Advances in Biological Wastewater Treatment Systems covers different recent advanced technologies, including green technologies, for biological wastewater treatment and wastewater reuse. The technologies involve novel biological processes andor modified processes coupled with nano materials for improving the performance of the existing treatment processes. The book also describes treatment strategies for the current pollution from complex organic matter, nutrients, toxic substances, micro plastics and emerging micro pollutants in different water resources. The treatment processes describe the recent developed technologies for wastewater treatment and reuse such as biological nutrient removal, bioreactors, photobioreactors, membrane bioreactors, wetlands, algaebacteria process, natural treatments, integratedhybrid bio systems, etc. The novel bio systems include aerobic, anaerobic, facultative operation modes with various of types of microorganisms.
Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering Smart Solutions for Wastewater: Road-mapping the Transition to Circular Economy Edited by Giorgio Mannina Engineering Department, Palermo University, Palermo, Italy Ashok Pandey Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India; Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India; Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Ranjna Sirohi Department of Food Technology, School of Health Sciences, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering Series Editor Ashok Pandey Centre for Innovation and Translational Research, CSIRIndian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India; Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India; Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher's permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/ permissions This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein) Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein ISBN: 978-0-323-99920-5 For Information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Joe Hayton Editorial Project Manager: Helena Beauchamp Production Project Manager: Sujatha Thirugnana Sambandam Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India Contents Contributors xiii Preface xvii Introduction to smart solutions for wastewater: Road-mapping the transition to circular economy Giorgio Mannina, Dario Presti, Ashok Pandey, Herman Helness, Ranjna Sirohi, Jacek Mąkinia 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Water-smart solutions to enhance the transition to circular economy 5 1.3 Conclusions and perspectives Acknowledgments 8 References 8 Treatment and disposal of sewage sludge from wastewater in a circular economy perspective 11 Giorgio Mannina, Lorenzo Barbara, Alida Cosenza, Zhiwei Wang 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 European laws 13 2.3 SS management 17 2.4 SS reuse 20 2.5 Conclusions and perspectives 26 Acknowledgements 26 References 26 Integration of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) production into urban wastewater treatment plants 31 Dario Presti, María Eugenia Suárez-Ojeda, Giorgio Mannina 3.1 Introduction 31 v vi Contents 3.2 PHAs: biobased and biodegradable alternative to plastics 32 3.3 A circular economy approach: PHA production integrated into WWTPs 36 3.4 A detailed view of the independent PEs for PHA production by using MMCs 37 3.5 PHAs extraction from microbial cells (PE4) 45 3.6 Economic sustainability of PHAs production process 50 3.7 Conclusions and perspectives 51 Acknowledgments 52 References 53 Production of volatile fatty acids from sewage sludge fermentation 61 Dario Presti, Bing-Jie Ni, Giorgio Mannina 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Biological mechanism and strategies for VFA production from sewage sludge 62 4.3 Trends and innovations in VFA production from sewage sludge 74 4.4 Final applications of sludge-derived VFA and economic evaluation 82 4.5 Conclusions and perspectives 85 Acknowledgments 86 References 86 Zeolites for the nutrient recovery from wastewater 95 Sofia Maria Muscarella, Luigi Badalucco, Vito Armando Laudicina, Giorgio Mannina 5.1 Introduction 95 5.2 Structure and chemical composition of zeolites 96 5.3 Natural zeolites and synthetic zeolites 99 Contents vii 5.4 Applications of zeolites 102 5.5 Use of zeolite for nutrients recovery 104 5.6 Conclusions and perspectives 109 Acknowledgments 110 References 110 Wastewater treatment sludge composting 115 Sofia Maria Muscarella, Luigi Badalucco, Vito Armando Laudicina, Zhiwei Wang, Giorgio Mannina 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 Legislation about sewage sludge 116 6.3 Sewage sludge composting 122 6.4 Conclusions and perspectives 131 Acknowledgments 132 References 132 Advances in technologies for sewage sludge management 137 Giorgio Mannina, Lorenzo Barbara, Alida Cosenza, Bing-Jie Ni 7.1 Introduction 137 7.2 Technologies in water treatment line 139 7.3 Technologies in sludge treatment line 143 7.4 Evaluation and maturity of technologies for reducing sludge production 149 7.5 Sludge characterization to optimize the dewatering process 150 7.6 Conclusions and perspectives 151 Acknowledgements 151 References 151 viii Contents Energy and valuable organic products recovery from anaerobic processes 157 Ewa Zaborowska, Mojtaba Maktabifard, Xiang Li, Xianbao Xu, Jacek Mąkinia 8.1 Introduction 157 8.2 Energy balance in wastewater treatment plants and potential energy recovery 158 8.3 Potential valuable products recovery 161 8.4 Anaerobic processes focused on liquid products recovery 162 8.5 Anaerobic digestion (AD) processes focused on gaseous products recovery 164 8.6 Processes enhancing energy and valuable organic products recovery 169 8.7 Conclusions and perspectives 176 References 176 Life-cycle assessment for resource recovery facilities in the wastewater sector 183 Sofía Estévez, María Teresa Moreira, Gumersindo Feijoo 9.1 Introduction 183 9.2 Life-cycle analysis (LCA) as an environmental impact assessment methodology 185 9.3 Environmental diagnosis of the different alternatives based on the environmental outcomes 207 9.4 Conclusions and perspectives 214 Acknowledgements 215 References 215 10 Water reuse in the frame of circular economy 221 Jiří Wanner, Martin Srb, Ondřej Beneš 10.1 Introduction 221 10.2 Legal framework of water reuse 223 Contents ix 10.3 Worldwide used national water reuse guidelines and regulations 225 10.4 National water reuse guidelines and regulations in selected EU countries 226 10.5 Drivers for water reuse: water resources scarcity and climate change; increasing quality and prize of drinking water; water reuse as a natural part of circular economy 236 10.6 Circular economy and water resources 242 10.7 Barriers of water reuse 242 10.8 Processes of recycled water production from effluents of municipal WWTPS 251 10.9 Examples of successful water reuse projects in Europe 256 10.10 Conclusions and perspectives 261 Acknowledgments 262 References 262 11 Governance factors influencing the scope for circular water solutions 267 Sigrid Damman, Henrik Brynthe Lund, Tuukka Mäkitie, Giorgio Mannina, Gordon Akon-Yamga, Jiří Wanner 11.1 Introduction 267 11.2 Toward a new paradigm 268 11.3 Perceived governance challenges 269 11.4 A multilevel approach 270 11.5 Main drivers and barriers in the studied cases 273 11.6 Contextual interactions and need for new governance perspectives 279 11.7 Conclusions and perspectives 286 Acknowledgments 287 Appendix: List of abbreviations 287 References 288 422 Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering and reparability, recyclable components, or the availability of spare parts in order to support responsible consumption Moreover, not every firm has the opportunity to make green investments in order to sort, clean, repair, and reutilize some materials [9] Besides, similarly to the case of consumers, producer companies may not be interested in long-term sustainable plans and new technologies for circular business models when they need to invest funds in the present [88] Thus, according to Geissdoerfer et al [2], the shifting from linear to circular business models “can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling” (p 766) So, it includes the whole life cycle of the product Therefore, the creation of a network and dialogue between stakeholders through the entire supply chain and information sharing regarding waste and its reduction are significant for planning and establishing improved business models in terms of a CE and sustainable development [82] In this extensive and articulated scenario, it is essential to identify who the main stakeholders are and what contribution they make to redefining circular business models Van Langen et al [83] considered the strengthen of the research field to be the first stage in the transition toward the implementation of a CE Consequently, the authors have suggested promoting and supporting scientific activities regarding circular innovation/technology and the circular design of products The latter allows for the creation of a product that generates less waste and will be easier to recycle The control of harmful substances generated during the production process should definitely also be considered All this can be achieved on the basis of solid theoretical research and through strengthening universities and research centers Considering the research results in the planning of future business models can promote innovations and responsible actions that have positive impacts on society and the environment [89] Suppliers are an important link in a supply chain since they provide the raw materials, that is, the basic components for the final product Materials may be biological or technical They are the initial steps of the production process, and it is crucial that suppliers share the views, ideas, and goals of producer companies in order to obtain final products with renewable components, thereby supporting the development of circular business models [7] Sharing information is obviously a successful strategy, as emerged in the study of Giacomarra et al [90, pp 325–326], according to which the “company’s winning strategy for stakeholder management helped it to ensure there was sustainability along the supply chain by promoting ecoinnovation (in partnership with subsuppliers) and by integrating stakeholders through targeted initiatives aimed at spreading the sustainable culture among them.” No less important is the sustainable production process itself For this purpose, the producer companies need to develop the technical capabilities of employees [7] Well-prepared managers can change or adapt the variables and invest in specific directions in a way that improves firms’ performance [91] They are able to define firms’ strategies in the local context [92] Indeed, Sawe et al [93] revealed the importance of knowledge exchange, knowledge formation, training of employees, and strong managerial skills for the adoption of CE practices Similarly, Yazan and coauthors [94] highlighted the significance of stimulating innovative thinking in companies’ managers Furthermore, producer companies make significant contributions to informing society about product characteristics by including relevant information on labels or sales stands, and they therefore contribute to responsible consumption [87] Chapter 16 • Stakeholder engagement 423 Engagement of business partners and competitors may result in cost-effective transactions, shared risks, potential logistic advantages, fair competition, and transparency regarding the companies’ approach to the circular business model [7] Suitable infrastructure (such as electric transport for product distribution and storage systems for renewable energy are also relevant factors [9] Indeed, Van Langen et al [83] argued that investing in ecological transport or storage should be done in addition to other promotional activities for the advancement of circular and sustainable business models According to Alonso-Almeida et al [87], consumers’/customers’ engagement in the CE remains low; they not recognize their great power and impact on the whole system Instead, demand determines the characteristics and quality of products on the market Recently, the attitude has been changing Consumers are paying more attention to the best value for the money and thus to collaborative consumption and the product’s contribution to sustainability Besides attitudes, information about a product is the main factor in consumers’ decisionmaking processes [95] In order to spread information to a large-scale audience and promote products or services produced sustainably, the media can play an important role The media is the effective way to make innovations, new regulations, policies, and initiatives publicly known In addition, training activities for consumers are essential Raising awareness about a product, its positive and negative features, and its impact on human health or on the environment significantly determines consumer behavior [87] It is noteworthy that consumers are key stakeholders, as they express their environmental and social responsibility through their purchasing power [96] Consumers are demonstrating a growing sensitivity to environmental issues and feel responsible for changing their purchasing behavior This inevitably influences the choices of companies, which must respond to these expectations [97,98] However, according to Adamashvili et al [99], there are different levels of consumer awareness regarding product labeling and green certification in diverse countries with unequal economic development levels, and raising awareness campaigns and cognitive activities can be helpful to drive consumers’ responsible behavior Often nonprofit organizations and international bodies have incentivized the implementation of a CE For instance, the EU has undertaken a number of initiatives to encourage a CE The first CE action plan (CEAP) was adopted in 2015, which included 54 actions that were aimed at a transition toward a CE, boosting global competitiveness, fostering sustainable economic growth, and generating new jobs In March 2020, a new CEAP was introduced that covers different aspects of the entire food supply chain and discusses in detail the current situation, opportunities, and challenges for the transition toward a CE The document states that stakeholders’ active engagement is essential for achieving the European Green Deal2 strategy aims [9,13] Indeed, European member states follow EU directions and systematically publish the reports on their sustainable actions In response to the present situation, the EU has introduced further directions and guidelines for achieving sustainable development goals The EU has established strategies for advancing sustainable supply chains and business models with cleaner production process through the following: (i) elaborating on initiatives for recycling batteries and electronic equipment; (ii) avoiding the use of heavy metals in production processes; (iii) using 424 Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering electric vehicles (to reduce CO2 emissions); (iv) improving the durability and adaptability of buildings throughout their life cycles, utilizing recyclable and reusable packaging in the food value chain, and replacing plastic bags with reusable ones; and (v) encouraging textile producers to reuse resources and farmers to pay attention to the nutrients used [9] Nevertheless, the core of the European Green Deal is the farm-to-fork strategy that aims at making food systems fair, healthy, and environmentally friendly It supports a transition toward a CE that should have a neutral or positive impact on the environment, reduce climate change and loss of biodiversity, ensure food security and safety, and make food affordable through fair economic returns [100] In this context, Gusmerotti et al [101] argued that policymakers should assist in the transition toward a CE through the creation of favorable long-term environment policies, which would eliminate anxiety The example of India, however, shows that regulations can sometimes be unuseful and, moreover, can adversely affect the country’s economy Jakhar et al [91] described the situation in India, where a platform for emission control has been set up and fines have been imposed for exceeding the allowed level of emissions However, a solution to the problem has not been offered by manufacturers Regulations alone cannot fix a problem if it has not been adjusted to the existing situation The only solution in this case is stakeholder collaboration, exchanging information, experience, and ideas and the cocreation of a business model development plan and relevant regulations Governments have significant levers and the potential to promote a CE and sustainable business models They have the opportunity and power to reduce taxes for responsible production, to subsidize recycled materials, as well as to create recovery networks and markets [83] Moreover, recent studies [7,23] have revealed that governments and national visions for shifting from traditional to circular business models strongly influence key stakeholders’ motivations and assist the execution of governmental, regional, and city CE programs, strategies, and objectives The different stakeholders’ influence on the transition from linear to circular business models has been described However, a multistakeholder approach (starting from research to policy and national strategy implementation) is the only way to create the concept of a CE for a practical transition toward sustainable business models and for the management of current processes in order to go beyond an initial phase [83] Salvioni and Almici [7] have argued that long-term stakeholder relationships are the basic factors for firms to create an efficient strategy and to implement a successful business model It requires stakeholder involvement, continuous dialogue, and fulfillment of stakeholder expectations Similarly, Marjamaa et al [23] discussed the importance of stakeholder cooperation, especially the relevance of research results utilization in the creation of solutions with a global influence at the national, regional, and local levels 16.5 Conclusions and perspectives Population growth, urbanization, and globalization have raised the problems of resource depletion, increased waste, and environmental issues The solution seems to be in shifting from linear to circular business models, in which the products or their components will be reused or recycled The findings have revealed that the transition toward a CE models depends on the Chapter 16 • Stakeholder engagement 425 nature and quality of the relationship with the stakeholders They also highlight that a multitude of stakeholders, such as universities and research centers, suppliers of raw materials, producer companies, business partners and competitors, consumers/customers, policymakers, governments, nonprofit organizations and international bodies, if appropriately involved in the decision-making processes, contribute to the successful creation of value They support innovations in the field through fundamental research, the supply of biological raw materials, demand for and manufacturing of circular products, the mentorship of employees, raising the awareness of consumers, developing a sustainable infrastructure, providing a suitable business environment, policies and guidelines, and most importantly they support innovation through cooperation, information flow, and knowledge transfer A multistakeholder approach certainly supports the establishment of improved business models in terms of a CE and sustainable development While it is true that the involvement of stakeholders can contribute to the transition toward the adoption of circular business models, it is equally true that this must 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Biodiesel, 301 Bioelectrochemical technologies (METs), 390 Bioenergy, 300 Biogas characteristics, 166 electricity, 166 production, 301 use and upgrading, 166 Biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems, 160 Biopolyesters, 32–33 Biopolymers, 298–299 C Caproic acid, 294–297 Cation exchange capacity, of zeolites, 98 Cellulose, 158 Centralized digesters, 167 Centralized wastewater treatment plants, 183 Chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT), 169 Chemical pretreatment methods, 171 Chemical reactions, 157, 195 Circular economy (CE), 1–2, 267 action plan, 11 application in wastewater treatment, water-smart solutions, Coagulation, 141 Component material category (CMC), 15 Composite building units (CBU), 97–98 Contextual interaction theory (CIT), 268 Crystallization reactor, 367 D Decentralized wastewater treatment, 267 DEMOWARE project, 246–247 Digital Waters, Directive revision approval (DRV), 15–16 Disinfection, 253 Downstream applications, 297f E Energy and Raw Materials Factory (ERMF), 278–279, 287 Energy production industry, 240 Enhanced removal of suspended solids, 169 Environmental protection (EP), 15–16 Enzyme recovery, 302 European expert group for technical advice on organic production (EGTOP), 269 331 332 Index European laws, 13 construction materials, 23 drawbacks and limitations, 24 energy recovery, 22 environmental impact, 19 land application, 20 wastewater treatments, 13 European regional development fund, 246 European standards, 234 Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), 360–361 L Lactic acid, 174 Life-cycle analysis, 185 Life cycle assessment (LCA), 183–184 Light, 378 Light emitting diode (LED), 388 Liquid products recovery, 162–163 Local economy promotion (LEP), 15–16 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE), 33 Low-pressure membrane processes, 252 Lysotherm, 196 F Favorable to agriculture sludge reuse (FASR), 15–16 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 225 M Magnesium ammonium phosphate (MAP), 367 Medium chain carboxylic acid (MCCA), 162 Medium-chain fatty acids, 293–294 Membrane-based treatment systems, 256 Membrane bio-electrochemical reactor (MBER), 161 Membrane bioreactor (MBR), 79 Membrane filtration, 252 Metagenomics, 337 microbial communities, 342 pipelines of analysis and software, 340 16S rDNA and ITS amplicon sequencing, 338 whole-genome shotgun metagenomics, 341 Metaproteomics, 344 Metatranscriptomics, 343 Methanogenesis, 359 Microalgae-based technologies, 369 Microbial electrolysis cells (MECs), 390–391 Microbial protein, 299 Microfiltration (MF) membranes, 362, 363 Micropollutants, 254–255 Mixed microbial cultures (MMC), 32 Monod equation, 384–387 Moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR), 183–184 Multiple Waters, G Global water resources, 267 Glycogen-accumulating organisms (GAO), 40 Greenhouse gas, H Hazard analysis and critical control points, 258–259 Hybrid grey and green infrastructure, Hydraulic retention time, 389 Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), 148 I Immobilized algae system, 375 Information and communication technology (ICT) tools, 6–7 International ISO standards, 232 International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 166 International Water Association (IWA), 1–2 International Zeolite Association (IZA), 97–98 Internet of Things (IoT), 6–7 Irrigation boxes, 249f J Japanese decentralized treatment system, 192 Jebel Ali Sewage water Treatment Plant (JASTP), 347–348 N Natural zeolites, 99 chabazite, 100 clinoptilolite-heulandite, 100 phillipsite, 100 Nontoxic wastewater, 384 Index 333 Nutrients recovery, 15–16 anaerobic processes, 357 mechanism of, 394f photo-bioprocesses for, 369 O Odor control, full-scale smart solutions, 317 biofilter system, 318 biotrickling filter system, 320 odor control and treatment, 322 smart technologies, 323 wet air scrubbing, 321 Odor emission capacity (OEC), 316 Organic loading rate (OLR), 64 Ozonation, 255 P Peracetic acid, 254 Perceived governance challenges, 269 PHA accumulation potential (PAP), 36 Phosphorus, 188 Photo-bioreactor design, 373 Photosynthetic bacteria-based membrane bioreactor, 382–383 Photosynthetic pigment species, 370–371 Pollution prevention at source (PPS), 15–16 Poly-aluminum chloride (PAC), 72 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), 31, 32 accumulation, 42 batch culture, 35 continuous production, 35 culture selection, 38 developments underway, 34 economic sustainability, 50 extraction, 45 extraction type, 49 feed-batch culture, 35 independent PE, 37 NPCM digestion, 47 production, 36 properties and applications, 32 solvent extraction, 47 substrate acidogenic fermentation, 37 Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO), 40 Postnutrient recovery process, 368t Primary building unit (PBU), 97 Protein, 158 Q Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, 259–260 R Recirculated activated sludge (RAS), 42 Recovery and bio-methane potential, 165 Recycled water, 221–222 Resource recovery, 268, 293 Response surface methodology (RSM), 174 Reverse osmosis, 256 Review of end-of-waste policies (REWP), 15–16 Rotating biological contactor (RBC), 183–184 S Safety barriers, 243 Secondary building unit (SBU), 97 Self-forming dynamic membranes (SFDM), 79–80 Senboku Sludge Resource Treatment Centre, 192 Sequencing batch reactors (SBR), 41 Sewage sludge (SS), 12 acidification enhancement, 72 anaerobic fermentation, 62 applications, 12 biological pre-treatments, 77 bulking agents, 126 carbon source, 82 chemical pre-treatments, 74 composting, 122, 129 construction materials, 23 defined, 12 directive and regulation on, 13t disposal and costs, 18 drawbacks and limitations, 24 economical evaluation of VFA production, 84 energy recovery, 22 environmental impact, 19 european directives on, 13 European legislation, 117 fermentation reactor configurations, 79 334 Index hybrid pre-treatments, 78 hydrolysis improvement, 71 Italian legislation, 119 land application, 20 legislation, 116 management, 17 methanogenesis inhibition, 73 operational conditions, 64 physical pre-treatments, 76 polyhydroxyalkanoates production, 83 production, 17 resuse, 20, 21t retention time influence, 67 sludge composition, 69 sludge fermentation, 80 sludge pre-treatments, 74 temperature influence, 64 Sewage Sludge Directive (SSD), 14 revision, 15 and treated sludge, 14–15 Short-chain fatty acids, 293–294 Single-cell protein (SCP), 299 Sludge characterization, 150 Sludge pretreatment methods, 170, 172t Sludge production, reducing, 149 Sludge resource treatment center (SRTC), 192 Sludge treatment line, 143 advanced digestion technologies, 145 biological treatment, 145 chemical treatment, 145 conventional thermal processes, 148 dewatering process, 146 hydrothermal carbonization, 148 physical pretreatment, 143 sludge drying, 147 sludge pretreatment, 143 thermal processes, 148 Smart urban domestic wastewater (SUDW), 316–317 Soluble microbial products (SMP), 360–361 Stakeholders and circular business models, 420 State of energy neutrality, 158 Submerged aerobic fixed film (SAFF), 183–184 Suspended closed photobioreactors, 374–375 Suspended open systems, 373–374 Sustainable business models, 417 Sustainable development, circular model, 415 Synthetic zeolites, 100 T Thermal hydrolysis process (THP), 171 retrofitting scheme, 171 Toxic heavy metals, 364–365 Tubular photobioreactors, 374–375 U UASB reactor, 190 UASB reactor effluent, 188 Ultrafiltration membranes, 253, 362, 363 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 224–225 Upstream applications, 297f UV disinfection, 253–254 V Value in Water, Volatile fatty acid (VFA), 36 acidification enhancement, 72 anaerobic fermentation, 61–62 biological pre-treatments, 77 carbon to nitrogen ratio, 69 chemical pre-treatments, 74 end products, 63 fermentation reactor configurations, 79 hybrid pre-treatments, 78 hydrolysis improvement, 71 methanogenesis inhibition, 73 OLR influence, 68 operational conditions, 64 and PE1, 38 pH influence, 66, 66t physical pre-treatments, 76 production from sewage sludge, 62 retention time influence, 67 from sewage sludge fermentation, 62 sludge pre-treatments, 74 temperature influence, 64, 65t trends and innovations, 74 Volatile fatty acids, 163 Volatile suspended solids (VSS), 161–162 Index 335 W WAS alkaline fermentation liquor, 164 Waste activated sludge (WAS), 158 co-digestion, 174 enzyme pretreatment, 172 fermentation for liquid products, 162 Waste stabilization ponds (WSP), 183–184 Wastewater, 159 biorefinery, 31 chlorination, 253 objective, 31 transformation, treatment, 391–392 treatment plants, 1, 158 Wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), 1, 11, 31, 61 to biorefineries, 345 concept, 3f microbial communities, 345 valuable biogas, 347 Water, 221, 223, 227–228, 242, 256 availability and adaptation, 236 climate stakeholder analysis, 237–238 economy, 244 guidelines and regulations, 226 reclamation, 221 reclamation pilot facility, 250f resources, 242, 249f smart solutions project, 248–249 Water treatment line biological treatment, 142 chemical treatment, 141 mechanical treatment, 141 minimization technologies, 140 technologies, 139 thermal treatment, 142 World Health Organization (WHO), 224 Z Zeolites A, 101 agriculture, 102 applications, 102 catalysis, 102 cation exchange capacity, 98 chabazite, 100 chemical composition and structure, 96 clinoptilolite-heulandite, 100 industrial wastewater treatment, 103 natural, 99 nutrients recovery, 104 phillipsite, 100 pores, cages, and channels, 98 primary and secondary building units, 97 primary building unit, 97f regeneration, 106 reuse of enriched, 108 secondary building unit, 97f selectivity, 99 structure and chemical composition, 96 synthetic, 100 X, 101 Y, 101 ZMS-5, 102 Zero-valent iron (ZVI) technique, 164