An investigation into learner autonomy among english major freshmen

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE AN INVESTIGATION INTO LEARNER AUTONOMY AMONG ENGLISH MAJOR FRESHMEN A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL By THACH THI QUYEN Supervised by Assoc Prof Dr LUU TRONG TUAN HO CHI MINH CITY, JUNE 2023 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to the following individuals because this thesis might not have been accomplished without their assistance I would like to show my sincerest and deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr Lưu Trọng Tuấn, for his invaluable guidance, support, and feedback I am grateful for his knowledge, dedication, patience, tolerance, and encouragement, which made my master journey not only more enjoyable but also more endurable I would like to show my gratitude to all the teachers at University of Social Sciences and Humanities who transferred valuable knowledge to my classmates and me Without all of you, I would not be able to explore this great pool of knowledge I am honestly grateful for your teaching and dedication I would like to appreciate the assistance from Dr Nguyễn Đăng Nguyên, who gave me permission and instructed me how to prepare necessary documents for collecting data at University of Social Sciences and Humanities In addition, I also thank Mr Lê Tấn Cường for his kindness and willingness This thesis is my special thanks to my family, who always support and love me unconditionally and wholeheartedly This helps me always believe in my choices and take responsibility for fulfilling those choices To my friend, Ms Hoàng Thị Kim Oanh, who was always beside me, encouraged me when I got stuck in my thesis, and spent heaps of late nights studying with me Another friend, Ms Trần Thanh Nga, provided me with constructive comments and feedback on my thesis Both of you are an unforgettable part of my time at University of Social Sciences and Humanities ii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY I certify that this thesis entitled “AN INVESTIGATION INTO LEARNER AUTONOMY AMONG ENGLISH MAJOR FRESHMEN” is my own work This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other institution Ho Chi Minh City, June 2023 Thạch Thị Quyên iii RETENTION OF USE I hereby state that I, Thạch Thị Quyên, being the candidate for the degree of Master in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for the purpose of study and research in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of the theses Ho Chi Minh City, June 2023 Thạch Thị Quyên iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY iii RETENTION OF USE iv TABLE OF CONTENTS v LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES xi ABSTRACT xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1.2 Rationale of the study .2 1.3 Scope of the study 1.4 Contributions of this study 1.5 The role of the researcher .5 1.6 Structure of the thesis .6 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Learner autonomy 2.1.1 Misconceptions of learner autonomy 2.1.2 Various definitions of learner autonomy .10 2.1.3 The importance of learner autonomy in language learning 12 2.1.4 Characteristics of autonomous language learners 13 2.2 Self-determination theory .14 2.2.1 The need of relatedness 15 2.2.2 The need of competence 15 2.2.3 The need of autonomy 16 2.3 Self-determination theory as the underlying theory of learner autonomy 16 2.4 Factors in promoting learner autonomy 20 2.4.1 Teacher autonomy support 20 2.4.1.1 Definition of teacher autonomy support 20 2.4.1.2 Common behaviors of teacher autonomy support 20 2.4.1.3 The importance of teacher autonomy support in boosting learner autonomy .21 2.4.2 Peer autonomy support 22 v 2.4.2.1 Definition of peer autonomy support 22 2.4.2.2 Common behaviors of peer autonomy support 22 2.4.2.3 The importance of peer autonomy support in boosting learner autonomy22 2.4.3 Social media 23 2.4.3.1 Definition of social media 23 2.4.3.2 The popularity of social media among users 23 2.4.3.3 The importance of implementing social media in boosting learner autonomy .24 2.4.4 Sense of responsibility 26 2.4.4.1 Definition of responsibility 26 2.4.4.2 Characteristics of responsible learners 26 2.4.4.3 The importance of sense of responsibility in boosting learner autonomy26 2.4.5 Self-efficacy 27 2.4.5.1 Definition of self-efficacy 27 2.4.5.2 Common behaviors of self-efficacious students 27 2.4.5.3 The importance of self-efficacy in boosting learner autonomy 27 2.5 Previous studies 28 2.6 Conceptual framework Error! Bookmark not defined CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .33 3.1 Research questions 33 3.2 Research design 33 3.2.1 Quantitative research .33 3.2.2 Rationale for choosing a survey questionnaire 34 3.3 Research site 34 3.3.1 The overview description of the research site .35 3.3.2 The overview description of the course during data collection 37 3.4 Sampling and sampling procedures 37 3.4.1 Population 38 3.4.2 Participants 38 3.4.3 Sampling 39 3.5 Research instrument 39 3.5.1 Description of the questionnaire 41 3.5.2 Piloting questionnaire 44 3.5.2.1 Content validity 45 3.5.2.2 Reliability of the questionnaire 45 3.6 Data collection procedure of the main study 47 vi 3.7 Data analysis scheme for the main study 50 3.7.1 The prerequisites for factor analysis 50 3.7.1.1 Normality 50 3.7.1.2 Correlation matrix 50 3.7.1.3 Multicollinearity .50 3.7.2 Factor analysis .51 3.7.2.1 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 51 3.7.2.2 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) 54 3.7.2.3 Hypothesis testing 56 3.7.2.4 Control for demographic attributes 53 3.8 Ethical principles 55 CHAPTER 4: RESUTLS AND DISCUSSION 58 4.1 The result from the pilot study 59 4.2 The results of main study 60 4.2.1 The reliability of the questionnaire 60 4.2.1.1 The result of Cronbach’s alpha of dependent variable 60 4.2.1.2 The result of Cronbach’s alpha of independent variable 61 4.2.2 The results of factor analyses 62 4.2.2.1 Normality testing 62 4.2.2.2 Correlation matrix 62 2.2.2.3 Multicollinearity .66 4.2.3 The Exploratory factor analysis result for learner autonomy 67 4.2.3.1 Communality 67 4.2.3.2 The result of KMO and Bartlett’s test 67 4.2.3.3 The result of extraction 68 4.2.3.4 Number of items to retain 69 4.2.3.5 Item loading and cross loading 69 4.2.4 The EFA result for five factors 70 4.2.4.1 The first round of running EFA 70 4.2.4.2 The second round of running EFA 73 4.2.5 Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) 78 4.2.6 Structural model evaluation 81 4.2.6.1 Goodness of fit indices in SEM 81 4.2.6.2 Hypothesis testing 82 4.3 Supplementary analysis 91 4.3.1 Difference in learner autonomy with regard to genders 93 vii 4.3.2 Difference in learner autonomy among participants in terms of years of studying English 94 4.3.3 Difference in learner autonomy among students from different locations 95 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION .98 5.1 Summary of the findings 98 5.2 Implications of the present study 99 5.2.1 Implications for EFL learners 99 5.2.2 Implications for EFL teachers .100 5.2.3 Implications for other associated stakeholders 101 5.3 Limitations and future research directions 102 REFERENCES 104 APPENDICES 143 APPENDIX 1:QUESTIONNAIRE 145 APPENDIX 2: MODIFICATIONS SUGGESTED BY EXPERTS 147 APPENDIX 3: THE RESULTS OF CRONBACH’S ALPHA IN THE PILOT TEST 149 APPENDIX 4: THE RESULTS OF CRONBACH’S ALPHA IN MAIN STUDY 155 APPENDIX 5: THE RESULT OF NORMALITY OF THE DATA SET 159 APPENDIX 6: THE RESULT OF ITEM LOADING AND FACTOR LOADING 161 APPENDIX 7: THE SCREE-PLOT OF EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS163 APPENDIX 8: THE RESULT OF TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED 164 APPENDIX 9: THE RESULT OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL ANALYSIS 167 APPENDIX 10: THE DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE STUDY’S SCALES 168 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1 An overview of the questionnaire .43 Table 3.2 The description of participants (piloting) 45 Table 3.3 The value of Cronbach's alpha recommended by George and Mallery (2003) 47 Table 3.4 The overall description of English major freshmen among seven classes .48 Table 3.5 The guideline to evaluate value of r by Cohen (1988) 50 Table 3.6 The cutoff values of CR, AVE, and MSV recommended by Hair et al (2016) 55 Table 3.7 The goodness-of-model-fit recommended by different authors 56 Table 4.1 The reliability of questionnaire (piloting) 60 Table 4.2 The result of Cronbach’s alpha in learner autonomy (LA) .61 Table 4.3 The result of Cronbach’s alpha in independent variables .62 Table 4.4 Correlation matrix among variables 64 Table 4.5 The result of multicollinearity testing 66 Table 4.6 The result of communalities of the dependent variable 67 Table 4.7 The result of KMO and Bartlett’s test of learner autonomy (LA) 68 Table 4.8 Total variance explained of learner autonomy (LA) 68 Table 4.9 Item loading and factor loading of learner autonomy (LA) 70 Table 4.10 The result of communalities in the first run of independent variables 71 Table 4.11 The result of KMO and Bartlett’s test .72 Table 4.12 The result of communalities in the second run of independent variables 74 Table 4.13 The result of KMO and Bartlett’s test of the independent variables 75 Table 4.14 Total variance of independent variables 75 Table 4.15 Item loading and factor loading of independent variables 77 Table 4.16 The goodness-of-fit indices in CFA 78 Table 4.17 Values of CR, AVE and MSV 80 Table 4.18 Values of Square root of AVE (values at the diagonal) and interconstruct correlation .80 Table 4.19 The value of goodness of fit indices in SEM 81 Table 4.20 The results of the relationship of five factors and learner autonomy 83 Table 4.21 Independent t-test results for learner autonomy and gender 93 ix Table 4.22 ANOVA results results of learner autonomy with regards to years of English studying 94 Table 4.23 Descriptive of learner autonomy with regard to years of studying English 94 Table 4.24 ANOVA result of participants’ locations of high schools and degree of learner autonomy 96 Table 4.25 The descriptive results of learner autonomy in regards to participants’ locations of high schools 96 x APPENDIX 4: THE RESULTS OF CRONBACH’S ALPHA IN MAIN STUDY Appendix 4a: The result of Cronbach’s alpha of dependent variable (LA) in the first run Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 913 Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean if Item Deleted 12 Scale Variance if Corrected Item Item-Total Deleted Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted LA1 38.14 38.744 677 905 LA2 38.20 37.320 732 902 LA3 38.17 38.134 700 903 LA4 38.20 37.760 724 902 LA5 38.18 37.811 728 902 LA6 38.17 37.796 687 904 LA7 38.16 38.808 636 906 LA8 38.18 37.311 747 901 LA9 38.18 37.741 730 902 LA10 38.14 38.279 748 902 LA11 38.12 37.759 773 900 LA12 37.98 41.411 187 935 155 Appendix 4b: The result of Cronbachs’ alpha of independent variables in the first run Teacher autonomy support Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 831 Scale Mean if Item Deleted Item-Total Statistics Corrected Scale Variance Item-Total if Item Deleted Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted TAS1 22.37 21.691 291 863 TAS2 22.08 21.842 688 803 TAS3 21.86 19.717 643 797 TAS4 21.85 19.381 646 796 TAS5 21.88 19.309 634 798 TAS6 22.56 19.727 636 798 TAS7 22.52 19.919 665 794 Appendix 4c: The result of Cronbachs’ alpha of independent variables in the second run for TAS Teacher autonomy support (TAS) Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 863 Item-Total Statistics Corrected Scale Variance Item-Total if Item Deleted Correlation 17.161 706 TAS2 Scale Mean if Item Deleted 18.60 TAS3 18.38 15.128 674 837 TAS4 18.37 14.913 664 839 TAS5 18.39 14.813 656 841 TAS6 19.08 15.326 639 844 TAS7 19.03 15.512 667 838 156 Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted 841 Peer autonomy support Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 892 PAS1 Scale Mean if Item Deleted 26.23 PAS2 PAS3 PAS4 PAS5 PAS6 PAS7 PAS8 Social media Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 866 Item-Total Statistics Scale Corrected Variance if Item-Total Item Deleted Correlation 27.274 674 Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted 877 25.75 26.800 673 877 25.79 26.635 660 879 25.74 27.716 659 879 25.49 26.070 666 879 25.39 26.179 689 876 25.74 26.555 672 878 25.84 28.732 688 879 Scale Mean if Item Deleted Item-Total Statistics Scale Corrected ItemVariance if Total Cronbach's Alpha Item Deleted Correlation if Item Deleted SM1 17.18 15.434 652 845 SM2 17.28 15.260 664 843 SM3 17.97 15.867 666 843 SM4 17.99 15.426 667 842 SM5 17.96 15.659 671 842 SM6 18.00 16.147 654 845 157 Sense of responsibility Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 919 Self-efficacy 11 Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items 904 10 Item-Total Statistics Scale Variance if Corrected Item- Cronbach's Alpha Item Deleted Total Correlation if Item Deleted 47.184 694 911 46.788 667 912 46.587 694 911 46.684 676 912 46.954 692 911 47.193 654 913 46.632 664 912 46.478 691 911 47.543 678 912 46.463 691 911 46.432 687 911 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR10 SR11 Scale Mean if Item Deleted 35.72 35.71 35.34 35.33 35.31 35.35 35.32 35.74 35.73 35.82 35.35 SE1 SE2 SE3 SE4 SE5 SE6 SE7 SE8 SE9 Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean Scale if Item Variance if Corrected Item- Cronbach's Alpha Deleted Item Deleted Total Correlation if Item Deleted 30.74 39.746 507 903 31.16 35.721 695 892 31.18 35.748 681 893 30.77 35.770 679 893 31.20 35.778 686 893 31.17 36.204 683 893 31.14 35.504 668 894 31.14 35.874 680 893 31.12 35.933 657 894 SE10 30.83 158 35.796 653 895 APPENDIX 5: THE RESULT OF NORMALITY OF THE DATA SET Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std Error Statistic Std Error PAS1 266 -.363 149 -.006 298 PAS2 PAS3 PAS4 PAS5 PAS6 PAS7 PAS8 TAS1 TAS2 TAS3 TAS4 TAS5 TAS6 TAS7 SM1 SM2 SM3 SM4 SM5 SM6 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR10 SR11 SE1 SE2 SE3 SE4 SE5 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 -.891 -.888 -.762 -.845 -.924 -.874 -.358 -.432 -.348 -.839 -.888 -.875 -.472 -.509 -1.054 -.972 -.331 -.431 -.225 -.097 -.120 -.275 -.748 -.765 -.712 -.826 -.939 -.502 -.127 -.128 -.951 -.526 -.364 -.278 -.885 -.357 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 531 336 199 -.018 098 304 -.137 -.898 197 009 -.129 -.194 -.358 -.009 436 437 -.069 -.308 -.377 -.169 -.483 -.371 497 441 456 671 864 -.034 -.053 -.301 746 609 -.166 -.119 671 067 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 159 Skewness Kurtosis SE6 SE7 SE8 SE9 SE10 LA12 LA1 LA2 LA3 LA4 LA5 LA6 LA7 LA8 LA9 LA10 LA11 Valid N (listwise) 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 -.216 -.293 -.351 -.322 -.785 -.779 -.541 -.391 -.789 -.268 -.441 -.528 -.611 -.586 -.261 -.278 -.423 266 160 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 149 -.075 -.227 030 -.282 380 060 494 042 668 -.209 360 338 549 099 117 164 -.256 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 298 APPENDIX 6: THE RESULT OF ITEM LOADING AND FACTOR LOADING Appendix 6a: Item loading and factor loading of independent variables (in the first run) Pattern Matrixa Factor SR10 796 SR8 778 SR9 770 SR11 746 SR4 731 SR2 722 SR5 716 SR7 691 SR3 685 SR1 675 SR6 625 TAS2 539 523 SE8 767 SE5 746 SE3 745 SE6 737 SE2 726 SE9 700 SE7 693 SE4 686 SE10 665 PAS7 777 PAS6 774 PAS4 730 PAS5 711 PAS3 671 PAS1 657 PAS2 650 SM4 763 SM5 750 SM3 749 SM6 723 161 SM2 695 SM1 685 PAS8 536 SE1 608 425 TAS5 788 TAS4 759 TAS3 672 TAS7 669 TAS6 657 Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization a Rotation converged in iterations Appendix 6b: Item loading and factor loading of independent variables (in the second run) Pattern Matrixa SR10 796 Factor PAS7 SR8 778 SR9 770 SR11 746 SR4 731 SR2 722 SR5 716 SR7 691 SR3 685 SR1 675 SR6 625 TAS2 539 523 SE8 767 SE5 746 SE3 745 SE6 737 SE2 726 SE9 700 SE7 693 SE4 686 SE10 665 Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring Rotation Method: Promax with Kaiser Normalization a Rotation converged in iterations 162 PAS6 PAS4 PAS5 PAS3 PAS1 PAS2 SM4 SM5 SM3 SM6 SM2 SM1 PAS8 SE1 TAS5 TAS4 TAS3 TAS7 TAS6 Factor 777 774 730 711 671 657 650 536 763 750 749 723 695 685 608 425 788 759 672 669 657 APPENDIX 7: THE SCREE-PLOT OF EXPLORATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS 163 APPENDIX 8: THE RESULT OF TOTAL VARIANCE EXPLAINED Appendix 8a: Total variance explained of independent variables in the first round Total Variance Explained Factor Total Initial Eigenvalues Cumulative % of Variance % Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Cumulativ Total % of Variance e% Rotation Sums of Squared Loadingsa Total 11.937 29.115 29.115 11.499 28.046 28.046 8.744 5.273 12.860 41.975 4.795 11.695 39.740 6.330 3.242 7.908 49.883 2.784 6.789 46.530 6.854 2.136 5.211 55.094 1.687 4.114 50.644 8.128 1.846 4.503 59.597 3.392 54.036 7.072 977 2.383 61.980 863 2.105 64.085 846 2.064 66.149 786 1.916 68.065 10 728 1.776 69.841 11 679 1.657 71.498 12 649 1.584 73.082 13 639 1.558 74.640 14 625 1.524 76.164 15 611 1.491 77.655 16 563 1.372 79.028 17 542 1.321 80.349 18 531 1.294 81.643 19 519 1.265 82.908 20 484 1.180 84.088 21 476 1.160 85.248 22 456 1.113 86.361 23 438 1.068 87.429 24 435 1.061 88.490 25 405 987 89.477 26 399 973 90.450 27 371 905 91.355 28 366 892 92.248 29 365 891 93.139 30 343 837 93.977 31 311 760 94.736 32 296 722 95.458 1.391 164 33 284 692 96.151 34 275 670 96.821 35 266 648 97.469 36 246 600 98.069 37 232 567 98.636 38 228 555 99.191 39 123 300 99.491 40 111 271 99.762 41 098 238 100.000 Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring a When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance Appendix 8b: Total variance explained of independent variables in the second round Total Variance Explained Factor Initial Eigenvalues % of Varian Cumulative Total ce % Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Rotation Sums of Squared Loadingsa Total 10.173 26.772 26.772 9.696 25.515 25.515 7.409 5.220 13.738 40.510 4.740 12.474 37.989 5.678 3.069 8.077 48.587 2.593 6.823 44.812 5.918 2.027 5.333 53.920 1.549 4.076 48.888 6.456 1.726 4.542 58.462 1.261 3.319 52.207 5.676 945 2.486 60.948 846 2.226 63.174 812 2.136 65.310 734 1.930 67.240 10 719 1.893 69.133 11 645 1.697 70.830 12 637 1.675 72.506 13 623 1.638 74.144 14 602 1.584 75.729 165 15 583 1.534 77.262 16 552 1.453 78.716 17 537 1.414 80.130 18 519 1.365 81.495 19 513 1.349 82.844 20 473 1.245 84.089 21 471 1.239 85.328 22 444 1.168 86.497 23 434 1.143 87.640 24 420 1.106 88.745 25 400 1.052 89.798 26 375 988 90.786 27 365 962 91.747 28 363 954 92.701 29 349 920 93.621 30 334 878 94.499 31 311 818 95.318 32 291 766 96.083 33 278 732 96.815 34 272 716 97.531 35 256 675 98.206 36 241 635 98.841 37 228 599 99.440 38 213 560 100.000 Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring a When factors are correlated, sums of squared loadings cannot be added to obtain a total variance 166 APPENDIX 9: THE RESULT OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL ANALYSIS SR11 SR8 SR10 SR9 SR2 SR4 SR1 SR5 SR3 SR7 SR6 SE8 SE5 SE3 SE6 SE4 SE2 SE9 SE7 SE10 PAS4 PAS6 PAS7 PAS5 PAS1 < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < - SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SR SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE SE PAS PAS PAS PAS PAS Estimate 1.000 986 1.003 884 958 974 938 954 998 979 929 1.000 1.020 1.025 948 1.010 1.005 988 1.045 1.008 1.000 1.168 1.116 1.203 1.052 S.E C.R p 088 088 080 088 088 081 084 087 090 085 11.218 11.385 11.113 10.926 11.106 11.540 11.415 11.516 10.931 10.883 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 090 091 086 090 089 091 095 093 11.366 11.313 11.088 11.160 11.243 10.833 11.036 10.816 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 108 105 112 096 10.789 10.590 10.700 10.964 *** *** *** *** PAS3 PAS2 LA1 LA3 LA6 LA10 LA5 LA2 LA4 LA8 LA7 LA11 LA9 SM4 SM3 SM2 SM5 SM6 SM1 TAS5 TAS4 TAS3 TAS7 TAS6 167 < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < < - PAS PAS LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA LA SM SM SM SM SM SM TAS TAS TAS TAS TAS Estimate 1.156 1.158 1.000 1.113 1.150 1.085 1.161 1.260 1.174 1.242 1.005 1.182 1.175 1.000 926 1.033 969 887 995 1.000 969 961 925 929 S.E .106 102 C.R 10.915 11.321 P *** *** 096 102 088 097 103 098 101 094 093 097 11.654 11.303 12.284 12.012 12.260 12.010 12.288 10.745 12.779 12.068 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 084 093 087 081 092 10.987 11.101 11.174 10.882 10.853 *** *** *** *** *** 093 089 085 090 10.443 10.775 10.937 10.382 *** *** *** *** APPENDIX 10: THE DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS OF THE STUDY’S SCALES N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic PAS1 266 3.19 934 PAS2 PAS3 PAS4 PAS5 PAS6 PAS7 PAS8 TAS1 TAS2 TAS3 TAS4 TAS5 TAS6 TAS7 SM1 SM2 SM3 SM4 SM5 SM6 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR10 SR11 SE1 SE2 SE3 SE4 SE5 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 3.68 3.64 3.68 3.94 4.03 3.68 3.59 3.48 3.77 3.99 4.00 3.98 3.29 3.34 4.09 4.00 3.31 3.29 3.32 3.27 3.35 3.36 3.73 3.74 3.76 3.73 3.76 3.33 3.35 3.25 3.72 3.75 3.33 3.32 3.73 3.29 995 1.031 894 1.095 1.055 1.027 738 1.274 692 1.044 1.090 1.116 1.052 990 1.051 1.066 966 1.036 993 934 866 934 924 935 890 909 954 937 847 939 947 637 922 935 934 926 168 SE6 SE7 SE8 SE9 SE10 LA12 LA1 LA2 LA3 LA4 LA5 LA6 LA7 LA8 LA9 LA10 LA11 Valid N (listwise) 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 266 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 266 169 3.32 3.35 3.35 3.38 3.67 3.64 3.48 3.42 3.45 3.42 3.44 3.45 3.46 3.44 3.44 3.48 3.50 882 977 921 941 961 1.074 702 803 747 764 756 796 732 790 761 691 723