Method of the study
The study investigates the frequency and quantity of two-word verbs related to material and mental processes, in contrast to four other processes, using a limited set of seven lexical verbs To achieve this, quantitative research methods are employed, emphasizing the collection and analysis of numerical data and statistics.
Design of the study
This study is designed in three parts: Introduction, Development, and Conclusion
This article begins with an overview of the study, followed by three key chapters Chapter 1 outlines the theoretical background, introducing essential concepts relevant to the research Chapter 2 details the methodology employed in the study, while Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive list of two-word combinations for seven common verbs related to material and mental processes, including their particles, prepositions, and Vietnamese translations The conclusion summarizes the study's findings and discusses the implications for teaching and learning English two-word verbs.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Two word verbs
Multi-word verbs, as defined by Quirk et al (1972), include phrasal verbs (PVs), prepositional verbs (PreVs), and phrasal-prepositional verbs Biber et al (1999) expand this classification by introducing additional constructions such as verb + noun phrase (+ preposition), verb + prepositional phrase, and verb + verb Together, these combinations represent four primary types of multi-word units that function similarly to single verbs and exhibit a degree of idiomaticity.
This study examines multi-word verbs, specifically focusing on two elements While Taka (1960, cited Waibel 2007) and Meyer (1975, cited Waibel 2007) refer to these as "two-word verbs," Celce-Murcia et al (1999) also acknowledge that phrasal verbs (PVs) can be termed as two-word verbs Both PVs and prepositional verbs (PreVs) are included in our discussion of two-word verbs.
1.1.1 Definition of PVs and PreVs 1.1.1.1 PVs
There is a disputation as to how PVs are defined Following here are some ways of defining PVs:
Dixon, R.M.W (1991: 274)) says: ―Phrasal verb is a combination of verb plus preposition that has a meaning not inferable from the individual meanings of verb and preposition(s)‖ 1
The author distinguishes between prepositions and particles, highlighting that what many linguists refer to as PreVs may actually be defined by Dixon as PVs It is possible that Dixon uses the term PVs to encompass both categories.
Biber et al., et al (1999: 403)) assert: ―PVs are multi-word units consisting of a verb followed by an adverbial particle‖ which all have spatial or locative meanings and
―commonly used with extended meanings‖
Halliday (1985, 2004) defines phrasal verbs (PVs) as lexical verbs that encompass more than just the verb itself, including combinations of verb + adverb, verb + preposition, and verb + adverb + preposition David (2002) aligns with Halliday by distinguishing between two definitions of PVs: the broad sense, which encompasses both prepositional verbs (PreVs) and PVs in various contexts, and the narrow sense, which excludes PreVs This study focuses on the narrow definition of PVs.
Before discussing PreVs, it's important to note that the term "phrasal verb" is not universally accepted among linguists As Waibel (2007: 15) points out, the terminology surrounding this type of verb is indeed controversial For instance, Fraser (1947) refers to it as a "verb-particle combination," while Zandvoort offers alternative classifications.
The term "phrasal verb" has been referred to by various scholars in different ways, such as "verb-adverb combination" (1962), "discontinuous verb" (Live, 1965), and "verb-particle construction" (Lipka, 1992) However, McArthur (1989) suggests that "phrasal verb" is the most widely accepted term, while Rot (1988) argues it best captures the essence of verb-particle combinations, drawing parallels with "phrasal prepositions." This study adopts the term familiar to both teachers and students.
About PreVs, the matter of term and definition is less controversial than that of PVs
Scholars seem to be satisfied with the term ‗PreV‘, which refers to the kind of verb that
Prepositional verbs (PreV) consist of a verb followed by a preposition, forming a semantic and syntactic unit The debate exists on whether PreV should be classified as a subtype of phrasal verbs (PV) or recognized as an independent category This study aims to examine PreV as a distinct entity that exists alongside PV.
The term "particle" refers to a word that serves a grammatical function but does not belong to the main parts of speech such as nouns, verbs, or adverbs (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, 1985) The classification of particles remains a topic of debate among scholars, with differing opinions on whether they should be categorized as adverbs, prepositions, or a distinct part of speech According to Encyclopedia Wikipedia (2010), there are seven types of words that function as particles: articles (the), infinitival (to), prepositions (in, on), adverbial particles (off, down), interjections (oh, wow), sentence connectors (so, well), and tags (e.g., did they?).
Conjunctions such as "and," "or," and "nor" play a crucial role in sentence structure Notably, dictionaries like the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2006) and MacMillan Phrasal Verbs Plus (2005) categorize adverbs and prepositions as particles, while some scholars, including Celce-Murcia (1999), offer differing perspectives on this classification.
In their 1985 study, Quirk et al expanded the definition of particles to include adverbs This research also examines the adverbial characteristics of particles and highlights key distinctions between particles and prepositions, which will be discussed in section 1.1.1.3.3.
Particles in phrasal verbs (PVs) often serve as adjuncts, forming cohesive units with verbs that cannot be interrupted by other adverbs They are essential for complementation, enhancing the meaning of the head-phrase and establishing a dominant conceptual meaning within PVs.
Particles have pragmatic meaning and obviously have impact on the meaning of the verb they follows even if the meanings of the verb are not necessary destroyed or lost
Briton (1988: 4, cited David, 2002: 127) claims that the addition of a particle to a verb produces the following three meanings: perfective meaning (drink up, calm down, wait out,
Celce-Murcia (1999) highlights the close relationship between particles and verbs, emphasizing their distinction from prepositions and other adverbs Conversely, some scholars argue that particles should be classified solely as adverbs due to their unique characteristics, such as variable positioning and the absence of their own objects (Langacker, 1987: 243, cited in David, 2002: 125) Examples of particles include those conveying different meanings, such as "die off" and "put over," which indicate various aspects like ingressive meaning (e.g., "doze off," "go away") or continuative/iterative meaning (e.g., "drive on," "hammer away").
Particles share similarities with prepositions, such as being invariable in form, meaning they do not change based on the words they accompany While particles can be viewed as a special type of preposition, they remain distinct due to specific syntactic features Key differences include their positioning within a sentence, the constituents they connect to, and their functional roles Additionally, particles often influence the meanings of the verbs they precede, whereas prepositions typically do not affect the meanings of the words they accompany.
To distinguish between adverbial particles and prepositions, examining their objects can be beneficial According to Swan (1980), prepositions require objects, whereas adverbial particles do not Celce-Murcia (1999) suggests using syntactic tests to differentiate between the two, a method adapted from O'Dowd (1994).
Adverb insertion (e.g We turned quickly off the road, but not we turned quickly off the light)
Phrase fronting (e.g Up the hill John ran, not Up the bill John ran)
Wh-fronting (e.g About what does he write?, not Up what does he write?)
Only particles in separable PVs allow:
Passivization (e.g The light was turned off, not The road was turned out)
Verb substitution (e.g The light was extinguished (= turned off))
NP insertion (e.g We turned the light off, not We turned the road off )
Many words serve dual functions as both adverbs and prepositions, while some, such as "back" and "away," are exclusively adverbs Additionally, terms like "from" and "during" are solely classified as prepositions (David, 2002: 115-116).
4 A preposition denotes a semantic relationship between two entities as to place, time, instrument or cause etc (Quirk et al , 1972) while a particle is part of the verb
5 A dverbial particles function as adverbs and modify the preceding verb
1.1.2 Syntactic and semantic characteristics of PVs and PreVs 2.1.2.1 Syntactic and semantic characteristics of PVs
Process types
According to Martin et al (1997), process types serve as a framework for categorizing various human experiences into a limited number of distinct categories, which vary based on the nature of the process and the types and number of participants involved.
In the view of Halliday (1985; 2004) and systemic-functional linguists such as Bloor, T & Bloor, M (1995), Martin et al (1997), there are 6 types of process in English:
Material, Mental, Relational, Behavioural, Existential, and Verbal
13 This test, however, is restricted with pronoun, gerund and unhelpful with intransitive PVs as there is no complementary noun phrase to facilitate movement
Material processes refer to actions and events that reflect our external experiences They encompass the activities we engage in or witness in others, capturing the essence of our interactions with the world around us.
Mental processes involve conscious processing They express our ‗inner experience‘, or our consciousness of the world around us Members of metal processes include perception, cognition and affection
Relational processes are processes of being which denote our logical link between the new to the old experiences They have two different modes: attribution and identification
Behavioral processes encompass both mental and verbal behaviors, reflecting the expression of conscious activities such as laughing and physiological states like sleeping These processes share characteristics with both material and mental processes; they require human consciousness as a participant—termed 'Behaver' in behavioral contexts and 'Senser' in mental contexts Additionally, behavioral processes typically utilize the present-in-present tense and cannot be combined with a reported clause in a projecting clause complex.
Existential processes focus on the concept of existence, highlighting entities that are recognized as being or happening Similar to relational processes, they involve a participant associated with a state of being; however, the key distinction is that existential processes feature only a single participant.
Verbal processes serve as a bridge between mental and relational processes, encompassing various modes of communication such as asking, commanding, offering, and stating, as well as non-verbal semiotic actions like showing and indicating These processes represent the relationships formed in human consciousness and are expressed through language, highlighting the connection between saying and meaning The term 'Sayer' refers to any speaker, whether human, human-like, or another symbolic source.
In Halliday's framework, the six processes in English are categorized into primary processes—material, mental, and relational—and secondary processes—behavioural, existential, and verbal Halliday (2004) emphasizes that there is no hierarchy among these processes, illustrating their relationships with a circular model instead of a linear one This circular representation depicts process types as a semiotic space, where distinct regions indicate different types, with core areas representing prototypical members Furthermore, these regions are interconnected, blending into one another rather than being distinctly separate.
That is why Halliday (2004: 172) asserts: ―the process types are fuzzy categories‖, which base on ‗the principle of systemic indeterminacy‘ 14
This article provides an overview of the six processes in English systemic-functional grammar, highlighting that material and mental processes are fundamental and comprise the largest share of these processes The focus of this paper will be on these two types, which will be examined in detail in the following sections.
Material processes encompass actions and events that result in tangible changes in the physical world These processes not only represent concrete alterations but also provide a framework for understanding abstract changes For example, the verb "fall" illustrates material processes through physical actions, as seen in "Lizzie fell down and hurt her knee," while also depicting abstract changes in contexts like finance, as in "London share prices fell sharply yesterday."
Typical verbs realizing material processes are: happen, create, make, set up, give, get, etc (See Halliday, 2004: 187- 189, table 5(5))
Material processes have participants of ‗Actor‘, ‗Goal‘, ‗Range‘, and ‗Beneficiary‘,
―the functions assumed by the participants in any clause are determined by the type of process that involved‖, noted Halliday (2004: 1997)
‗Actor‘ is the ‗Who‘ doing the action
‗Goal‘ is the ‗What‘ brought to existence by the doing (build the house) or impacted by the doing (fix the car)
‗Range‘ or ‗Scope‘ is a participant specifying the scope of happening and is the only one being out of the influence of the performance of the process It
The principle discussed influences six processes, highlighting that our experience of the world is highly indeterminate According to Halliday (2004), grammar encapsulates this indeterminacy through a system of process types, allowing a single text to present various interpretations of the same experience For instance, emotions can be represented both as a process within a mental clause and as a participant in a relational clause, typically observed in 'transitive' processes where there is only one participant, known as the Actor.
In the context of benefits, a 'Beneficiary' refers to the individual or entity receiving advantages from an action This term encompasses two subtypes: the 'Recipient,' identified by the preposition 'to,' which denotes the transfer of existing goods, and the 'Client,' marked by the preposition 'for,' indicating the provision of services.
E.g (1) She gave a teapot to his aunt
(2) She made a cup of tea for me
Material processes are classified into transitive and intransitive categories (Halliday, 1985; 2004) Intransitive material clauses involve a single participant and represent an occurrence, as seen in the example "Oil is coming down in price." Conversely, transitive material clauses involve an additional participant, known as the 'Goal,' indicating an action, exemplified by "Mary put on her coat," where the phrasal verb "put on" acts as the transitive process.
‗Goal‘, the represent may have 2 forms: operative (active) and receptive (passive)
E.g (1) The lion caught the tourist
(2) The tourist was caught by the lion
In Halliday's (2004) framework of goal processes, he distinguishes between two subtypes: transformative and creative actions Transformative actions involve a pre-existing goal that undergoes a change during the process, often indicated by a particle verb (e.g., "use up," "turn down") or by a separate element that represents the outcome, as seen in the sentence "She painted the house red," where "red" describes the resultant state of the goal Conversely, creative actions result in the outcome being brought into existence through the action itself.
E.g (1) She painted a portrait of the artist (is ‗creative‘ since the outcome is the creation of the portrait)
(2) She painted the house red (is ‗transformative‘ since the outcome is the transformation of the colour of the house)
All types of processes change form though time and so do material processes
However, process types are varied in ways of unfolding Material processes prefer
‗present-in-present‘ (or present continuous) (e.g is going) to simple present (e.g does)
Mental processes construe sensing and concerned with the world inside our mind
‖Think, know, hear, look, see, feel, like” are typical verbs which can be served as mental processes
Mental processes consist of two key participants: the 'Senser' and the 'Phenomenon.' The Senser, typically human or human-like, is the one who senses, feels, thinks, desires, or perceives, and is often referred to using pronouns like he or she due to its inherent consciousness Additionally, animals such as pets can be personified and regarded as conscious beings, further blurring the lines between human and non-human experiences.
The term 'Phenomenon' refers to the participant being sensed and encompasses a broad spectrum of entities Unlike 'Senser', which is more limited, 'Phenomenon' includes various units such as conscious beings, objects, substances, institutions, and abstractions Additionally, it covers macro-level actions, like the act of getting up early, as well as meta-level facts, such as the information that allows people to travel to outer space.
Mental processes can be categorized into perception, cognition, and emotion, each with unique characteristics Perceptive verbs often pair with modal verbs, such as "can feel" or "can see." Cognitive processes are typically indicated by verbs like "remember," "remind," or "think," which can initiate clauses (e.g., "I think that," "I remember that") Emotional mental processes are characterized by gradable verbs, ranging from "detest" to "love." Overall, these subtypes adhere to the principle of indetermination, where different forms of sensing can overlap and influence one another.
Therefore, “I see” not only means ‗I perceive visually‟ but also is interpreted as ‗I understand‟
METHODOLOGY
Data collection instrument
The study used three sources of dictionaries on PVs to collect data of English two- word verbs: (1) Chambers of Dictionary of Phrasal Verb
(2) Oxford Phrasal Verbs Dictionary for Learners of English
These dictionaries offer a comprehensive collection of thousands of phrasal verbs (PVs) in both British English (B.E.) and American English (A.E.), complete with clear explanations and corpus-based examples This makes them user-friendly and a valuable resource for producing natural-sounding English Additionally, one of the sources boasts unique features designed to help learners overcome their fear of phrasal verbs, empowering them to use these expressions with confidence.
The study utilized WordNet 3.0 to identify the various meanings of identical word forms For example, the term "make out" has ten distinct senses in WordNet, including to recognize, comprehend, and manage From these options, we selected the most relevant meanings for our analysis.
Corpus choice
This article presents a compilation of commonly used phrasal verbs (PVs) derived from both American English (A.E) and British English (B.E) corpora, as identified by various authors These sources were available during the research process.
Liu (2003) analyzed three spoken A.E corpora to establish the author‘ lists of the most frequently used idioms Only idioms and semi-literal or non-literal PVs are chosen
Selected items must have at least 2 occurrences in all three corpora combined (i.e., 2 tokens per million words)
- Professional (Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (Barlow, 2000)) consists of speeches at professional meetings and white house press conferences
- Miscase (Michigan corpus of Academic Spoken English (Simpson, Briggs Ovens, & Swales, 2002)) comprises academic speech events (lectures, colloquia)
- Media (Spoken American media English (Liu, 2002)) involves speakers with diverse social and educational background
Waibel uses LOCNESS, which consists of essays by American university students from Marquette University, Indiana University at Indianapolis
Gardner & Davies analyses BNC, which contains about 4000 samples (both spoken and written) from the widest possible range of linguistic productions
Biber analyses LSWE Corpus and includes all PVs and PreVs that occur over 40 times/ millions word in at least 1 register.
Data Analyses
First, all two-word verbs and their potential meanings were counted The grammar pattern in Oxford Phrasal verbs Dictionary is used to decide whether a two-word verb is
PV or PreV With sources of dictionaries, together with the help of Wordnet 3.0, the raw number of two-word combinations with seven selected verbs is set out as followed:
Table 2: Number of two-word verbs and meanings in three sources of dictionary
Verbs Chambers Dictionary of Phrasal verbs
The analysis reveals a total of 32 combinations and 152 meanings of two-word verbs, with 24 primary verbs (PVs) yielding 126 meanings and 8 prepositional verbs (PreVs) resulting in 26 meanings Notably, the three sources exhibit slight variations in their counts of two-word verbs and associated meanings, as illustrated in Table 3, where some figures are approximate and the overall total does not simply equal the sum of individual components.
PVs and PreVs are categorized as one form when a two-word verb can function as both, such as "come off" and "go off." For instance, there are 31 two-word verbs associated with "come," but this number does not represent a total of 22 PVs and 17 PreVs Additionally, variations in meaning between American English and British English, like "come around," "come about," or "come round," are also considered a single form.
Second, the long lists of frequently used idioms and PVs are filtered to PVs and PreVs concerned in the following table
Table 3: Frequent two-word verbs in studies of Gardner & Davies (2007), Liu (2003),
Professional Media Miscase LOCNESS BNC PVs PreVs
Come about come across come by come on come up
Go on go through go with go over go for go after
Come about come across come by come on come up
Go on go through go ahead go over go for go off go with go along go with
Come across come by come up come on come off
Go on go through go with go over go for go after
Come about come across come along come around come by come forth come in come off come out come up come together
Give up give away give in
Go on go through go back go out go down go by go off go along go ahead go forward go around go ahead go up go in
Come about come back come along come round come on come in come down come off come out come up come over come through
Give in give out give back
Go on go through go back go out go over go down go up go off go in go round go along
Come on come over come along
The analysis reveals that two-word verbs associated with mental processes are less prevalent than those related to material actions, with a notable absence of verbs like "see" in the examined lists Despite varying selection criteria, there is a significant overlap in the identified two-word verbs, such as "come up," "give up," and "go on," appearing in multiple lists However, discrepancies arise in the frequency counts, with Waibel identifying 14 common verbs with "go," compared to Liu's 9 and Biber's 4 Consequently, it is prudent to consult a comprehensive range of dictionaries for two-word verbs rather than relying on a single list Ultimately, the efforts of these authors have effectively streamlined the learning process for students.
The Vietnamese equivalents of phrasal verbs (PVs) and idioms have been sourced from English-Vietnamese dictionaries For any PVs or prepositional verbs (PreVs) lacking definitions in these dictionaries, translations will be provided Additionally, all examples utilized are derived from various dictionary sources.
The selection and extraction of two-word verbs
Many linguists regarded only idiomatic verb-particle combinations as ‗proper‘
PVs 16 Dixon (1991) excluded literal meaning from his definition about PVs Longman dictionary of contemporary English (2006: 974) even emphasizes ―If a verb still keeps its ordinary meaning, even though it is followed by several different prepositions, it is not a phrasal verb‖ However, McArthur (cited Stephens, 2008) assesses this is the ―holistic or semantic view‖, which focuses mainly on the meaning of the verb combination In his treatment of PVs, he states that PVs cover both the literal and figurative/idiomatic uses
Waibel (2007) highlights the challenge of distinguishing between literal and idiomatic meanings, noting that the polysemous nature of phrasal verbs (PVs) often leads to overlapping interpretations This study acknowledges both literal and figurative meanings as inherent to PVs and prepositional verbs (PreVs), focusing specifically on their idiomatic and semi-idiomatic meanings, which have been shown to have the most significant impact.
Free combinations, defined as 16 combinations where each element maintains its unique meaning, present a challenge for ESL/EFL learners (Quirk et al., 1985; Biber et al., 1999; Liao & Fukuya, 2004; David, 2002) Both meanings found across multiple sources and those specific to a single source are considered, while meanings unrelated to material and mental processes are excluded.
This chapter outlines the research methodology, detailing the tools employed for data collection, the analysis techniques utilized, and the criteria for data selection The forthcoming chapter will specifically present the study's results.
Figurative uses of language are often deeply embedded in cultural traditions and closely connected to beliefs about the physical world, which can create challenges for learners Research indicates that second language learners tend to find figurative phrasal verbs (PVs) more difficult to understand than their literal counterparts.
ENGLISH TWO-WORD VERBS DENOTING MATERIAL AND
This chapter focuses on the quantitative analysis of linguistic data, aiming to present and discuss the results derived from this analysis Prior to conducting the quantitative assessment, it is essential to classify the relevant issues concerning the quantification of two-word verbs.
The polysemous nature of two-word verbs raises the question of whether they should be quantified as a whole or by their distinct meanings For instance, the phrasal verb 'come along' can be analyzed in terms of its various meanings such as 'happen,' 'appear,' and 'improve.' While some researchers argue that quantifying based on semantic criteria is impractical due to the numerous instances where meanings diverge from dictionary definitions, others prefer to treat phrasal verbs independently of their semantic differences to compile a list of frequently used forms This study, however, aims to quantify two-word verbs based on their semantic criteria.
The semantic analysis of some common English two- word verbs will be reported in this chapter As stated in previous sections, the study concentrates on PVs and PreVs of
The verbs "Come," "Give," "Go," and "Make," along with "Hear," "See," and "Think," are among the 12 most frequently used lexical verbs, each appearing over 1000 times per million words in the LSWE Corpus (Biber et al., 1999) These verbs are categorized into 20 lexical verbs combined with eight adverbial particles, accounting for over half of the 518,923 phrasal verb occurrences identified in the megacorpus (Gardner & David, 2007) The first four verbs represent material processes, while the others denote mental processes Notably, two-word verbs, such as "Come," can signify both types of processes, exemplified by "Come around," which can mean "to visit" (material process) or "to change one's mind" (mental process) Due to the complexity of categorizing these two-word verbs, the analysis presents the two-word verbs of seven selected verbs in separate tables, organized into distinct columns for material and mental processes, facilitating easier comparison.
The verb "come" can be combined with 32 particles or prepositions, resulting in numerous phrasal verbs (PVs) and prepositional verbs (PreVs) with diverse meanings Notably, 26 of these combinations—15 PVs and 11 PreVs—express concepts related to material and mental processes Additionally, the two-word verbs "come across," "come by," and "come off" can function as either PVs or PreVs, each carrying distinct meanings.
Phrasal verbs such as "come about," "come across," and "come along" are essential in English communication These expressions convey various meanings, from encountering something unexpectedly to making progress Additionally, phrases like "come around" and "come down" can indicate a change in perspective or a decrease in intensity Other important phrasal verbs include "come forward," which suggests offering information, and "come in," often used to describe arrival or participation Understanding how to use "come off," "come on," and "come out" can enhance clarity in conversations Lastly, phrases like "come over," "come through," and "come up" are vital for expressing movement, support, or the emergence of ideas Mastering these phrasal verbs can significantly improve your English fluency and comprehension.
PreVs come after, come across, come at, come before, come by, come for, come into, come off, come to, come under, come upon
The analysis in Appendix 1 reveals that all 26 two-word verbs formed with "come" exclusively represent material processes This indicates that every combination of "come" with these particles or prepositions conveys meanings related to material actions Additionally, there are 10 instances where a single two-word verb can express both material and mental processes, including 7 phrasal verbs (come down, come forward, come out, come over, come through, come up) and 3 prepositional verbs (come at, come to, come upon) Notably, none of these combinations solely convey mental processes.
Verbs with broad meanings can become specialized and idiomatic when combined with other words, particularly in the case of phrasal verbs (PVs) For instance, the verb "come" transforms in meaning when paired with the particle "down," illustrating how such combinations create distinct interpretations.
1 Oil is coming down in price (rớt giá)
18 The entire list of some common two-word verbs deriving from „Come‟, „Give‟, „Go‟, „Make‟, „Hear‟,
„See‟, and „Think‟ can be found in Appendixes
2 It‘s coming down in torrents outside (đổ mưa)
3 The pilot was forced to come down in a field (hạ cánh)
4 The ceiling looked ready to come down any minute (rơi xuống)
5 When the curtain came down, we all rushed for the exit (hạ xuống)
6 That was the year I came down (ra trường)
7 The party was so good I haven‘t really come down yet (hạ nhiệt)
8 I knew my parents would come down on my sister‘s side (đứng về phía)
9 I wasn‘t prepared to pay 1500$ but they eventually came down to 1350$
The phrasal verb "come down" indicates a motion from a higher to a lower position, applicable to various subjects such as natural phenomena, individuals, aircraft, or curtains When it reflects a shift in human emotions, it signifies a transition from heightened excitement to a more subdued state Conversely, "come around" encompasses both physical and mental processes, illustrating the passage of time, as in the phrase "Christmas had come around again," and spatial movement, as in inviting someone for drinks Additionally, "come around" can describe a recovery of consciousness or a change in perspective, exemplified by scenarios where individuals regain awareness or alter their initial decisions upon receiving new information.
Appendix 1 presents a comprehensive table of two-word verbs derived from the single-word verb "come." It is evident that the material senses significantly outnumber the mental processes associated with these two-word verbs.
In the analysis of two-word verbs, certain expressions like "come about," "come across," "come along," "come on," and "come off" appear in 4 to 5 out of 7 studied corpora, yet they do not signify mental processes The meanings associated with mental processes are limited and can only be equal to or fewer than those representing material processes Notably, there are 10 two-word verbs that encompass both types of processes.
‗come around/ round‟ has two material senses, equal to two mental senses
1 Before we knew it, Christmas had come around again (lại đến)
2 Why don‘t you come around to our house for drinks? (đến chơi) (Actor) (Range)
3 Larry fainted, but he soon came around in the fresh air (hồi tỉnh, hồi phục)
4 Bob refused the job at first, but he soon came round when he heard how much money they were offering him (Senser) (đổi ý )
The phrase "come at" can signify two distinct meanings: to "attack," as illustrated by the example "The dog suddenly came at me," where "the dog" serves as the Actor and "me" as the Goal; and to "think," as in "We'll try coming at the problem from a different angle," where "we" functions as the Senser and "the problem" is the Phenomenon This demonstrates a 1-1 correspondence between material processes and mental processes.
‗come down‟ has 6 material senses, there times more than mental senses This rate is the same to ‗come over‟ and ‗come to‟ (3 material senses vs 1 mental sense)
The phrase "come forward" can convey different meanings depending on the context In the sentence "John came forward as a candidate for the position," it reflects a material process, indicating action or initiative Conversely, in the context of "Police have asked witnesses to come forward," it represents a mental process, suggesting a willingness to assist or provide information.
‗come out‘ reveals a larger variance between material senses and mental senses
Nine senses construe material processes while only one meaning construes mental process
1 Her tooth came out when she bit into the apple (bị lòng ra) (Goal)
2 The first of the spring flowers had already come out (nở) (Goal)
3 The sun come out and bathed the whole garden in its summer light (hiện ra) (Goal)
4 Emily‘s book came out last month (ra mắt bạn đọc) (Goal)
5 The party leader came out for an acceptable candidate (ủng hộ) (Senser) (Phenomenon)
The term "come up" has seven distinct meanings, but only the last one reflects a mental process, conveying the feeling that arises from the stomach The remaining six meanings are associated with material processes.
2.1 A woman came up and started complaining about the noise (tiến đến) (Actor)
3.2 My brother is coming up next year (vào đại học) (Actor)
4.3 The first snowdrops are just coming up (nhú ra) (Goal)
5.4 He could feel his breakfast coming up (buồn nôn) (Phenomenon)
‗come upon‟ has the rate 2-1 between material process and mental process
1 We turned a corner and came upon an old church (bắt gặp) (Actor) (Goal)
2 He came upon me for damages (qui trách nhiệm cho) (Actor) (Beneficiery)
3 A feeling of great excitement suddenly comes upon me (chợt xuất hiện)
The meanings of two-word verbs often reveal a connection between physical and mental processes For instance, the verb "come at" signifies both a physical approach or attack and a mental examination of an issue Similarly, "come upon" describes the physical act of encountering something unexpectedly, while also conveying the sudden emergence of emotions or ideas This interplay illustrates how meanings within a single process are interconnected.
‗come off‟: ngã ra- bung ra- ra khỏi sân or „come out‟: long ra- ra nụ trổ hoa- (ảnh) được rửa ra- (sách) được phát hành, etc)
The verb "give" has ten combinations with particles or prepositions, six of which express material and/or mental processes: give in, give off, give out, give up (phrasal verb), and give away, give of (prepositional verb) Analysis indicates that all six two-word verbs represent material processes Notably, the phrasal verb "give up" encompasses both material and mental processes, though the distribution is imbalanced, featuring six material meanings compared to just one mental meaning.
1 Children rarely give up their seats to older people on buses now (nhường) (Actor) (Goal) (Beneficiary)
2 I‘m not going to give up all my friends just because I‘m getting married (cắt đứt) (Actor) (Goal)
3 She gave the baby up for adoption (đem cho đi) (Actor) (Goal)
4 Doing this course will mean giving up a lot of my spare times (hy sinh)
5 Police are urging the man to give himself up before any further damage is caused
6 Do I have to give up my old passport when I apply for a new one? (giao nộp) (Actor) (Goal)
7 It‘s about time you gave up smoking (bỏ)