The effects of questioning the author strategy on efl young learners reading comprehension

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

English reading skill is often viewed as a passive activity where readers quietly extract information from texts However, developing meaning from reading can be an active process through the application of various strategies Research highlights that reading strategies are crucial for enhancing English reading skills Grabe (2009) identifies ten processes employed by fluent readers, emphasizing the importance of strategy, interaction, flexibility, and evaluation O’Malley & Chamot (1990) categorize 24 reading strategies into three main types: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies.

The use of reading strategies in EFL classrooms in Vietnam remains limited, as highlighted by Minh & Nga (2020), who identified four common techniques: re-reading, skimming, utilizing prior knowledge, and skipping unfamiliar terms Ba & Huan (2017) focused on young learners, noting that effective strategies for this group include using context clues, making connections, questioning, and predicting These findings suggest a need for more systematic instruction in reading strategies to enhance students' skills and reading comprehension Without proper guidance in reading strategies from the early stages of learning English as a foreign language, students may face significant challenges in their future studies.

This study focuses on the reading skills of students at a language center, who are preparing for the Cambridge Flyer test Reading is essential for achieving satisfactory scores on this exam However, observations reveal that learners, particularly at SEAMEO Retrac, face challenges in reading comprehension due to a lack of exposure to diverse reading strategies This issue motivates the researcher to conduct the study.

Questioning the Author (QtA), introduced by Grabe & Stoller (2011) and Kamil et al (2011), is an effective reading strategy that enhances students' reading comprehension by helping them construct meaning from texts This approach combines invisible author-directed queries with discussions, enabling students to extract information from the text (Beck et al., 1997) Recent applications of QtA have shown positive results in improving reading comprehension among students (Foong et al., 2009; Baleghizadeh, 2011; Ayu, 2012; Sencibaugh & Sencibaugh, 2015) The favorable outcomes of QtA across various research subjects and contexts have encouraged further exploration of its implementation with young learners.

A study is essential to examine the impact of Questioning the Author (QtA) on young learners' reading comprehension (RC) and their perceptions of its use in the classroom, especially given the benefits of QtA and the absence of reading strategy training at SEAMEO Retrac Although the positive effects of QtA on reading comprehension have been widely researched, there is a significant gap in studies focusing on its application in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) to young learners.

Aims of the study

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the Questioning the Author (QtA) strategy in enhancing reading comprehension among young learners of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Additionally, it sought to gather insights into students' perceptions of QtA in English reading lessons, focusing on their preferences, opinions regarding the impact of the strategy on their reading comprehension, the challenges they encountered, and their suggestions for improving the implementation of QtA in future lessons.

Research questions

This study attempts to answer two following research questions:

1 What is the impact of QtA reading strategy on students’ reading comprehension in EFL classroom?

2 How do the students in experimental group perceive the use of this strategy?

Research hypotheses

Based on the research questions, the two hypotheses were formulated as follow:

1 QtA can help to improve young learners’ reading comprehension in EFL classroom.

2 Students have positive perception of the QtA application in their English reading lesson.

Significance of the study

The implementation of QtA at Seameo Retrac in Ho Chi Minh City stands out as particularly thorough, despite the prior use of various reading strategies from the Family and Friends series teacher's book Observations reveal that students predominantly engage in silent reading, seeking help primarily when encountering unfamiliar words After addressing textbook questions, their reading assignments are typically assessed and reviewed.

This pioneering study at Seameo Retrac holds local significance as it enhances students' English reading skills, particularly in reading comprehension Additionally, it contributes to the improvement of teachers' reading instruction methods, thereby positively influencing the overall learning environment.

This study aims to determine whether educators should radically transform their reading instruction and syllabuses by integrating Questioning the Author (QtA) in young learners' EFL classrooms, potentially enhancing students' long-term benefits from this strategy Additionally, the findings will raise awareness among teachers and students about the importance of collaboration in reading activities Despite teachers' efforts to diversify reading strategy instruction to improve reading comprehension (RC), QtA has received insufficient attention, resulting in a lack of its application in most EFL reading lessons for young learners This gap may be addressed as teachers become more convinced of the significance and effectiveness of QtA.

Scope of the study

This study examines the implementation of Questioning the Author (QtA) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading lessons, specifically assessing its effectiveness in reading comprehension (RC) Participants took a test after QtA lessons and completed a questionnaire to share their perspectives on the approach However, the study does not aim to evaluate the overall effectiveness of QtA beyond this context.

Despite being a key component of QtA, the speaking ability aspect remains underexplored Additionally, students' perspectives have not been adequately assessed through interviews or observations Considering potential variations in learning outcomes and curricula, the findings and recommendations of this study can be effectively applied to different educational contexts.

Outline of the thesis

This chapter outlines the study's background, research aims, and objectives Chapter 2 reviews relevant literature on teaching reading skills and reading comprehension (RC) for young learners, establishing a conceptual framework that links key components of the study Chapter 3 details the methodology, including research design, data collection methods, and analysis procedures Chapter 4 presents the study's findings, supported by scientific data, while Chapter 5 discusses these results in relation to the theoretical framework and previous research The final chapter summarizes the study and highlights the implications of integrating Questioning the Author (QtA) in teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading skills to young learners, along with recommendations for future research.

Recent discussions among linguistic researchers have centered on the potential of the Questioning the Author (QtA) strategy to enhance reading comprehension (RC) and positively influence students' perceptions of reading This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the QtA strategy in improving RC, with the hope of fostering a more favorable attitude towards reading among students To achieve this, the literature review is structured into two main sections: the first part outlines key theoretical concepts, while the second part provides a comprehensive overview of relevant scientific studies related to QtA and RC.

This chapter lays the theoretical foundation for the research by exploring the concept of reading comprehension (RC) and its essential elements, particularly in young learners It highlights the significance of reading strategies in enhancing RC, especially in the context of low English proficiency among ESL children in Vietnam The chapter further elaborates on the role of strategies in developing RC, with a focus on Questioning-the-Author (QtA) as a teaching method, detailing its components and specific features It reviews prior research on learners' practices and perceptions regarding the effectiveness of QtA, as well as empirical studies examining its impact on RC Lastly, the chapter identifies gaps in the existing literature and establishes the conceptual framework for the current study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

A brief overview of reading skills

As educated individuals, we engage with a diverse array of reading materials, from books and emails to magazines and advertisements, both intentionally and by chance Reading involves interpreting printed letters, words, symbols, and signs to understand their meanings, rather than simply vocalizing or translating them.

However, considering reading as one aspect of language and a subject of investigation, linguists and pedagogical researchers have defined reading in more detailed and complicated ways.

Reading is a strategic process that requires effort from the reader to effectively engage with the text This involves anticipating information, selecting key details, organizing thoughts, and mentally summarizing content while continuously monitoring comprehension.

Reading is a dynamic process where individuals blend the text with their existing knowledge to create meaning, as noted by Anderson (2003) He emphasizes that the primary goal of reading is comprehension, and strategic reading involves utilizing various techniques to meet specific reading objectives Effective readers possess the skills to navigate challenges, demonstrating reading fluency, which allows them to read comfortably while grasping the content Importantly, meaning is co-created; neither the reader nor the text solely dictates interpretation, as the reader's prior knowledge plays a crucial role in understanding the material.

Figure 2.1 The definition of Reading (Anderson, 2003)

Reading is a complex cognitive process that involves multiple mental activities According to Grabe, fluent reading is characterized by being rapid, purposeful, interactive, and flexible, while also developing over time As readers engage with a text, they simultaneously anticipate information, select and organize key points, summarize mentally, monitor their understanding, and adjust their comprehension strategies to align with their goals This intricate interplay highlights the complexity of reading, as shifts in a reader’s focus or interest can disrupt comprehension and require adjustments in reading strategies Proficient readers exhibit the flexibility to adapt their practices and objectives effectively.

Table 2.1 Processes that define reading (Grabe, 2009, p.14)

Grabe's perspective on the intricacies of reading aligns with Rellet's (1981) findings, which identify several key sub-skills essential for effective reading These include recognizing written language, comprehending unfamiliar vocabulary, extracting explicitly stated information, and enhancing reading comprehension Additionally, understanding the connections between sentences and the interplay of sections within a passage through lexical cohesion devices are crucial skills highlighted by Rellet (1981).

Pressley (2000) describes the development of reading comprehension (RC) as a two-stage process, beginning with "lower processes" focused on lexical skills such as word recognition, fluency, and vocabulary The second stage emphasizes higher-order thinking, which involves connecting prior knowledge to written text and actively selecting and managing strategies for effective learning and retention.

Harmer (2001) identifies two key processes in receptive skills, specifically in reading: bottom-up and top-down processing This distinction can be likened to the perspective of standing atop a hill for a broad overview versus navigating through a forest, where one recognizes ideas by concentrating on individual elements.

Top-down processing enables learners to grasp the overall meaning of a text by utilizing their prior knowledge, which helps them form reasonable expectations about the content In contrast, bottom-up processing involves readers concentrating on individual words and phrases, gradually combining these elements to construct a complete understanding of the text (Harmer, 2001, p.201).

Woolley (2011) shared the same ideas with Harmer in the two processing of reading.

The construction of a mental model of text concepts involves both top-down and bottom-up processes, creating a dynamic interaction that integrates textual data with prior knowledge Effective reading skills emerge from this collaboration, where specific details inform broader interpretations and vice versa A comprehensive understanding of a text requires a solid grasp of its vocabulary through bottom-up processing, aligning with Anderson's (1999) interactive model Despite varying definitions and complexities of reading, reading comprehension (RC) remains a fundamental aspect and criterion of reading (Snow, 2002; Grabe, 2009; Harmer, 2001; Anderson, 1999).

Reading comprehension (RC) is a crucial focus in education, serving as both a prerequisite for effective reading and a primary objective for students While the term is widely recognized, providing a precise definition can be complex due to varying interpretations across different educational contexts Educators often view RC as a skill that students must develop throughout their schooling, yet its meaning can differ based on specific professional requirements Consequently, the lack of a universally accepted definition arises from diverse perspectives among researchers regarding text comprehension and its influencing factors.

Understanding reading comprehension (RC) is challenging due to its ambiguous boundaries According to Perfetti (1995), RC can be defined as thinking that is guided by written text More broadly, RC involves the simultaneous processes of deriving and generating meaning through engagement with written language This process encompasses three key elements: the reader, the text, and the purpose behind reading, as outlined by the Rand Reading Study Group (2002).

Reading comprehension (RC) is an intentional process that involves building understanding through the interaction between the reader and the text It encompasses the reciprocal flow of thoughts, where the reader develops insights from the written material This activity allows readers to extract and integrate information from the text, combining it with their existing knowledge Ultimately, RC is the process of forming meaning by merging the content and messages of the text with the reader's prior knowledge and skills.

In exploring reading comprehension (RC), it is crucial to highlight key elements such as accurate print decoding, the creation of meaning through inferences and background knowledge, and the active engagement of the reader.

Reading comprehension (RC) fundamentally consists of three key components: the text, the reader, and the reading process Despite diverse methodologies and academic interpretations, these elements remain central to understanding how reading comprehension functions.

Snow published one of the most in-depth and thorough research on the components of

RC (Snow, 2002) Snow listed and explained the interrelationships between them to develop RC.

Comprehension involves three key components: the reader, the text, and the activity of understanding This perspective is supported by the research of Wallace (2003) and Pardo (2004).

Figure 2.2 Figure of comprehension (Perdo, 2004)

Teaching English reading comprehension

Successful readers achieve comprehension by employing various strategies, often referred to as comprehension strategies, which help them connect the text's meaning to their existing knowledge They maintain awareness of their understanding process and are able to identify and address any issues that arise when comprehension begins to falter (Lehr & Osborne, 2006).

A RC strategy is defined by Graesser as “a cognitive or behavioral action that is enacted under particular contextual conditions, with the goal of improving some aspect of comprehension.” (Graesser, 2007, p.6).

Comprehension strategies are intentional methods that readers utilize to understand text and achieve their reading goals (Roit, 2005) These strategies help readers construct meaning, retain key concepts, and integrate new information with their existing knowledge (Afflerbach et al., 2008).

RC strategies leverage linguistic elements, such as words and sentence structures, to enhance the reader's foundational understanding Effective readers actively seek comprehension by employing diverse strategies and possessing significant metacognitive awareness to engage with texts meaningfully (Pressley, 2006).

The definitions highlight key characteristics of language reading strategies that align with our objectives, emphasizing the learner's purposeful and conscious engagement in reading processes.

In general, reading strategies are described in this paper as methods that teachers demonstrate to students in order to explore a certain text and give meaning of comprehension.

Classification remains a contentious topic among professionals, with various strategies developed over recent decades showing notable similarities Research by Grabe (2009), Miller (2002), and Armbruster, Lehr, Osborn & Adler (2001) highlights widely accepted classifications that exhibit partial overlaps.

By Grabe (2009) By Miller (2002) By Armbruster, Lehr,

2 Forming questions questioning generating questions,

3 Monitoring comprehension monitoring monitoring comprehension

5 Using visual graphics and graphic organizers visualizing graphic and semantic organizers

6 Using text-structure awareness predicting recognizing story structure

7 Answering questions and elaborative interrogation connecting answering questions

Table 2.3 highlights several widely agreed-upon major reading comprehension (RC) strategies, including summarizing, visualizing, monitoring, and questioning, as clarified by Adler (2001) and Roit (2010).

Summarizing enables students to pinpoint essential information in a text and articulate it in their own words Effective summarization strategies help learners recognize key concepts, link main ideas, eliminate unnecessary details, and retain the material.

Visualizing ideas and their interactions through diagrams like maps, webs, and graphs enhances comprehension and organization This strategy helps readers focus on key concepts and their relationships, leading to clearer and more structured text summaries.

Students can employ the comprehension monitoring strategy to enhance their understanding of the material, identify areas of confusion, and implement effective techniques to address comprehension challenges Early instruction in this strategy can significantly boost younger students' ability to track their understanding.

The questioning strategy enhances learners' question-answering abilities by encouraging them to discern the source of their knowledge when responding to text-based inquiries Students are tasked with determining whether their answers stem from explicit text, implicit information, or their own prior knowledge.

The four strategies mentioned are commonly employed in reading classes across various levels and contexts In guiding and assessing students' reading comprehension, the practice of questioning and answering plays a crucial role.

To enhance understanding of a text, it is essential to explore questions regarding character relationships, environmental influences on the plot, and the implications of key events Additionally, inquiries can focus on clarifying the text or delving deeper into its significance By examining various question types, readers can better grasp the context and purpose of their inquiries (Roit, 2010).

Asking questions about the content actively engages readers and enhances their understanding (Harvey and Goudvis, 2000) This process of questioning and seeking answers enables readers to verify their comprehension and find textual evidence to support their responses It helps clarify ambiguities, encourages deeper reading, and illustrates the reader's interaction with the text (Miller, 2002) This study will further explore one specific questioning strategy in detail.

RC of student-Questioning the Author strategy.

2.2.2 Teaching RC strategies in reading class

Understanding occurs through the interaction between a reader and a text within a sociocultural context, highlighting the importance of this transaction in the learning process The teacher plays a vital role in facilitating comprehension by guiding students to review and improve their work, utilizing various strategies, and offering explicit instruction on effective comprehension techniques.

Teachers should provide clear and concise explanations of comprehension strategies to foster effective reading skills (Duffy, 2002; Grabe, 2009) Demonstrating these strategies and allowing students to practice them is essential, as contextual factors enhance their ability to apply these strategies independently in various situations Research indicates that comprehension strategies should be taught in conjunction with content, as meaningful context aids in learning (Charmot & O’Malley, 1994) Additionally, teachers guide students in understanding when and how to use these strategies, emphasizing their impact Assigning challenging texts is crucial; if students only engage with easily readable materials, they may lack motivation to develop and apply these strategies Exposure to difficult literature encourages the use of comprehension strategies (Kucer, 2001).

Questioning-the-Author reading strategy

QtA, introduced in a scientific journal in 1996 and later in a book in 1997, is a text-based instructional approach aimed at enhancing text comprehension This method utilizes queries and discussions to promote a deeper understanding of the material (Beck & McKeown, 1997).

Questioning the Author (QtA) is a comprehension strategy that emphasizes students' active engagement with the text and their efforts to understand its concepts (Beck & McKeown, 2006) The effectiveness of this method is supported by four key factors.

1 Considering the book as a fallible product written by fallible authors,

2 Connecting with the text through questions targeted at understanding it

4 Encouraging student involvement in meaning formation

According to Beck et al (1997), QtA (Questioning the Author) is a text-based instructional approach rooted in psychology, aimed at enhancing students' comprehension This method involves interrupting the reading process with targeted queries and teacher-led discussions, allowing students to integrate and expand their understanding of the text Ultimately, QtA serves as an interactive activity that deepens students' engagement and comprehension of the material.

QtA, or Questioning the Author, is a teaching strategy that engages students in a collaborative learning process During a reading session, the teacher strategically pauses to pose questions that encourage students to reflect on the text's content This prompts students to share their thoughts, which can be expanded, refined, or contested by their peers and the teacher Ultimately, this interaction fosters a deeper understanding of the material through collective exploration of ideas.

Figure 2.4 QtA strategy in detail (Beck et.al, 1997)

Introduced in 1996, QtA is a modern reading strategy that stands out due to its foundations in psychological scaffolding and the acknowledgment of the author's fallibility These two elements significantly differentiate QtA from traditional reading techniques, highlighting its unique approach to enhancing comprehension and engagement.

The principle of building understanding is essential to QtA, as constructivists argue that learners must actively engage with information to create meaning (Prichard, 2010) Learning cannot occur merely by receiving information; comprehension requires effort from the reader to interact with the text (Anderson, 1999) Reading is a complex process where readers synthesize information from various sources to grasp the text's message, continuously updating their understanding as they encounter new information.

With a view to guiding and improving learners’ active construction of meaning, Beck et al (1997) and Beck & McKeown (2002) related the activity element of RC to the term

Scaffolding, a concept introduced by Wood et al (1976), refers to a supportive process that empowers children or novices to accomplish tasks or reach goals that they could not achieve independently.

Scaffolding, closely linked to Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), refers to a structured and supportive interaction between an adult and a child aimed at helping the child achieve specific goals This technique involves minimizing the level of autonomy in task execution, allowing young learners to concentrate on mastering complex skills (Bruner, 1978).

Teachers should focus on scaffolding, a key element that supports learners in navigating the zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding involves providing complementary activities that help students progress through their learning journey Beck et al (1997) utilized the principles of scaffolding to create the QtA framework, aimed at enhancing students' reading comprehension (RC) The discussion component of QtA serves as the main strategy for scaffolding, enabling students to construct meaning from the text effectively.

In the context of QtA, the author's subtle presence is acknowledged, highlighting their indirect influence on reading comprehension While previous studies (Wallace, 2003; Raphael & Au, 2005; Claassen, 2012) have noted the author's role, it is within QtA that the author's fallibility is particularly emphasized.

Beck & McKeown (2002) emphasize the author’s existence, especially regarding the fallibility as follows.

Authors can be fallible, and it's crucial to help students recognize this to make texts less intimidating By understanding that an author's communication may not always be clear, students can approach reading as an engaging challenge rather than a daunting task Encourage them to go beyond viewing texts as mere representations of someone's ideas, fostering a more dynamic and thoughtful engagement with the material.

The QtA method uniquely engages with the concept of the 'invisible author' by prompting inquiries into the author's intentions and potential errors, as well as enhancing text comprehension and monitoring (Raphael & Au, 2005) This approach acknowledges the author as both imperfect and intentional, encouraging readers to actively question and interact with the text (Underwood and Pearson, 2004).

2.3.3 The main steps of QtA in reading classroom

The Question the Author strategy has three main steps: planning the implementation,creating queries, and developing discussions (Beck, et al., 1997).

Figure 2.5 Three main steps in QtA (Beck & McKeown, 2002)

When preparing for Questioning the Author (QtA), teachers should focus on three key factors: first, they must define the core concepts that students need to grasp while anticipating potential challenges within the text; second, it is essential to segment the text to concentrate on critical material that fosters understanding; and third, educators should craft questions that enhance comprehension and encourage deeper engagement with the content.

When segmenting a text for discussion, it's essential to balance the amount of content read to ensure meaningful engagement Critical sentences warrant special attention, as they can spark deeper conversation Reading too little may hinder understanding and lead to repetitive dialogue, while excessive text filled with complex ideas can overwhelm and confuse the reader Finding the right stopping point is key to fostering insightful discussions.

Queries play a vital role in the QtA framework by aiding the development of understanding through their connection to text and discussion They serve as essential guidance for learners, facilitating their comprehension The three main types of queries include initiating, follow-up, and narrative inquiries Each type of query is designed to support discussion, engage students with specific content, and focus their attention on key aspects of the material.

Related study on the implementation of QtA

Recently, the QtA method has garnered significant interest from researchers across various contexts Investigations have focused on the perspectives of both teachers and students regarding the application of QtA, highlighting its effectiveness as a key area of discussion Since the early 21st century, there has been a notable increase in research on QtA in both Asia and Western Europe.

Recent studies, including those by Fibriana (2017), Baleghizadeh (2011), and Reichenberg (2014), have demonstrated that Questioning the Author (QtA) effectively enhances reading comprehension (RC) across diverse settings and age groups These findings consistently support the notion that QtA can significantly aid participants in improving their reading skills.

In a pre-experimental study by Fibriana (2017), the effectiveness of the Questioning the Author (QtA) strategy for teaching reading comprehension (RC) of recount texts was evaluated among 128 eighth-grade students across four classes Utilizing purposive sampling, the study revealed that the implementation of the QtA technique significantly improved students' comprehension skills and fostered greater enthusiasm and awareness in reading The participants achieved a notable score of 5.7, indicating that the QtA strategy greatly enhanced their reading abilities in recount texts.

Baleghizadeh (2011) investigated the effect of student-generated questions on the reading comprehension (RC) of 98 adult EFL students, utilizing three experimental groups and one control group The first experimental group generated questions related to two unmodified reading passages and discussed them with a classmate before answering comprehension questions The second group, trained in the Questioning the Author (QtA) technique, also created questions and engaged in partner discussions The third group worked with simplified texts and discussed the same questions without generating any The control group read the unmodified texts and answered comprehension questions independently Results indicated that all experimental groups outperformed the control group, with the QtA-trained participants achieving significantly higher reading scores, highlighting the importance of teaching students to generate their own comprehension questions.

A qualitative study by Reichenberg (2014) examined the implementation of the Questioning the Author (QtA) program in a Scandinavian educational setting, focusing on small group discussions of six individuals The analysis of recorded sessions revealed that developing QtA requires patience and time, with initial progress noted in the first year, although teachers faced challenges in maintaining focus and constructivity By the second and third years, these obstacles had largely diminished Certain discussion techniques, such as turning back, recapping, revoicing, and annotating, were executed more effectively than others The teachers' strategies not only enhanced students' understanding but also provided personalized feedback and opportunities for reflection.

Sencibaugh & Sencibaugh (2015) implemented the Questioning the Author (QtA) strategy in a study involving a small group of six eighth-grade students to evaluate its effectiveness in enhancing reading comprehension The research focused on assessing whether structured explicit instruction in QtA could improve the students' ability to comprehend narrative texts Statistical analysis of pre- and posttest data revealed significant improvements in the reading comprehension rates of all participants, demonstrating that the QtA strategy positively influenced their reading performance.

Researchers have increasingly focused on the perspectives of students and teachers involved in the QtA application process Various contexts have been explored to analyze differing views and opinions regarding this approach Notable contributions to this discourse include studies by Png (2016) and Foong et al (2009).

In a study by Png (2016), primary school teachers in Singapore implemented the QtA teaching method, revealing significant improvements in their reflective practices and teaching approaches Interviews and reflective documentation indicated that teachers experienced enhanced interactions with their multilingual students, fostering deeper understanding and engagement with lesson content The findings suggest that QtA is effective in Eastern educational contexts, highlighting the potential for teachers' mindsets to evolve through sustained practice and guidance from experienced mentors.

Foong et al (2009) investigated the effectiveness of the "Questioning-the-Author" (QtA) technique in enhancing ESL comprehension skills among primary grade 4 students in Singapore Their study involved integrating QtA into reading comprehension (RC) classes, where students answered both traditional RC questions and specific QtA-style inquiries To evaluate student comprehension, lesson handouts were used, alongside a survey to gauge perceptions of question difficulty and interest levels Traditional comprehension exercises were administered to all students post-lesson, while audio and video recordings ensured adherence to the instructional methods in both experimental and control groups Results showed that nearly 70% of students found QtA questions challenging, yet a greater proportion succeeded in this section compared to the traditional RC questions, where only 36% achieved a passing score despite perceiving them as easier.

Table 2.5 Summary of recent studies related to QtA

Year Research Research aims Participant Research design

Singapore the differences between traditional comprehension questions and QtA questions.

134 students in 4th grade + 2 teachers

Iran the effect of student-generated questions on RC of EFL students trained in QtA

3 2012 Ayu, Indonesia the effect of QtA in teaching

50 students in junor high school

Sweden how teachers adapted QtA discussion moves in small

36 students in 4th grade + 6 teachers

Qualitative video- recorded groups lessons

USA the effects of QtA in the RC in middle school

6 2015 Resi, Indonesia the effect of QtA in RC of narrative texts

7 2016 Png, Singapore the views of the teachers who had QtA lessons over 2 years

Indonesia the effect of QtA in RC of recount text

9 2017 Elita, Indonesia the effect of QtA in RC of analytical exposiroty text

64 students in 11th grade test + questionnaire pretest + posttest

10 2019 Agustiawan et al, Indonesia the effect of QtA in RC and students’ response to the use of QtA

80 students in 8th grade test + questionnaire test + questionnaire

Research indicates that various published studies have significantly enhanced reading instruction Notably, Questioning the Author (QtA), which integrates questioning and discussion, stands out as a crucial strategy for effective reading Following the implementation of QtA, students demonstrated a marked improvement in their reading comprehension skills, as evidenced by multiple studies (Foong et al., 2009; Baleghizadeh, 2011; Reichenberg, 2014; Fibrianna).

In 2017, a reading strategy was introduced that, despite potential challenges during lessons, garnered positive feedback from both teachers and students Participants expressed a favorable attitude towards its implementation, highlighting its effectiveness in enhancing the learning experience.

While previous studies highlight the potential benefits of language education, significant gaps exist between theoretical findings and practical application Most research, with notable exceptions like Foong (2009) and Reichenberg (2014), has focused on secondary and university students, leaving younger learners underexplored This oversight is critical, as age can significantly impact language acquisition Furthermore, the studies primarily aimed to assess the overall effects of Questioning the Author (QtA) on reading comprehension (RC), often neglecting the influence of this strategy on specific comprehension types, such as informational and grammatical understanding Additionally, the lack of clarity regarding lesson preparation and the selection of questions by teachers indicates a need for further investigation in these areas.

Previous studies indicate that there are both advantages and disadvantages associated with QtA, highlighting its role as a significant factor in influencing English reading comprehension (RC) This underscores the importance of incorporating this reading strategy in educational contexts.

This study closely aligns with Foong's research (2009) in its methodology, objectives, and subjects, utilizing tests and questionnaires to assess the impact of Questioning the Author (QtA) on reading comprehension (RC) and perceptions among young students, specifically targeting 4th graders with an average age of 10.

The primary distinction between the two studies lies in their contexts; Foong's research took place in Singapore, while the other study was conducted in Vietnam Notably, Singapore recognizes English as one of its four official languages, which include Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil Consequently, students in Singapore start learning English as a second language from the pre-primary school age of 6 to 9 years old, unlike their counterparts in Vietnam.

English is considered as a foreign language language, and children have learned English compulsorily at school from 3rd grade since 2018.

Conceptual framework

The theoretical foundations and empirical evidence presented have equipped the researcher with a solid understanding of the pertinent literature, establishing a strong basis for the conceptual framework of this study.

The study's conceptual framework, informed by a review of existing literature on the issue of RC, will guide the entire research process and illustrate the connections between the previously discussed concepts.

This study utilizes a conceptual framework featuring two key variables: RC, which acts as the dependent variable, and QtA, identified as the independent variable.

The article discusses the segmentation and analysis of text in Reading Comprehension (RC) through specific queries, highlighting the author's presence and fallibility in the classroom It emphasizes the use of Questioning the Author (QtA) discussions as a reading activity, where students collaborate under teacher guidance to construct meaning Ultimately, this conceptual framework is crucial as it provides direction for the study and aids in the development of research tools.

Chapter summary

This chapter has explored the theoretical concepts and empirical studies relevant to the current investigation, including definitions of reading skills, reading comprehension (RC), and RC strategies A comprehensive overview of the Questioning the Author (QtA) technique was also provided Additionally, prior studies were categorized, examined, and analyzed to assess the relationship between QtA and RC The insights gained from this chapter strengthen the theoretical framework of the current study, with the research methodology to be detailed in the subsequent chapter.

METHODOLOGY

Research questions

This study aims at answering two research questions:

1 Is there any significant difference between the experimental group that received the treatment of Questioning the Author strategy and the comparison group in term of reading comprehension?

2 What are students’ perspectives on the use of Questioning the Author in the EFL reading class?

Research design

This study utilized a quantitative design to assess the effectiveness of Questioning the Author (QtA) in enhancing reading skills and comprehension among young learners in an EFL classroom at Seameo Retrac Data collection involved two research instruments: a test and a student questionnaire The methodology features are outlined in Table 3.1, with further details provided in the subsequent paragraphs.

The study employs a quantitative method to investigate the impact of QtA on students' reading comprehension This approach is effective for assessing whether specific educational practices significantly influence individual outcomes, as highlighted by Cresswell (2005).

“researchers intentionally manipulating one or more variables (independent variables) to determine the effect on another variable (dependent variable)” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p.137).

This research utilized two quantitative research designs: quasi-experimental and descriptive survey research A quasi-experimental approach was employed to assess the effects of the QtA strategy on reading comprehension, given the impracticality of randomizing participants The study involved two classes, implementing a two-group pretest-posttest design, which compares outcome measures before and after an intervention between non-randomly selected groups (Allen, 2017) For the second research question, a descriptive survey design was adopted to explore students' perceptions of QtA, as this method is effective for gathering opinions and insights (McMillan & Schumacher, 2014).

Table 3.1 Methodology of the study

Research design  Quasi-experimental design

 Descriptive survey research design Research site  Selected class of young students at SEAMEO Retrac, Ho Chi

 Around 32 students Methods of data  Documents (32 pretests and 32 posttests by the students)

Research site

This research was conducted at SEAMEO RETRAC, the Regional Training Center of the South East Asian Ministers of Education Organization (District 1, Ho Chi Minh City,

Established in 1996, the center in Vietnam focuses on enhancing capital allocation methods and English language learning strategies Its Kiddy program caters to children aged 7 to 10, aiming to boost their foundational English skills in an engaging environment The selection of this organization was based on both objective criteria and subjective factors, such as the researcher's accessibility and the center's established reputation and reliability.

Participants

The study initially included 60 students, but the Covid-19 pandemic caused multiple interruptions at the foreign language center, the research site Ultimately, only about 32 students, primarily in the same age group, were able to complete the study.

The study involved 10 participants, all of whom were K-4 students taught by the researcher at the time To facilitate the research, the subjects were evenly divided, with half placed in the experimental group and the other half in the control group.

The students' proficiency levels primarily fall at A2 according to the CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference for Languages), as determined by the placement test conducted by the language center at the course's start However, the pretest results indicate variability in their proficiency levels.

Table 3.4.1 provides an overview of the Experimental Group members and their proficiency test scores, categorizing their competency into four grades: fair, good, very good, and exceptional based on pretest results The distribution of scores reveals that one student (6%) scored below average, four students (25%) achieved a good rating, six students (37%) were rated very good, and five students (31%) excelled Despite being of the same age and placed in the same class through the language center’s placement test, the students exhibited a diverse range of English backgrounds and proficiency levels, as illustrated in the table.

Table 3.4.1 presents the general data from the Comparison Group, detailing their ages and pretest results The students' competencies were classified into four categories: fair, good, very good, and exceptional Notably, none of the students scored below five, with 31% achieving a good score, 44% scoring very good, and 25% exceeding eight The English backgrounds of the students varied significantly, indicating diverse levels of English proficiency within the group.

Research instruments

This study aims to evaluate the impact of Questioning the Author (QtA) on students' reading comprehension and their perceptions of its application in teaching English reading skills To achieve these objectives, a pretest-posttest design and a student questionnaire are utilized in the research.

The pretest and posttest utilized in this study are sourced from the book "Cambridge English Flyers: Three Practice Tests for Cambridge English: Flyers (YLE Flyers)." The Flyer test is an integral component of the Cambridge English Qualifications Specifically, the assessments focus on the Writing and Reading sections, parts 3 and 5, where participants engage with lengthy texts to evaluate their comprehension of detailed information and main ideas.

The assessment comprises two passages, each ranging from 100 to 130 words In the initial section, students read the passage and utilize the provided words to complete five blanks, along with selecting the appropriate main idea of the text The subsequent passage includes seven fill-in-the-blank questions.

Table 3.4 Description of pretest and posttest

Passage Length Items Task types Task focus

1 150-160 words 1→5 Fill in the blank Reading for details

The Flyer test was selected for this study due to its global recognition, with Cambridge Assessment English providing approximately 2,800 exam centers in 130 countries and issuing 5.5 million credentials annually, ensuring its reliability Additionally, the test is characterized by features that define an excellent assessment tool, having undergone multiple revisions by the publisher to confirm its accuracy Importantly, the Flyer test aligns well with the participants' academic performance levels, making it a suitable choice for this research.

The second tool in this study is the questionnaire It was utilized to research question

The study examines students' perceptions of Questioning the Author (QtA) through a questionnaire administered to 16 participants in the experimental group after the treatment concluded The questionnaire, originally written in English and translated into Vietnamese, gathered information on students' personal details, their general preferences regarding QtA and its components—queries and discussions—as well as its impact on their reading comprehension Additionally, it addressed the challenges faced by students and their suggestions for enhancing the implementation of QtA in future lessons.

The study utilized a questionnaire instead of interviews due to the age-appropriateness of the participants (Brown, 2001; Dửrnyei, 2003; Creswell, 2012) and the convenience it offers researchers in focusing on students' general perceptions Perception-based survey questions aim to explore how individuals interpret and create meaning from their surroundings, measuring the impact of these perceptions on personal beliefs and actions (Lavrakas, 2008) Given the large number of student participants, time constraints, and disruptions caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, conducting interviews was not a feasible option for the researcher.

There are 2 mains parts in this questionnaire Part A is the personal information section, which includes 3 items solely looking for the general data from the respondents Part

The questionnaire included eight items regarding the use of Questioning the Author (QtA) in English reading classes, reflecting respondents' perspectives The first two items focused on students' opinions about QtA queries, while the next two assessed their perceptions of discussions and participation during QtA lessons Item five gathered insights into the impact of QtA on students' reading comprehension, and item six explored their preference for this reading strategy The final two items aimed to identify students' challenges and gather suggestions for more effective QtA implementation The questionnaire utilized both open-ended and 5-point Likert scale questions to enhance data collection for analysis.

Table 3.5 A brief summary of questionnaire

Categories Sub-categories Items Sub-items

The influence of QtA on reading comprehension 5 5.1→5.8

The survey was conducted using both Vietnamese and English, but participants received only the Vietnamese version to ensure comprehensive responses Prior to distribution, the translation content was thoroughly reviewed by two college teachers from the language center to guarantee semantic accuracy in both language versions.

3.5.2.1 The content of the questionnaire on queries of QtA

The questionnaire assessing students' perceptions of Queries in QtA was primarily informed by Foong et al (2009), who developed a comprehensive instrument for this purpose Their findings were shared at the ERAS Conference in Singapore on November 19-20, 2009, affirming the tool's reliability and relevance for young learners The questionnaire encompasses five interconnected components: level of comprehension, difficulty, interest, and familiarity with queries To align with the study's objectives, items related to difficulty and interest from Foong's work were incorporated, while additional questions on comprehension and familiarity were introduced by the researcher, reflecting the challenges identified in Foong's application of QtA It was noted that queries require critical and independent thinking, which primary school participants were largely unaccustomed to.

In Foong's study, the original dichotomous question was transformed into a 5-point Likert scale to gather more nuanced data from students Participants rated their responses from (1) Totally agree to (5) Totally disagree, enabling the researcher to gain a comprehensive understanding of their opinions (Rea & Parker, 2014; Creswell, 2012).

Table 3.6 Questionnaire items about queries

Items Sub-items Content Sources Type of question

1 1 Level of understanding Self-designed Ratio scale

2.1 Preference of queries Self-designed

2.5 Other opinion Self-designed Open-ended question

3.5.2.2 The content of the questionnaire on discussion of QtA

The study included two primary items, with item number 3 featuring seven sub-items and item number 4 consisting of six sub-items Item 3 aimed to gather students' overall opinions on the discussion component of QtA, with sub-items 3.1 to 3.5 focusing on students' perceptions of the discussion Meanwhile, sub-items 4.1 to 4.5 explored students' participation levels during these discussions Additionally, sub-items 3.6 and 4.6 provided open-ended questions, allowing students to share further insights and ideas.

The findings from Png (2016) indicated that after an 8-month treatment of QtA in the classroom, teacher-participants observed significant changes in the teaching and learning process They reported that class discussions became more dynamic and engaging, leading to increased student participation and a deeper understanding of the material Consequently, the researcher aimed to explore this aspect further in the current study.

The QtA discussion has been noted as lengthy and challenging for students, especially those with lower English proficiency (Fibriana, 2017) Sub-items 3.3 and 3.5 were developed in response to the previously mentioned drawbacks The following sub-items in section 3 utilize a 5-point Likert scale for responses, ranging from (1) entirely agree to (5) totally disagree, except for sub-item 3.7, which is an open-ended question.

The researcher adapted Davis's (2009) concept to assess student participation, focusing on verbal engagement as a key indicator Active discussions are demonstrated through behaviors such as asking questions, sharing opinions, and responding to peers or instructors To enhance understanding of student engagement during this critical aspect of Questioning and Answering (QtA), additional sub-items were introduced Most items in this section utilize a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from "Always" to "Never," to effectively measure the frequency of student participation, with the final sub-item designed as an open-ended question for deeper insights.

Table 3.7 Questionnaire items about discussion

Items Sub-items Content Sources Type of question

Self-designed 5-point Likert scale

3.7 Other opinion Open-ended question

Self-designed 5-point Likert scale

4.6 Other opinion(s) Open-ended question

3.5.2.3 The content of the questionnaire on influence of QtA

To assess the impact of Questioning the Author (QtA) in English reading classrooms, item number 5 was structured with eight sub-items Sub-items 5.1 to 5.7 consisted of multiple-choice questions allowing students to select all responses they agreed with, while the final sub-item featured an open-ended question for respondents to express their thoughts briefly.

Data collection procedure

The four-month experiment, conducted from May to September 2020, comprised three stages aligned with the language center's syllabus Prior to the experiment, the researcher dedicated two months (February to April 2020) to developing teaching materials, exams, and questionnaires for both groups Subsequently, the experimental group underwent targeted treatment, while the control group engaged in standard reading comprehension instruction over eight lessons.

After completing the initial reading lesson with QtA, both student groups undertook post-tests In the final week of the course, which was four months post-intervention, questionnaires were distributed to the experimental group.

In detail, this study consists of a lesson considered as pilot study and the main study.

In a pilot study, the reviewer implemented the QtA method in an English reading class, initiating the process with a 20-minute introduction This session highlighted the author as an independent figure, emphasizing that even authors can make mistakes (Beck, 1997), which is crucial for fostering a positive psychological environment for students The subsequent classes encouraged students to engage with the author through questions, particularly once they began to perceive the author as a real person rather than an abstract concept (Beck, 2006).

The study utilized the "Family and Friend 4 Student Book" (Simmons, 2009) as its primary reading material, in accordance with the Kiddy Program's textbook requirements from Seameo Retrac This resource comprises eight reading texts, spanning units 1 to 8, with word counts ranging from 180 to 200 words, except for a 124-word poem in unit 2 Following each reading, students engaged in exercises such as fill-in-the-blanks, matching, and true or false statements However, these activities primarily emphasized detail comprehension rather than understanding the main ideas and connections within the texts, which are crucial for effective reading comprehension (Grabe, 2009) The texts featured a mix of non-fiction, narrative, and poetry, aligning with the text genres identified by Nigel (1995).

Table 3.12 Information about reading texts used in the study

Title Genre Length Task type Focus

1 What do you like for breakfast?

Non-fiction (discussion text) 181 words True-False statement

2 Festival day Poem 124 words Matching

(explanatory text) 205 words Fill in the blank

Non-fiction (explanatory and instructional texts)

Grasshopper Narrative (fable) 185 words Fill in the blank

7 What will life be like in

Non-fiction (discussion text) 190 words Matching

The researcher introduced the QtA method in class but faced challenges due to students' limited English proficiency and unfamiliarity with the approach Consequently, only the stronger students could engage with the lesson effectively, prompting the researcher to incorporate L1 (Vietnamese) to aid comprehension, particularly in EFL contexts where language acquisition can be difficult (Cameron, 2001) After the lesson, the researcher selected three students with varying English abilities—one strong, one medium, and one weak—to answer questions about their past experiences The insights gained from these responses informed the development of questions for the main study questionnaire.

Total: 60 minutes Experimental group Control group

Tasks/ exercises/ activities provided in the Family and Friends 4 textbook and teacher’s book to activate students’ interest in the reading topic and background knowledge for reading lesson.

The QtA strategy designed and applied by the researcher based on the instruction of Beck et al

(2006) to construct meaning from texts through queries and discussion.

Tasks/ exercises/ activities provided in the Family and Friends 4 textbook and teacher’s book to comprehend the text.

Tasks/ exercises/ activities provided in the Family and Friends 4 textbook and teacher’s book to consolidate the content of the lesson.

Data analysis procedure

In this study, data analysis was conducted using SPSS Statistics Version 22 The collected data were analyzed through independent sample T-tests and one-sample T-tests to address the research questions The independent sample T-test assessed significant differences in posttest results between the experimental and control groups, referencing mean, standard deviation, and significance levels (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007) Additionally, the one-sample T-test evaluated whether the average means of pretest and posttest scores in the experimental group significantly differed after implementing the QtA strategy.

For the second research question, data on students’ perceptions as well as other related items and sub-items from the questionnaire was evaluated using descriptive statistics.

Summary of Chapter 3

Chapter 3 outlines the methodology of this study, detailing the research design, instruments utilized (including tests and questionnaires), participant selection, experimental procedures, and methods for data collection and analysis The subsequent chapter presents a formal analysis of the results and discusses the findings.

RESULTS

Testing of the difference between the test results of the experimental class and the

The T-test is a statistical method employed to evaluate the average of a single variable against a predetermined value, under the assumption that the average being analyzed is equal to a specific number.

4.1.1 Testing of the difference of academic achievement between classes with QtA strategy and classes without QtA strategy

Table 4.1 Difference test results between classes with and without QtA strategy

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

KQ_PP Equal variances assumed ,175 ,679 3,614 30 ,001 1,34375 ,37177 ,58449 2,10301

The analysis of the test results for students in classes with and without the QtA strategy reveals that the Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances shows a significance value (Re_Met) of 0.679, indicating no significant difference in mean variance between the two groups Consequently, the results in the "Equal variances assumed" row are utilized, where the significance value is 0.001, which is less than the 0.05 threshold This indicates a statistically significant difference in learning outcomes between the two classes, highlighting the effectiveness of the QtA strategy.

Testing the difference in learning outcomes before and after applying the QtA strategy.64

Table 4.2 Results of testing the difference in learning outcomes before and after applying the QtA strategy Independent Samples Test

Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

The Sig value in Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances indicates that the variance in students' test results before and after implementing the QtA strategy is not significantly different (0.261 > 0.05) Consequently, the author refers to the Sig results in the Equal variances assumed row Here, the Sig value of 0.001 is less than 0.05, leading to the conclusion that there is a statistically significant difference in student learning outcomes following the application of the QtA strategy in teaching.

The study assessed the impact of the QtA intervention by comparing the pretest and posttest mean scores of two groups Initially, the experimental group had a mean score of 6.97, while the comparison group scored 7.13, showing minimal difference However, post-intervention results revealed a significant increase in the experimental group's score to 8.53, compared to the comparison group's rise to 7.74 Ultimately, both groups showed improvement, but the experimental group achieved a notably higher average score in the posttest.

Figure 4.1 Test results of experimental group and comparison group

Students’ perception analysis of QtA strategy

4.3.1 Understanding level of queries in QtA

As for the students’ understanding of queries in the “ Questioning the Author

The study reveals that students' comprehension rates vary significantly, with 43.8% reporting an understanding level between 41-60%, while 18.8% indicate a comprehension rate of 61-80% A deeper analysis correlates students' comprehension abilities with their academic achievements: those with poor academic performance understand only 0-20%, while those with average performance grasp 21-40% Students with good academic performance demonstrate a comprehension level of 41-60%, and those with excellent academic performance show an understanding rate ranging from 41-80%.

Figure 4.2 Understanding level of queries in QtA

The survey results align with the actual circumstances, indicating that the participating students are around 10 years old Initially, these students find it challenging to comprehend QtA queries presented in English.

4.3.2 Students’ perception of the queries in QtA

To enhance students' comprehension of queries in QtA, the researcher conducted a survey with 16 students from the experimental class, asking them to evaluate their preferences, familiarity, difficulty, and interest using a 5-point Likert scale The results, illustrated in Figure 4, present their opinions on four sub-items within this category.

Figure 4.3 Students’ perception of the queries in QtA

The findings indicate that a significant majority of students in the experimental class expressed enthusiasm for the QtA questions, with 63% agreeing or strongly agreeing that they enjoyed the queries associated with the QtA strategy Additionally, 25% of students remained neutral on this sentiment Conversely, a small minority of 13% reported a dislike for the questions posed in the QtA strategy, with no students selecting an indifferent option.

“Totally disagrees” with this question.

A survey assessing students' perceptions of query difficulty in the QtA strategy revealed that a significant portion of participants found the queries challenging, with 50% of the experimental class students indicating that they considered the queries to be very difficult.

In a survey of 16 experimental class students, a significant majority expressed difficulty with the queries in the QtA strategy, with 19% fully agreeing that they are very challenging Conversely, only 19% of the respondents felt that the queries were not particularly difficult, while 13% chose not to provide an opinion on the matter.

A survey conducted to assess students' perceptions of the attractiveness and interest of questions in the QtA strategy revealed positive feedback According to the results, 63% of the 16 experimental class students either agreed or fully agreed that the problems presented in the QtA strategy were very interesting Conversely, 13% expressed disagreement with this statement, and 6% disagreed entirely Additionally, approximately 20% of the students chose not to provide their opinions regarding the appeal of the questions in the QtA approach.

In an evaluation of QtA queries compared to conventional questions, a significant majority of students in the experimental class recognized the distinctiveness of QtA queries Specifically, 50% of the 16 students agreed that QtA strategy problems differ notably from conventional problems, with 25% fully agreeing and another 25% remaining neutral Notably, none of the students expressed disagreement with this assessment.

4.3.2 Students’ perception of discussion part in QtA strategy

The researchers developed a questionnaire with seven survey sub-items to assess students' perceptions of QtA (Questioning for Understanding) teacher-student discussions in the experimental class This survey aims to gather valuable insights into the effectiveness of these discussions in enhancing student engagement and understanding.

Figure 4.4 Students’ perception of discussion part in QtA strategy

The fourth sub-item assessed students' preferences regarding the teacher-student discussions within the QtA strategy in the experimental class Results indicated a strong interest, with 69% of the 16 students expressing agreement or strong agreement about their enjoyment of these discussions, including 19% who fully endorsed this aspect Conversely, 13% of students reported a lack of enthusiasm for this component of the QtA approach, while 19% chose not to provide feedback on the matter.

The researcher developed Sub-item 3.2 to assess the interest level in discussions during QtA, revealing a significant level of engagement Notably, 75% of the 16 students in the experimental class expressed agreement with the statement that the discussions in QtA are interesting In contrast, approximately 13% of the students held differing opinions, while another 13% chose not to provide any feedback on this aspect.

A survey conducted among students in the experimental class revealed that a significant majority found the teacher-student discussions in Questioning to Advance (QtA) to be quite challenging Specifically, 71% of the 16 students surveyed, or 13 students, agreed or strongly agreed that these discussions presented numerous challenges for learners Conversely, only 6% of the students, representing just one individual, felt that the discussions did not pose any challenges Additionally, 13% of the participants remained neutral on the matter.

The evaluation of students' ability to engage in discussions with teachers and peers in the experimental class revealed significant challenges A substantial 69% of the 16 surveyed students reported finding the QtA discussion difficult to follow, while only 6% felt they could easily participate Additionally, 25% of participants chose not to provide feedback on this aspect of the survey.

In the discussion regarding time, a majority of participants expressed concerns about the QtA strategy, with 69% of the 16 students in the experimental class finding the teacher-student discussions to be excessively time-consuming Only 6% felt that the discussion duration was acceptable, while 25% chose not to comment on the matter.

In the QtA approach, the relevance of discussions between students and teachers significantly enhances students' comprehension of the text Notably, 87% of students in the experimental class expressed positive feedback, with 25% stating they "totally agree" and 62% indicating they "agree" that these discussions facilitated their understanding.

16 students did not comment on this issue In particular, no student chose to disagree or disagree in this statement.

4.3.3 Evaluation of students’ participation in QtA strategy discussion

Discussion

To address the research questions posed in Chapter Three, two tools were utilized: a student test and a questionnaire for the experimental class The collected data from these tools are analyzed, and this chapter elaborates on the findings The discussion is structured around the two research questions, starting with an exploration of the differences observed between the experimental and control groups in reading comprehension (RC) Additionally, the chapter will present students' perspectives on the implementation and effectiveness of the QtA plan based on the survey results.

 RQ1: Is there any significant difference between the experimental group that received the treatment of Questioning the Author strategy and the comparison group in term of reading comprehension?

This study utilized a T-test to analyze the differences in academic performance before and after implementing the QtA strategy, as well as between groups with and without the treatment The findings indicate a statistically significant improvement in academic performance in the class that employed the QtA strategy compared to the class that did not Additionally, there was a notable enhancement in students' reading comprehension following the application of the QtA strategy in teaching.

In particular, students given QtA lessons considerably surpassed the control group in terms of RC, according to the results of significant comparison of means between two groups.

The posttest results revealed that the experimental group achieved a mean score of 8.53, surpassing the control group's mean of 7.74, with a statistically significant p-value of 001 This indicates that the QtA technique effectively aids students in improving their reading comprehension (RC).

The findings of this study align with previous research on the effectiveness of the Questioning the Author (QtA) strategy in enhancing students' reading comprehension (RC) across various contexts (Foong et al., 2009; Baleghizadeh, 2011; Ayu, 2012; Sencibaugh & Sencibaugh, 2015; Resi, 2015; Fibriana, 2017; Elita, 2017; Agustiawan et al., 2019) These studies demonstrated that the implementation of the QtA strategy significantly improved the academic performance of students in reading comprehension, with all participants in the experimental group showing notable progress The QtA approach effectively aids students in understanding texts, encourages them to engage with the author’s ideas through questioning, and fosters critical analysis of the material (Rachmanita & Saptarina, 2018).

According to Sencibaugh and Sencibaugh (2015), QtA “substantially improved eighth grade students’ reading comprehension when administered consistently and explicitly” (p.

Teaching readers how to effectively utilize this method can significantly improve their reading comprehension (RC) This study supports Png’s (2016) assertion that Questioning the Author (QtA) yields positive outcomes for students in non-Western regions, where children tend to be quieter and less engaged compared to their Western counterparts.

The findings of this study reinforce Baleghizadeh’s (2011) assertion that teaching students to formulate effective questions through strategies like Questioning the Author (QtA) significantly enhances their reading comprehension (RC), compared to merely encouraging inquiries without guidance Additionally, Brunner’s (2012) perspective aligns with these results, highlighting that QtA offers essential structure for students facing challenging texts, thereby promoting a deeper understanding of the material.

This study's findings align with previous QtA research across various participants, text genres, and educational contexts, demonstrating a consistent relationship between the use of QtA and young learners' reading comprehension (RC) The implementation of questioning and discussion strategies within QtA not only improves students' RC but also boosts their engagement and interaction in the classroom, a topic that will be further explored in the subsequent section of this chapter.

 What are students’ perceptions on the use of Questioning the Author in the EFL reading class?

To address the second research question, the author developed a questionnaire aimed at gathering feedback from students in the experimental class The questionnaire focused on several key areas: (1) students' understanding of QtA queries; (2) their opinions on the effectiveness of the QtA strategy; (3) their perceptions of discussions surrounding the QtA strategy and its relevance in reading classes; (4) the impact of QtA on enhancing reading comprehension; (5) overall student perspectives on the QtA strategy following their experience; (6) challenges encountered while implementing the QtA strategy; and (7) recommendations for improving the future application of QtA.

In general, most of the participants showed their preference to QtA and its elements (queries and discussion).

The students' English proficiency significantly influenced their comprehension of QtA queries, with over half reporting an understanding of more than 50% of the material, while those with lower academic performance found the queries difficult and unfamiliar Despite this challenge, a notable 63% expressed a strong interest in the queries, indicating a preference for them This aligns with findings from Foong (2009), which revealed that Singaporean fourth graders also perceived the queries as challenging yet intriguing, highlighting the need for independent and critical thinking skills For any educational method, including QtA, effective application hinges on students' understanding of its components; thus, the lack of comprehension among some students poses a significant barrier to the broader implementation of QtA.

The QtA strategy is perceived by most students as "helpful to understand," "challenging," and "interesting," yet they primarily focus on providing answers rather than explaining their views or giving examples Survey results indicate that students are more accustomed to traditional teacher-student questioning dynamics However, the QtA strategy promotes greater interaction among students and between students and teachers Moreover, students find it easier and more frequent to engage in discussions with peers than to pose questions to teachers, which aligns with the characteristics of young learners (Cameron, 2001; McCloskey, 1998).

Most students perceive QtA as beneficial for enhancing their comprehension of reading, with 14 out of 16 believing it aids in understanding details and 13 out of 16 in grasping main ideas However, many still find the connections between ideas and indirect messages from the author unclear Over 50% of those who recognize QtA's usefulness value the discussions, supported by Png (2016), which indicates that students engage more when they encounter unclear sections Additionally, 91% of students felt discussions helped clarify ambiguous sentences or words Despite this, understanding details and main ideas through discussion remains less effective, with 42.9% and 46.2% of students respectively relying on queries for comprehension.

A significant finding from the questionnaire was that 69% of students preferred the QtA reading method, highlighting its effectiveness and ability to generate excitement in the classroom This preference suggests that QtA could be a valuable strategy for enhancing reading comprehension (RC) and promoting active collaboration among students in English reading classes, as noted by Beck et al (1997) and Buehl (2001).

A recent survey indicates that most respondents support the use of the QtA strategy in the classroom and favor its future implementation by teachers However, there is a notable disagreement regarding the feasibility of using QtA at home, likely due to several challenges encountered during lessons utilizing this strategy.

In this study, a minimal number of experimental class students reported no difficulties in using the Questioning the Author (QtA) method during reading classes Most students struggled with the QtA strategy due to their unfamiliarity with its components, such as queries and discussions Traditionally, students are accustomed to passive learning, where information is delivered in a one-way manner by teachers In contrast, the QtA method shifts the focus from the teacher to enhancing students' abilities, promoting active engagement in the learning process (Beck et al.).

In 1997, a method was introduced that encourages learners to enhance their thinking and creative skills by questioning the author's posed inquiries However, this approach may present challenges for young learners engaged in this research.

Chapter summary

This chapter discusses the findings from data analysis, which align with the reviewed literature The results highlight how the QtA technique can positively impact EFL students in Vietnam, leading to beneficial educational outcomes The upcoming chapter will address the research questions posed in Chapter 1, identify limitations, provide guidelines and recommendations for English language teachers, and suggest avenues for further research.

CONCLUSION

Summary and contribution

Research indicates that the implementation of Questioning the Author (QtA) significantly enhances students' reading comprehension, while also fostering a positive perception of this instructional strategy among learners.

The students demonstrated a significant increase in reading comprehension as evidenced by their post-test scores This improvement was particularly noted in the control group, which utilized the QtA strategy during lessons, leading to moderate enhancements in their overall reading skills during the post-testing phase.

Participants reported positive experiences with the QtA strategy, anticipating its increased application in the EFL context The discussion aspect of QtA instruction fosters collaboration among students, enhancing their comprehension of the text Nonetheless, a minority of students still struggle with understanding the queries post-QtA lessons and face challenges in collaboratively constructing the text's meaning.

While the QtA method has its limitations, incorporating diverse reading practices—such as gap-filling and synonym identification—alongside visual aids can enhance the teaching and learning experience Providing clearer instructions in Vietnamese during the initial lesson is essential to ensure students fully grasp the QtA method Additionally, extending lesson duration may lead to improved outcomes in teaching English reading texts using QtA.

Despite its drawbacks, the thesis makes a notable contribution to teaching English reading skills to young learners It demonstrates the use of Questioning the Author (QtA) as an effective strategy for engaging 9-year-old students in a more active and constructive reading process Additionally, the insights gained from participants' perceptions and preferences serve as valuable resources for English teachers in Vietnam and other non-western countries.

The study highlights the importance of implementing Questioning the Author (QtA) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) reading lessons for young learners This approach fosters collaborative learning, allowing students to engage with the text through guided questions and discussions with their teacher Consequently, it enhances their reading efficiency, motivates them to read, and develops strategic skills that boost their overall reading ability Notably, this research represents the first empirical M.A study aimed at leveraging QtA to enhance the reading skills of EFL young learners within the SEAMEO Regional Training Center framework.

Implications

The truth that QtA can be used as a method to increase EFL learners’ reading skills may have far-reaching implications for EFL students, teachers, and syllabus and textbook designers.

The QtA instruction enhances reading skills while alleviating the challenges of learning to read, boosting students' confidence and motivation in language acquisition By providing various engaging activities, QtA makes the learning process more systematic and enjoyable Through inquiry and peer discussions, learners find reading texts more meaningful and gain insights into their reading abilities Additionally, the combination of L1 support from teachers and collaborative teamwork among students reduces the monotony of silent reading lessons This approach, paired with their prior knowledge, enables students to extract greater meaning from texts and fosters their development into fluent readers throughout their lifelong learning journey.

5.2.2 Implications for EFL teachers, syllabus designers and textbook writers

Research shows that even if learners possess some prior knowledge of English reading strategies, explicit guidance in Questioning the Author (QtA) significantly enhances their motivation and success Given the prevalence of reading difficulties among young EFL learners, it is essential to incorporate explicit QtA instruction into their practice Teachers should focus on raising students' awareness of various reading strategies, enabling them to not only learn but effectively apply these strategies when engaging with English texts Ultimately, teaching QtA and other strategies is crucial for improving students' reading comprehension and their overall understanding of English texts.

Due to time constraints, only a limited number of QtA-related lessons were utilized for teaching English reading texts in the experiment It is advisable for teachers to incorporate additional activities related to this method or extend the existing activities if time allows For instance, teachers can have students work in groups to read a short paragraph and practice formulating questions based on teacher-provided queries before engaging in a class discussion Furthermore, students can be encouraged to create appropriate questions for specific text sections at home, either individually or in pairs, which can enhance their practice These activities significantly contribute to deeper learning, increase students' awareness of the QtA reading strategy, and improve overall reading comprehension and English reading skills.

Effective seating arrangements, such as a U-shape, are crucial for implementing Questioning the Author (QtA) in the classroom, as they enhance student interaction and facilitate communication This layout allows students to see and hear each other better, promoting collaboration and engagement with the text Additionally, it enables teachers to move freely and provide targeted support, especially for students with low language proficiency While the tasks may vary, timely feedback and correction from teachers are essential, starting with the whole class and transitioning to small groups and individuals as students gain confidence Despite the challenges of introducing QtA, particularly for younger students, the effort is worthwhile as it significantly boosts their reading comprehension skills, especially when combined with their first language (L1).

QtA instruction offers the flexibility to be utilized in both traditional English reading classes and integrated classrooms, enhancing the learning experience for diverse student groups.

In 2014, the Committee of Ho Chi Minh City approved the "Teaching and Learning Maths, Science, and English and Vietnamese Integrated Programme," which introduces integrated classes combining Math and Science with the Vietnamese curriculum This initiative allows students to study English alongside these subjects, enhancing their learning experience Science classes serve as an effective environment for implementing Questioning and Thinking Activities (QtA), fostering comprehension and discussion skills, particularly since QtA was developed in social science contexts However, successfully applying QtA in English-language science classes for young learners necessitates thorough teacher preparation and careful consideration of Vietnamese language support.

EFL textbook and syllabus designers are encouraged to incorporate the QtA methodology into their teaching guidelines and recommendations By fostering an environment conducive to sharing teaching experiences at the school level and facilitating discussions at conferences on teaching methods, QtA can be more widely and effectively implemented in educational settings.

Limitations of the study

Despite the researcher’s dedicated efforts, this study is not without its inherent limitations These limitations are evident in the research methodology, its applicability to young learners in the classroom, and the overall scope of the study.

The study's limitations stem from the sampling method, as random sampling was unfeasible due to the constraints of the educational setting, including class sizes and schedules The researcher could only work with two classes, resulting in a small sample size of 30 students, which restricts the ability to generalize findings to a larger population Consequently, the results should be interpreted cautiously due to the non-randomized nature of the sample Additionally, the cognitive abilities of the young participants, around 9 years old, limited the depth of the survey, preventing detailed interviews and restricting insights into students' opinions on the QtA method However, observation emerged as a valuable assessment tool for young learners, allowing for evaluation within the context of regular classroom activities without causing distractions (Moon, 2000).

The study's moderate long-term effects raise concerns about the accuracy and objectivity of its findings, particularly due to the novelty of the QtA instruction and the brief 10-week duration Familiarity with the test format, along with improvements in grammar and vocabulary during the learning process, may have influenced post-test results, introducing various objective and subjective factors beyond the researcher's control Therefore, caution is advised when evaluating the long-term impact of this instructional strategy.

The language center's syllabus limited the teaching material to just five reading texts, resulting in a minimal assessment of the participants' reading comprehension improvements Given these constraints, it is highly recommended to pursue additional investment and experimentation to enhance the study's effectiveness.

The Covid-19 pandemic significantly disrupted the research process, particularly during the phase of receiving research classes Despite the approval of the application form for conducting research, the language center had to temporarily suspend teaching and learning activities to prioritize the safety of students and teachers This situation also affected direct communication with the supervisor, limiting the ability to receive appropriate instruction and feedback.

Recommendation for further studies

This research highlights key findings and limitations, leading to several recommendations for future studies focused on the use of Questioning the Author (QtA) in enhancing English reading skills.

A larger sample size enhances the validity of the study, allowing for more robust confirmation of results Reproducing this research with a greater number of randomly selected participants will improve reliability and increase the generalizability of the findings.

This study focuses on the impact of Questioning the Author (QtA) instruction on young learners' English reading comprehension and their perceptions of its effectiveness Future research is recommended to explore the effects of QtA on older age groups, such as teenagers and university students in Vietnam, to assess its applicability across different English proficiency levels Additionally, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of students' perspectives on the QtA method, further studies utilizing observation and interviews are encouraged It is also important for researchers to consider incorporating students' mother tongue, in this case, Vietnamese, during instruction to enhance accessibility and effectiveness of the QtA approach for all learners.

To enhance future research, it is essential to extend the study period and incorporate additional English reading texts taught through the Questioning the Author (QtA) method, as this will yield more comprehensive data on its application Furthermore, understanding teachers' perspectives and the challenges they face in implementing QtA is crucial for gaining a broader insight into the method's overall impact and effectiveness in English reading classes.

A recent student survey revealed that most participants provided positive feedback on the Questioning the Author (QtA) approach and the overall discussion process Future research should focus on examining how QtA influences the development of English speaking skills during student exchanges and group work If successful, this method could be further explored for its effectiveness in both reading comprehension and the enhancement of speaking abilities.

In conclusion, this study has successfully achieved its objectives by enhancing research methodology and teaching procedures, leading to improved English reading comprehension among students Although it focused solely on the Questioning the Author (QtA) approach within the EFL context, it aims to contribute to the broader teaching of reading skills, particularly for young learners Additionally, it serves as a valuable resource for educators seeking effective strategies to enhance their students' reading abilities.

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APPENDIX A LESSON PLAN Reading lesson using the QtA strategy

Textbook: Family and Friend 4 (Oxford University Press, 2009)

Unit 1: The food here is great!

Textbook section Queries and suggested answers

My name is Pete I’m from the U.S.A I usually have a bowl of cereal with milk, and then toast with butter.

We have lots of different cereals at home, but my favorite is cornflake.

I don’t have very big breakfast because I eat lunch early at school.

Initiating Queries (get a discussion started) What is the author talking about?

-His breakfast -What he eats for breakfast

Follow-up Queries What does the author mean by saying “We have lots of cereals at home”?

-He and his family eat lots of cereals.

-His mom buys lots of cereals.

-He has many kinds of cereals: chocolate cereals, coconut cereals, strawberry cereals, orange cereals, peanut cereals, etc.

Follow-up Queries Why do you think the author says “I don’t have very big breakfast because I eat lunch early at school”?

-He doesn’t eat much for breakfast, but he is not hungry because he will have lunch early at school.

Hi, everyone I’m Huong and I come from Vietnam For breakfast, I usually have noodle soup.

My grandma makes it every morning.

Sometime I have xoi These are balls of rice with beans They are wrapped in coconut leaves.

Initiating Queries (get a discussion started) What is the author talking about?

Follow-up Queries Does the author describe the noodle soup? -No, she doesn’t.

Does the author describe “xoi”?

Why does the author the author describe “xoi”? -Because many people from other countries do not know “xoi”, but they know noodle soup.

Hi My name is Mariana and I’m from

Mexico My favorite breakfast is huevos rancheros: egg cooked in tomato and chilli sauce We eat it with potatoes and tortilla This is Mexican corn bread.

I always eat a big breakfast because we don’t have lunch at school.

Initiating Queries (get a discussion started) What is the author talking about?

What is her favorite breakfast?

Follow-up Queries Why does the author describe the dish?

-Because many people do not know huevos rancheros and tortilla.

What does the author mean here?

-She eats a lot for her breakfast.

-If she eats less, she will be hungry.

Textbook section Queries and suggested answers

Hear the sound of the beat

Initiating Queries (get a discussion started) What is the author talking about?

-The festival he sees on the street.

Follow-up Queries Does the author tell us clearly about the festival? -No, he doesn’t.

-He only talks about what he sees and what he hears. What does he mean by saying “Everyone is cheering”? -The festival is crowed.

-There are many people in the festival.

-They are all happy and excited.

Their feet on the ground

Initiating Queries (get a discussion started) What is the author talking about?

-He talks about what is happening in the festival. Follow-up Queries

Does the author describe the festival?

What does he see and hear?

-He sees and hears the music instruments.

What does he mean by saying “drums that thump and bang, the cymbals sparkling as they clang”?

-The music is very loud.

-There are many instruments and music players in the

The birds are so excited.

I see them flap their wings.

They join in with the music.

I can hear them all sing. festival.

What does he mean by saying “people tapping their feet on the ground”?

-The festival is crowded -The people are walking around.

Does he say it clearly?

-No, he doesn’t He only talks about the sound of people walking.

What does the author talk about the band?

-He says the band plays music slowly and well.