Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave technologies devices circuits and systems Part 12 pdf

AdvancedMicrowaveandMillimeterWave Technologies:SemiconductorDevices,CircuitsandSystems432 Up to now the polarization of the incident wave has not be considered. However, the induced current in the surface of the receiving antenna is determined by those incident wave components “parallel“ to the polarization of the receiving antenna 1 . That is to say, the wave field produced by the antenna 2 in the location of the antenna 1 can be expressed as:   1212 2 12 12 ,  T eEE   where 12 E is the actual value of the field and T e 2  is normalized vector indicating the polarization of the wave transmitted by the antenna 2. When identifying the type of polarization of the antenna 1 itself in reception for the normalized vector:   2121 2 ,  R e  , thus, the effective value of the component of the incident field that matches the type of polarization of the antenna 1 at the reception will be as (Márkov & Sazónov, 1978):     2121 1 1212 2 1212 ,,  RT R eeEE   (6) Note that for standard polarization vectors is satisfied that:         1,,;1,, 212122121 2 121221212 2         R R T T eeee Therefore 12R E (6) is the real value of electric involved in the process of reception. Note that if the antennas 1 and 2 were equal and with identical directions of pointing( 2112   y 2112    ), thus:         2121R12121 T1 1212R21212 T2 ,e,e,e,e         where the maximum value will happen when:     2121R12121 T1 ,e,e      , which the polarization of the transmitting antenna and the receiving one are the same but with opposite sense (seen from a common reference system), that is to say, an identical polarization seen from transmitting point of view. Therefore, we can write the expression (6) as:     212111212 2 12 12 ,,       ee E E R (7) 1 Polarization of an antenna is defined from transmission point of view. However, although the reception point of view is opposite to the transmission one, the polarization of an antenna is defined equally. without distinction in the polarization vectors whether it is an antenna transmission or reception. Similarly we can write the actual value of the field incident at the antenna 2 from the antenna 1:     1212221211 21 21 ,,       ee E E R (8) Given that the denominators of expressions (7) and (8) are equal, and substituting these in (5), we obtain:     1212222 22 21 21 2121111 11 12 12 ,,  CMaxRad A R CMaxRad A R FDR ZZ E I FDR ZZ E I                    (9) Analysing both members; the relationship ( 1212 R EI ) depend only on the characteristics of the antenna. The field incident on the antenna with the same polarization induced currents on the antenna. On the other hand the factors of the left member of (9) depend exclusively on the characteristics of the antenna 1. Similarly, it appears that all the factors of the right- hand side of (9) depend exclusively on the characteristics of the antenna 2. Since the above analysis there is anyone restriction on the type of antenna used (in general, antennas 1 and 2 are different), the obvious conclusion is:   C FDR ZZ E I CMaxRad A R           2121111 11 12 12 ,  (10) where C is a constant that has the same value for all antennas. Therefore, C can be obtained by replacing in (10) the values of the parameters of any antenna; in particular the Hertz’s dipole. Figure 3 shows a dipole antenna formed by a thin conductor of length L, with an impedance R Z connected at its terminals, impinging a wave of linear polarization parallel to the dipole. Fig. 3. Antenna type dipole in reception ElectrodynamicAnalysisofAntennasinMultipathConditions 433 Up to now the polarization of the incident wave has not be considered. However, the induced current in the surface of the receiving antenna is determined by those incident wave components “parallel“ to the polarization of the receiving antenna 1 . That is to say, the wave field produced by the antenna 2 in the location of the antenna 1 can be expressed as:   1212 2 12 12 ,  T eEE   where 12 E is the actual value of the field and T e 2  is normalized vector indicating the polarization of the wave transmitted by the antenna 2. When identifying the type of polarization of the antenna 1 itself in reception for the normalized vector:   2121 2 ,  R e  , thus, the effective value of the component of the incident field that matches the type of polarization of the antenna 1 at the reception will be as (Márkov & Sazónov, 1978):     2121 1 1212 2 1212 ,,  RT R eeEE   (6) Note that for standard polarization vectors is satisfied that:         1,,;1,, 212122121 2 121221212 2         R R T T eeee Therefore 12R E (6) is the real value of electric involved in the process of reception. Note that if the antennas 1 and 2 were equal and with identical directions of pointing( 2112   y 2112    ), thus:         2121R12121 T1 1212R21212 T2 ,e,e,e,e         where the maximum value will happen when:     2121R12121 T1 ,e,e      , which the polarization of the transmitting antenna and the receiving one are the same but with opposite sense (seen from a common reference system), that is to say, an identical polarization seen from transmitting point of view. Therefore, we can write the expression (6) as:     212111212 2 12 12 ,,       ee E E R (7) 1 Polarization of an antenna is defined from transmission point of view. However, although the reception point of view is opposite to the transmission one, the polarization of an antenna is defined equally. without distinction in the polarization vectors whether it is an antenna transmission or reception. Similarly we can write the actual value of the field incident at the antenna 2 from the antenna 1:     1212221211 21 21 ,,       ee E E R (8) Given that the denominators of expressions (7) and (8) are equal, and substituting these in (5), we obtain:     1212222 22 21 21 2121111 11 12 12 ,,  CMaxRad A R CMaxRad A R FDR ZZ E I FDR ZZ E I                    (9) Analysing both members; the relationship ( 1212 R EI ) depend only on the characteristics of the antenna. The field incident on the antenna with the same polarization induced currents on the antenna. On the other hand the factors of the left member of (9) depend exclusively on the characteristics of the antenna 1. Similarly, it appears that all the factors of the right- hand side of (9) depend exclusively on the characteristics of the antenna 2. Since the above analysis there is anyone restriction on the type of antenna used (in general, antennas 1 and 2 are different), the obvious conclusion is:   C FDR ZZ E I CMaxRad A R           2121111 11 12 12 ,  (10) where C is a constant that has the same value for all antennas. Therefore, C can be obtained by replacing in (10) the values of the parameters of any antenna; in particular the Hertz’s dipole. Figure 3 shows a dipole antenna formed by a thin conductor of length L, with an impedance R Z connected at its terminals, impinging a wave of linear polarization parallel to the dipole. Fig. 3. Antenna type dipole in reception AdvancedMicrowaveandMillimeterWave Technologies:SemiconductorDevices,CircuitsandSystems434 This will induce a current   zI along the conductor. The e.m.f de , induced a small segment of length dz will be:   dzsenEde   (11) As for the conductor circulate the current   zI , a power will be delivered to the antenna:       dzzIsenEzIdedP    The total power delivered to the antenna is:        L dzzIsenEP  In the terminals (see Figure 1) is obtained:      2 In A R P I Z Z And thus:                2 In A R L I Z Z E sen I z dz In the case of a Hertz dipole with length  l we can presume the current uniform:   Ent IzI  and, therefore:             2 In A R Ent I Z Z E sen I l Or what is the same:   RAR Ent ZZ lsen E I E I     12 12 The radiation pattern of Hertz's dipole is known      senF C  , its directivity is of: 5.1 Max D . Moreover, the radiation resistance is of:   2 2 80  lR Rad  ; so, substituting these data in (10):     120 C where the value C obtained for the dipole Hertz is unique for all antennas, and it can be replaced in (10) to obtain the expression of the current at the terminals of the any antenna ( Ind I ), induced by that component of the field of the incident wave ( R E ) with a polarization equal to the receiving antenna itself and arriving at the antenna in the direction defined by angles  and  :      , 120 C MaxRad RA RInd F DR ZZ EI      (12) According to Figure 1 the induced e.m.f at the terminals of the antenna can be determined by:      , 120 C MaxRad RRAIndInd F DR EZZIe    (13) Taking into account the expressions (12) and (13), the values of the current and the induced e.m.f at the terminals of the antenna have a dependency on the direction of arrival of the incident wave, expressed by     , C F , which is the radiation pattern of the antenna in transmission. The expression (13) can be written like this:         ,, CMaxIndInd Fee   Then MaxInd e expresses the value of induced e.m.f when the wave arrives from the direction of maximum reception of the antenna, and     , C F represents the normalized radiation pattern of the field of the antenna in reception mode, which is equal to that characteristic of their antenna transmission. On the other hand, the coefficient of directivity is function of the radiation pattern. Therefore, it confirms that its value is the same regardless of the antenna works as transmitters or receivers. Similarly, in the case of linear antennas, the effective length: 120 RadMax Ef RD l     (14) that depends on the coefficient of maximum directivity, the radiation resistance, and will have the same value in transmission and reception. Substituting in expression (13), it becomes: ),(   CEfRInd FlEe    where the product: MaxIndEfR elE   is the maximum value of the induced e.m.f (when 1 C F ). It is important to stress the significance of the effective length of the antenna; that is to say, this is a length such, when multiplied with the incident field intensity (the polarization equal to the antenna itself, incident in the direction of maximum reception), ElectrodynamicAnalysisofAntennasinMultipathConditions 435 This will induce a current   zI along the conductor. The e.m.f de , induced a small segment of length dz will be:   dzsenEde     (11) As for the conductor circulate the current   zI , a power will be delivered to the antenna:       dzzIsenEzIdedP    The total power delivered to the antenna is:        L dzzIsenEP  In the terminals (see Figure 1) is obtained:      2 In A R P I Z Z And thus:                2 In A R L I Z Z E sen I z dz In the case of a Hertz dipole with length  l we can presume the current uniform:   Ent IzI  and, therefore:             2 In A R Ent I Z Z E sen I l Or what is the same:   RAR Ent ZZ lsen E I E I     12 12 The radiation pattern of Hertz's dipole is known      senF C  , its directivity is of: 5.1 Max D . Moreover, the radiation resistance is of:   2 2 80  lR Rad  ; so, substituting these data in (10):     120 C where the value C obtained for the dipole Hertz is unique for all antennas, and it can be replaced in (10) to obtain the expression of the current at the terminals of the any antenna ( Ind I ), induced by that component of the field of the incident wave ( R E ) with a polarization equal to the receiving antenna itself and arriving at the antenna in the direction defined by angles  and  :      , 120 C MaxRad RA RInd F DR ZZ EI      (12) According to Figure 1 the induced e.m.f at the terminals of the antenna can be determined by:      , 120 C MaxRad RRAIndInd F DR EZZIe    (13) Taking into account the expressions (12) and (13), the values of the current and the induced e.m.f at the terminals of the antenna have a dependency on the direction of arrival of the incident wave, expressed by     , C F , which is the radiation pattern of the antenna in transmission. The expression (13) can be written like this:         ,, CMaxIndInd Fee  Then MaxInd e expresses the value of induced e.m.f when the wave arrives from the direction of maximum reception of the antenna, and     , C F represents the normalized radiation pattern of the field of the antenna in reception mode, which is equal to that characteristic of their antenna transmission. On the other hand, the coefficient of directivity is function of the radiation pattern. Therefore, it confirms that its value is the same regardless of the antenna works as transmitters or receivers. Similarly, in the case of linear antennas, the effective length: 120 RadMax Ef RD l     (14) that depends on the coefficient of maximum directivity, the radiation resistance, and will have the same value in transmission and reception. Substituting in expression (13), it becomes: ),(   CEfRInd FlEe  where the product: MaxIndEfR elE  is the maximum value of the induced e.m.f (when 1 C F ). It is important to stress the significance of the effective length of the antenna; that is to say, this is a length such, when multiplied with the incident field intensity (the polarization equal to the antenna itself, incident in the direction of maximum reception), AdvancedMicrowaveandMillimeterWave Technologies:SemiconductorDevices,CircuitsandSystems436 gives us the maximum value of the induced e.m.f . Known the induced e.m.f in the antenna, with reference to Figure 1 we can determine the voltage at the input terminals of the receiver, supposed this is connected directly to the antenna, by: Ind RA R R e ZZ Z V    (15) Considering the presence of a transmission line (the characteristic impedance 0 Z ) between the antenna (impedance A Z ) and receiver (impedance R Z ), it defines the reflection coefficient at the antenna input (Pozar, 2004): 0 0 ZZ ZZ A A A     and at the receiver input: 0 0 ZZ ZZ R R R     ; the expression (15) will transformed:     Ind AR AR R e Lj L V     2exp12 exp11   (16) where   j is the propagation constant of the transmission line (which includes the attenuation constant  and the phase constant  ), and L is the length of the line. In case of low frequency receivers ( MHzf 30 ) the condition: AR ZZ  is usually applied; thus (replacing in 15) is obtained: IndR eV  ; so, maximum voltage to the receiver's input. Moreover, matching the transmission line to the antenna ( 0 A  ) and 0 ZZ R  , 1 R  and expression (16) also gives us the maximum input voltage of the receiver:   IndR eLV   exp , where the factor:   1exp  L  takes into account transmission losses along the line. On the other hand, in case of higher frequency it is more difficult to provide high power amplifiers, so the purpose is to maximize the real power delivered by the antenna to receiver. If the receiver is directly connected to the antenna, the power supplied to the receiver is:      , 120 2 2 22 P MaxRad RA R RRIndR F DR ZZ R ERIP       where R R is the real part of the input impedance of the receiver. Maximum transmitting power forces to an impedance matching between the receiver and antenna (   AR ZZ ). Applying this condition in the above expression and using the classical expression of the efficiency of an antenna:    Rad A In R R , we obtain (Balanis, 1982):       , 120 4 2 2 2 P MaxA RR F D EP      When using a transmission line of low losses between the receiver and the antenna and impedance matching between the receiver and the line, the power supplied by the antenna to the line will be:                , 120 1 4 , 120 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 p MaxA Rp MaxA A A RL F D EF D ZZ RZ EP         A part of power will flow to the receiver:           , 120 )2(exp1 4 )2(exp 2 2 2 2 p MaxA RLR F D LELPP    (17) and the other part:     LPP LLCons  2exp1 .     , will be consumed by the line. In expression (17) we can see that through the appropriate orientation of the antenna, by matching the direction of maximum reception of the antenna with the direction of arrival of the wave we get 1 P F and the received power reaches its maximum value by adjusting the direction:     Max R AAMaxR D E LP      4120 2exp1 2 2 2 (18) Considering this expression; factor  120 2 R E represents the module of the Poynting vector of the incident wave to the antenna. If we multiply this factor by the physical area of the antenna, the power incident on the antenna is obtained: Geom R Inc A E P   120 2 (19) The antenna is not able to fully grasp the incident power that really is: Ef R Max R Cap A E D E P            1204120 22 (20) where: MaxEf DA    4 2 (21) ElectrodynamicAnalysisofAntennasinMultipathConditions 437 gives us the maximum value of the induced e.m.f . Known the induced e.m.f in the antenna, with reference to Figure 1 we can determine the voltage at the input terminals of the receiver, supposed this is connected directly to the antenna, by: Ind RA R R e ZZ Z V    (15) Considering the presence of a transmission line (the characteristic impedance 0 Z ) between the antenna (impedance A Z ) and receiver (impedance R Z ), it defines the reflection coefficient at the antenna input (Pozar, 2004): 0 0 ZZ ZZ A A A     and at the receiver input: 0 0 ZZ ZZ R R R     ; the expression (15) will transformed:     Ind AR AR R e Lj L V     2exp12 exp11   (16) where   j is the propagation constant of the transmission line (which includes the attenuation constant  and the phase constant  ), and L is the length of the line. In case of low frequency receivers ( MHzf 30  ) the condition: AR ZZ  is usually applied; thus (replacing in 15) is obtained: IndR eV  ; so, maximum voltage to the receiver's input. Moreover, matching the transmission line to the antenna ( 0  A  ) and 0 ZZ R  , 1 R  and expression (16) also gives us the maximum input voltage of the receiver:   IndR eLV   exp , where the factor:   1exp  L  takes into account transmission losses along the line. On the other hand, in case of higher frequency it is more difficult to provide high power amplifiers, so the purpose is to maximize the real power delivered by the antenna to receiver. If the receiver is directly connected to the antenna, the power supplied to the receiver is:      , 120 2 2 22 P MaxRad RA R RRIndR F DR ZZ R ERIP       where R R is the real part of the input impedance of the receiver. Maximum transmitting power forces to an impedance matching between the receiver and antenna (   AR ZZ ). Applying this condition in the above expression and using the classical expression of the efficiency of an antenna:    Rad A In R R , we obtain (Balanis, 1982):       , 120 4 2 2 2 P MaxA RR F D EP      When using a transmission line of low losses between the receiver and the antenna and impedance matching between the receiver and the line, the power supplied by the antenna to the line will be:                , 120 1 4 , 120 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 p MaxA Rp MaxA A A RL F D EF D ZZ RZ EP         A part of power will flow to the receiver:           , 120 )2(exp1 4 )2(exp 2 2 2 2 p MaxA RLR F D LELPP    (17) and the other part:     LPP LLCons  2exp1 .  , will be consumed by the line. In expression (17) we can see that through the appropriate orientation of the antenna, by matching the direction of maximum reception of the antenna with the direction of arrival of the wave we get 1 P F and the received power reaches its maximum value by adjusting the direction:     Max R AAMaxR D E LP      4120 2exp1 2 2 2 (18) Considering this expression; factor  120 2 R E represents the module of the Poynting vector of the incident wave to the antenna. If we multiply this factor by the physical area of the antenna, the power incident on the antenna is obtained: Geom R Inc A E P   120 2 (19) The antenna is not able to fully grasp the incident power that really is: Ef R Max R Cap A E D E P            1204120 22 (20) where: MaxEf DA    4 2 (21) AdvancedMicrowaveandMillimeterWave Technologies:SemiconductorDevices,CircuitsandSystems438 It will be called the effective area of the antenna; namely the area through which the antenna fully captures the incident power density. The relationship: Geom Ef Inc CAP A A A P P   (22) is called the coefficient of the utilization of the surface of the antenna. The expression (18) now we can write:         CapAAIncAAAMaxR PLPLP   2exp12exp1 22 Note that the antenna does not use all the power captured, but a fraction called useful captured power:    Ca p Use A Ca p P P (23) the other part:   CapA P  1 is the power losses in the antenna as heat during the reception. Between the antenna and the transmission line is not always met the condition of impedance matching, therefore only part of the useful captured power useful is delivered to the line:   ÚtilCap AL PP  2 1  (24) and, only the fraction given by (17) is delivered to the receiver. In Figure 4 shows schematically the flow of power from the wave that propagates in free space and arrives to the antenna, to the receiver. From the analysis we can summarize the conditions for optimal reception: coincidence of the polarization itself of the antenna with the polarization of the incident wave (This ensures R E maximum); orientation the antenna to the direction of arrival of the wave ( 1 P F ); effective area (or effective length) maximum of the antenna (which depends on its physical characteristics); high efficiency ( 1 A  ); proper impedances matching between the antenna and feed line ( 0 A  ); low losses of the feed line ( 0 L  ). In practice these conditions are met satisfactorily, so the power at the receiver is close to optimal value:            2 2 2 120 120 4 R R O p t A E f Max E E P A G (25) This expression clearly reveals the role of the maximum gain at the reception. The value of Max G of any antenna indicates either the number of times that the power delivered to the receiver exceeds that delivered by an isotropic radiator ( 1 Max G ) under the same conditions of external excitation, coupling and losses of the transmission line. In a similar way we can say that the coefficient of directivity Max D of an antenna (as was noted earlier, has the same value in transmission and reception), at the receiving antenna indicates the number of times that the power captured by the antenna exceeds that delivered by an isotropic radiator. Finally, keep in mind that the presence of induced current in the receiving antenna also determines an effect known as secondary radiation. We must emphasize the fact that, in general, the directional characteristic of the secondary radiation does not match the directional characteristic for the transmitting antenna.  120 2 R P E S  Geom R Inc A E P   120 2 IncACap PP    CapALoss PP    )1(  CapAuseCap PP   useCapAf PP  2 Re   120 2 R P E S  useCapAL PP  )1( 2    LLCons PLP      )2exp(1 .  )2exp( LPP LR     receive r to Fig. 4. Power flow from the wave in free space to the receiver This is explained by that shape of the induced current distribution on the elements of the antenna is not equal to that found when the excitation takes place at the terminals of the antenna. However, the total power of secondary radiation can be calculated from:              2 2 2 2 2 2 , 120 Rad Max Sec Rad Ind Rad R p A R R D P I P E F Z Z (26) In this expression the factor:    , P F defines the directional pattern of the antenna during the reception; while Sec Rad P is the total power of secondary radiation in all directions of space. This phenomenon has a special interest in antennas that act as passive elements, where generally R Z is the impedance of a ( 0 R Z ) or a pure reactive element ( RR jXZ  ). Particularly this treatment can be extended to objects that do not really fulfil the mission of the antennas, that serving (intentionally or not) as reflectors of radio waves. In these cases, as can be shown easily from (26), it is possible to reach a power of secondary radiation which is 4 times larger than the optimum power of reception given by the formula (25). The analysis of antennas in reception mode, leads to a set of conclusions of great importance. First we establish that many of the properties of the antennas are the same as transmission as reception, which simplifies its research, since it is not necessary to determine these ElectrodynamicAnalysisofAntennasinMultipathConditions 439 It will be called the effective area of the antenna; namely the area through which the antenna fully captures the incident power density. The relationship: Geom Ef Inc CAP A A A P P   (22) is called the coefficient of the utilization of the surface of the antenna. The expression (18) now we can write:         CapAAIncAAAMaxR PLPLP   2exp12exp1 22 Note that the antenna does not use all the power captured, but a fraction called useful captured power:    Ca p Use A Ca p P P (23) the other part:   CapA P    1 is the power losses in the antenna as heat during the reception. Between the antenna and the transmission line is not always met the condition of impedance matching, therefore only part of the useful captured power useful is delivered to the line:   ÚtilCap AL PP  2 1  (24) and, only the fraction given by (17) is delivered to the receiver. In Figure 4 shows schematically the flow of power from the wave that propagates in free space and arrives to the antenna, to the receiver. From the analysis we can summarize the conditions for optimal reception: coincidence of the polarization itself of the antenna with the polarization of the incident wave (This ensures R E maximum); orientation the antenna to the direction of arrival of the wave ( 1  P F ); effective area (or effective length) maximum of the antenna (which depends on its physical characteristics); high efficiency ( 1  A  ); proper impedances matching between the antenna and feed line ( 0 A  ); low losses of the feed line ( 0 L  ). In practice these conditions are met satisfactorily, so the power at the receiver is close to optimal value:            2 2 2 120 120 4 R R O p t A E f Max E E P A G (25) This expression clearly reveals the role of the maximum gain at the reception. The value of Max G of any antenna indicates either the number of times that the power delivered to the receiver exceeds that delivered by an isotropic radiator ( 1  Max G ) under the same conditions of external excitation, coupling and losses of the transmission line. In a similar way we can say that the coefficient of directivity Max D of an antenna (as was noted earlier, has the same value in transmission and reception), at the receiving antenna indicates the number of times that the power captured by the antenna exceeds that delivered by an isotropic radiator. Finally, keep in mind that the presence of induced current in the receiving antenna also determines an effect known as secondary radiation. We must emphasize the fact that, in general, the directional characteristic of the secondary radiation does not match the directional characteristic for the transmitting antenna.  120 2 R P E S  Geom R Inc A E P   120 2 IncACap PP   CapALoss PP  )1(  CapAuseCap PP   useCapAf PP  2 Re   120 2 R P E S  useCapAL PP  )1( 2    LLCons PLP  )2exp(1 .  )2exp( LPP LR   receive r to Fig. 4. Power flow from the wave in free space to the receiver This is explained by that shape of the induced current distribution on the elements of the antenna is not equal to that found when the excitation takes place at the terminals of the antenna. However, the total power of secondary radiation can be calculated from:              2 2 2 2 2 2 , 120 Rad Max Sec Rad Ind Rad R p A R R D P I P E F Z Z (26) In this expression the factor:    , P F defines the directional pattern of the antenna during the reception; while Sec Rad P is the total power of secondary radiation in all directions of space. This phenomenon has a special interest in antennas that act as passive elements, where generally R Z is the impedance of a ( 0 R Z ) or a pure reactive element ( RR jXZ  ). Particularly this treatment can be extended to objects that do not really fulfil the mission of the antennas, that serving (intentionally or not) as reflectors of radio waves. In these cases, as can be shown easily from (26), it is possible to reach a power of secondary radiation which is 4 times larger than the optimum power of reception given by the formula (25). The analysis of antennas in reception mode, leads to a set of conclusions of great importance. First we establish that many of the properties of the antennas are the same as transmission as reception, which simplifies its research, since it is not necessary to determine these AdvancedMicrowaveandMillimeterWave Technologies:SemiconductorDevices,CircuitsandSystems440 properties in both regimes. Thus, the impedance of the antenna, its directional pattern, its directivity, efficiency, and gain are the same in both schemes of work. The expressions obtained (mainly induced e.m.f) in the receiving antenna (13), are useful in tasks of calculation and design of antennas in general. There are two parameters that are used in the study of the receiving antennas (aperture antennas mainly); the coefficient of utilization of the surface of the antenna and the effective area. 3. Antennas receiving mode in multipath conditions It is said that an antenna operates under multipath conditions when in it impinge radio waves arriving from different directions. Figure 5 show the multipath phenomenon. BS MS 1  2  3  n  Fig. 5. Phenomenon of multipath propagation In Figure 5 it can be seen: transmitter and receiver antennas, rays that define the different propagation paths from transmitter to receiver antenna, and the scattering elements (buildings and cars), which are called scatterer. Propagation environments, together with the communications system can be divided into: indoor and outdoor. The theory of radio channels is a rather broad topic not covered here, but from point of view of the antenna, we will present (only from the point of view spatial) similar to the patterns that characterize the radiation of the antennas (Rogier, 2006). This way, according to the angular distribution of power that reaches the antenna, we can present them as omnidirectional, and with some directionality. Then, the shape of the angular distribution of power that characterizes the channel depends on the position of the antenna inside the environment of multipath propagation. Figure 6 shows some examples. 0 0 0 60 0 120 0 90 0 180 0 210 0 270 0 330 0 0 0 60 0 120 0 90 0 180 0 210 0 270 0 330 0 0 0 60 0 120 0 90 0 180 0 210 0 270 0 330 0 0 0 60 0 120 0 90 0 180 0 210 0 270 0 330 )(a )(b )(c )(d Fig. 6. Angular distribution of the power reaching the antenna by multiple pathways, a) omni directional channel, b) dead zone channel, c) directional channel, d) multidirectional channel. Figure 6 shows patterns corresponding to the measured power at the terminals of a high directivity antenna used to sample the channel performance in time. The graphs that are shown, they correspond themselves only to the azimuthal plane, often with higher importance as in case of mobile communications Figure 6a shows some omni-directional angular distribution, where the incoming waves reach the antenna with a similar intensity from all directions from statistical point of view. Figure 6b presents a channel with an angular distribution indicating some directional properties, in which the waves impinge the antenna from all directions, except from one sector, normally called dead zone. Figure 6c shows the case where the waves reach the antenna from a defined direction. Figure 6d is a typical situation when waves reach the antenna from some well defined directions, (in this case three), in most cases are caused by discrete clusters of scatterer, as in the mobile communications enabling the use of smart antenna systems. In practice there may be all kinds of Multipath described in Figure 6 on a single antenna. This is the true of the antenna is in a mobile terminal that changes its spatial position over time. Induced e.m.f at the antenna terminals, which has been described in terms of the angular power spectrum in the plots of Figure 6, is the statistical average of the amplitude of the signal at the antenna terminals. In fact, the resulting signal has a fading performance, due to the fasorial summation of all the waves arriving to the antenna with different amplitudes and phases, due to the difference in the delay associated with each propagation path (Blaunstein et al., 2002. Under this situation induced e.m.f in the terminals of an antenna has a fading nature, as it is shown in Figure 7. 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 t(ms) dBm Fig. 7. Signal at the antenna terminals under multipath The fading performance of the signal can be, explained by the multipath phenomenon using a ray model at the plane. In a first approximation, one considers n waves coming through n L different paths to a Q - point, in which there is no antenna. The spreading angle associated with each beam is zero, so 0 n  , so it is valid to propose that the resulting signal   tu in Q point is given by (27):            n L n nnn tNtsatu 1  (27) [...]...   , ,t  i  and  H   ,  , t  h  ,  , t   e j   , ,t  i Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems 444 They, h and h are the directional pattern associated to the amplitude component of the main and cross polarization in the channel   and   are also the patterns of the phase associated to the main and cross polarization... conditions is of significant 452 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems importance to the engineers who design, plan and operate radio systems, in order to configure, optimize and select proper system elements, which are ultimately defined by the set-antenna channel 6 References Balanis, C A (1982) Antennas Theory: analysis and design, Edit Harper &... operations, a matrix TL can be calculated It is diagonal and has the form  e L TL    0 0   e   L (1) Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems 458 And from the propagation constant, the dielectric constant and conductivity can be easily determined 2 c    r    j   0  and    0 ''  j  ' '' (2) It should be noted that... radio-communications systems, which takes into account a 448 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems number of parameters of great importance to the design, operates and manage the radio system Moreover, some concepts have been used in the previous sections but they need deep explanations : Fading is the sudden variation and reduction of signal... for the solids and for the mono-layered and multi-layered foams are summarized and discussed in section 6 They are then compared to results obtained using the electrical model presented in the previous section and they are also correlated to rheological characterizations 454 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems 2 EMI shielding considerations... x 2  PDF x  dx   2 0 2     2  2    0.429 2 2  (37) The rms value of the envelope signal is defined by the square root of 2 2 , is : rms  2    1.414   (38) The median of the envelope of this signal is defined from the following condition: 1  2 xmedian  PDF xdx 0 (39) Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems 450 and it... conductive nanoparticles do not form a direct conductive pathway for the electrons from one side of the sample to the other side However, at relatively high frequency the conductivity becomes significant, indicating the presence of capacitive couplings between the nanoparticles Taking these observations into 460 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems. .. conductivity The transition Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems 466 frequency is of about 10 GHz At this frequency, a behaviour change can also be observed in the dielectric constant-versus-frequency plot, cf Fig 16(top) A CNT (weight) content of 50% is very high The conductivity and dielectric constant were simulated and measured for a much... conductivity of solid and foamed PCL/CNTs nanocomposite samples, both having a similar CNT content 464 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems The conductivity of foamed nanocomposites increases significantly with the CNT content, as can be seen on Fig 14(left) and the Shielding Effectiveness also increases in the same proportions, cf Fig 14(right) Therefore,... considers n waves coming through Ln different paths to a Q - point, in which there is no antenna The spreading angle associated with each beam is zero, so  n  0 , so it is valid to propose that the resulting signal u t  in Q point is given by (27): u t   Ln  a  s t   n n 1 n n   N t  (27) 442 Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems . 1978):     2121 1 121 2 2 121 2 ,,  RT R eeEE   (6) Note that for standard polarization vectors is satisfied that:         1,,;1,, 2121 2 2121 2 121 2 2121 2 2         R R T T eeee . 1978):     2121 1 121 2 2 121 2 ,,  RT R eeEE   (6) Note that for standard polarization vectors is satisfied that:         1,,;1,, 2121 2 2121 2 121 2 2121 2 2         R R T T eeee . condition:     median x dxxPDF 0 2 1 (39) Advanced Microwave and Millimeter Wave Technologies: Semiconductor Devices, Circuits and Systems4 50 and it is obtained:  177.1 median x