Avoiding communication partially or totally Selecting the topic Adjusting or approximating the message
Coining words Using a circumlocution or synonym
Centering your learning Overviewing and linking with already known material Paying attention Delaying speech Arranging and planning your learning
Finding out about language learning
Organizing Setting goals and objectives Identifying the purpose of a language task
Planning for your task Seeking practice opportunities Evaluating your learning
Lowering your anxiety Using progressive relaxation deep breathing or meditation Using music
Using laughter Encouraging yourself Making positive statements
Taking risks wisely Rewarding yourself Taking your emotional temperature
Listening to your body Using checklist Writing a language learning diary Discussing your feelings with someone else
Asking questions Asking for clarification or verification
Cooperating with proficient users of the new language Empathizing with others Developing cultural understanding
Becoming aware of the others’ thoughts and feelings
Appendix 2: Schedule of Teaching GE1
38 Reading Unit 8: Art and Literature
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) is an effective activity for assessing vocabulary comprehension Participants are asked to evaluate their familiarity with a list of words by assigning a numerical rating from 1 to 5 This method allows for a clear understanding of individual vocabulary knowledge levels.
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
(Adapted from Wesche M & Paribakht T.S (1996) “Assessing Second Language Vocabulary Knowledge)
Rude (adj) Situation (n) Project (n) Generally (adv) Suitable (adj) Rush (v) Hurry (v) Unlike (adj) Dish (n) Daughter (n)
Mend (v) Frankly (adv) Solution (n) Relationship (n) Share (v) Compare (v) Describe (v) Secret (n) Decision (n) Topic (n) Permit (v) Bat (n) Speed (n) Match (n) Message (n) Lately (adv) Result (n) Realize (v) Ski (v) Slip (v) Sink (v) Twin sister (n) Encourage (v) Refuse (v) Remind (v)
Wave (v) Suppose (v) Signal (n) Jump (v) Instance (n) Appropriate (adj) Several (adj) Pass (v) Slightly (adv) Consider (v) Impolite (adj)
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) is an effective tool for assessing vocabulary proficiency Participants are presented with a list of words and asked to rate their familiarity with each term on a scale from 1 to 5 This method allows for a clear understanding of individual vocabulary knowledge and can help identify areas for improvement.
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n) Cheese (n) Coast (n) Court (n)
Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Sail (v) Sculptor (n) Sculpture (n) Secretary (n) Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n)
Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
Name: ……… Class: ……… Activity for checking Vocabulary: VKS (Vocabulary Knowledge Scale)
Look at the following list of words and give each word a number rating from 1 to 5 basing in how well you know the word
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
To effectively learn the word, I employed a combination of strategies: I utilized structured reviewing (SR) to reinforce my understanding, applied mechanical techniques (MT) to aid memorization, and incorporated imagery (IM) to create mental associations Additionally, I placed the word into context (PL) to enhance its relevance and practical application in my vocabulary.
No for “other strategies” or “no strategies given”
Accountant (n) Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n)
Coast (n) Court (n) East (n) Engineer (n) Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n) Surfing (n) Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) is an effective activity for assessing vocabulary comprehension Participants are presented with a list of words and asked to rate their familiarity with each term on a scale from 1 to 5 This method provides valuable insights into individual vocabulary knowledge and helps identify areas for improvement.
1 I don’t remember having seen this word before
2 I have seen this word before but I don’t know what it means
3 I have seen this word before and I think it means…………
4 I know this word; it means …
5 I can use this word in a sentence, e.g………
Adult (n) Architect (n) Architecture (n) Biographer (n) Biography (n) Boat (n) Bottom (n) Butter (n) Cheese (n) Coast (n) Court (n)
Factory (n) Female (n) Grass (n) Grey (n) Island (n) Juice (n) Lawyer (n) Leisure (n) Literature (n) Mall (n) Motorbike (n) North (n) Novelist (n) Office (n) Painting (n) Plane (n) Playwright (n) Poem (n) Poet (n) Potato (n) Receptionist (n) Rice (n)
Sail (v) Sculptor (n) Sculpture (n) Secretary (n) Snow (n) South (n) Stadium (n)
Teenager (n) Typist (n) Vegetable (n) Village (n) West (n) Wrong (n)
Appendix 7: Strategies used as reported in students’ diaries
Appendix 8: Individuals’ performance in the Pre-test, Post-test 1 and Post-test 2
Individuals’ performance in pre / Individuals’ performance in post 1/Individuals’ performance in post 2
Appendix 9: Mean difference between pre-test, post test 1 and post-test 2
Student Pre-test Post-test 1 Mean Dif Student Post-test 1 Post-test 2 Mean Dif
Mean difference between pre-T and post-T1 Mean difference between Post-T1 and Post-
Appendix 10: Suggested activities for introducing and practicing memory strategies
These activities can be effectively used for teachers to introduce 4 sub memory strategies, for students to practice using the four memory strategies and learn words or review vocabulary
Activity: Build words into a picture Level Beginner to Advanced
Preparation Choose twelve words from the next unit you are going to teach in the course book They should be new words
1 Tell the group that they are going to draw a picture incorporating some of the new words from the next unit The students should work independently of each other
2 Tell them the first word, either explaining its meaning in English, paraphrasing it with a known word, miming it, or translating it They make a drawing representing it Give them the second word and explain/ translate it They continue the picture, incorporating the second word/idea In this way, they build each of the twelve words into one picture
3 Say the words again slowly, and ask them to write each word over its representation
4 Ask the students to compare their pictures
(Adopted from John Morgan and Mario Rinvolucri, 1991
Placing words into a context strategy Activity: Words to story
Preparation Choose 30-40 words that need revising
In class 1 Write the words on the board Ask the students to check any words they don’t remember the meaning of
2 Ask each student to pick 6-7 words from on the board
3 Each student then makes up a story (mentally, not on paper) suggested by the word she/he has chosen
4 The students pair off and tell each other their stories, then explain how they chose those particular words
Acknowledgement I learnt the idea from John Morgan and Mario Rinvolucri, 1991
Appendix 11: Sample of Learners’ Diaries