Debra Ziegeler Converging Grammars Language Contact and Bilingualism Editor Yaron Matras Volume 11 Debra Ziegeler Converging Grammars Constructions in Singapore English ISBN 978-1-61451-571-5 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-1-61451-409-1 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-1-5015-0063-3 ISSN 2190-698X Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de © 2015 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Typesetting: Compuscript Ltd., Shannon, Ireland Printing and binding: CPI Books GmbH, Leck ♾ Printed on acid-free paper Printed in Germany www.degruyter.com Table of contents Preface and acknowledgements Abbreviations xi List of figures and tables xiii List of tables xiv ix Chapter Introduction 1.1 Main terms and definitions 1.2 Overview Chapter Singapore English 15 2.1 Introduction: Historical background 15 2.2 The sociolinguistics of Singapore English 20 2.2.1 Earlier studies 20 2.2.2 The situation today 24 2.3 Grammatical morphology and discourse features 2.3.1 Tense, aspect and modality 28 2.3.2 Other grammatical features 34 2.4 Overview 39 28 Chapter Construction grammars and the paradox of ‘mixed’ construction types 3.1 Introduction: constructions in variational contexts 41 3.2 Questions of construction descriptions 43 3.2.1 Identification and terminology 43 3.2.2 Compositionality 48 3.2.3 Meaning 53 3.2.4 Form-meaning alignment in other accounts 55 59 3.3 Construction(al)isation 3.4 Construction development and coercion 67 3.4.1 Cyclical interaction 70 3.5 Summarising the current position 72 Chapter Transitivity and causativity 77 4.1 Introduction 77 4.2 What is a conventionalised scenario? 80 4.2.1 Earlier reference to the conventionalised scenario 80 41 vi Table of contents 4.2.2 Adversative conventionalized scenarios 82 4.2.3 Constraints on the use of CSs 85 4.2.4 The causative‑resultative alternate 88 4.2.5 Adversative resultatives 90 4.3 Conventionalised scenario constructions in Singaporean English 93 4.3.1 Substrate influence 94 4.3.2 The quantitative survey 99 4.3.3 Results 101 4.3.4 Comparative overview 105 4.4 Discussion 107 4.4.1 Pragmatic mechanisms of causativity reduction 4.4.2 The subject role 111 4.5 Summary 114 108 Chapter Experiential aspect 117 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 The ever construction 118 5.2.1 Negative polarity ever 118 5.2.2 SCE ever 119 5.3 Contact and substrate languages 123 5.4 Contact grammaticalisation as a possible explanation 5.5 Historical functions of English ever 132 5.5.1 Universal quantifier uses of ever in SCE 135 5.6 Logical explanations of meaning changes 136 5.7 Discussion 140 5.8 Summary 142 Chapter The past tense construction 143 6.1 Introduction 143 6.2 Tense marking in habitual aspect in SCE 145 6.3 Tense marking in habituals in other languages 6.3.1 Slavic 150 6.3.2 Chinese dialects 152 6.4 Preliminary survey data 154 6.4.1 Search items 155 6.4.2 Examples of the use of pasts-for-presents (PFP constructions) 156 149 127 Table of contents vii Distributional frequency 6.4.3 168 6.4.4 Interim summary 170 6.5 Discussion 170 6.5.1 Present-perfectives and the realis-irrealis interface in English 173 6.6 Summary 178 Chapter Bare noun constructions 181 7.1 Introduction 181 7.2 Number marking in Singapore Colloquial English count nouns 182 7.3 Specific and non‑specific nouns 184 7.4 Bare Noun Constructions in creole systems 187 7.5 Further examples of the Bare Noun Construction in SCE 7.5.1 Zero‑plural BNCs 191 7.5.2 More recent data 194 7.5.3 Specific markers in SCE 197 7.6 Number marking and the Chinese substrate 200 7.7 The Bare Noun Construction and construction coercion 7.8 Applying the coercion hypothesis to the contact data 7.8.1 A grammatical metaphor 211 7.9 Summary 213 191 204 207 Chapter The Merger Construction: a model of construction convergence 215 8.1 Introduction 215 8.2 Mechanisms of contact construction development 216 8.2.1 Convergence 216 8.2.2 Material and pattern copying 219 8.2.3 Grammaticalisation 222 8.2.4 Equivalence, and other constraints 225 8.2.5 Relexification and systemic transfer 228 8.3 The case studies in the present volume 232 8.3.1 Transitivity and the conventionalised scenario construction 8.3.2 The experiential aspect construction 236 8.3.3 The past tense construction 238 8.3.4 The bare noun construction 240 8.4 Previous studies of contact constructions 242 8.5 The Merger Construction Model 247 234 viii Table of contents 8.5.1 The Transitive Merger-Construction 248 8.5.2 The Experiential ever Merger-Construction 8.5.3 The Past Tense Merger-Construction 253 8.5.4 The Bare Noun Merger-Construction 255 8.6 Summary 258 Chapter Concluding remarks References Index 289 271 261 251 Preface and acknowledgements The main inspiration for this collection of studies developed out of one of the studies, summarised in Chapter 7, in which a case for construction coercion was held up for challenge against the data obtainable from Singapore English In particular, it was inspired by a question posed by one of the referees of Constructions and Frames, who asked whether Singapore English should be understood (in construction terms) as actually a dialect of English or a different language For the purposes of the present work, the question extends far beyond the puzzling data produced as part of that study, and certainly could be asked of any mixed language situation, creole or otherwise In response to that initial prompting, I felt it was necessary to approach the problem of constructions in contact situations using data from the more difficult areas of contact such as those in which the transparency of substrate modelling is not so clearly in evidence, and furthermore, to attempt to create a theoretical platform based on the use of ambiguous construction frameworks The confusion of contact constructions has been tackled by few researchers so far, and it is hoped that the present volume of studies can contribute towards resolving many of the problems that arise from applying a strict construction-based descriptive approach to cases of languages in which the syntax and the lexicon derive from different languages Amongst the other papers that have contributed to this volume are included one that was written as the output of a one-year UK ESRC grant held at the U niversity of Manchester (2003) (R000223787), with the help of Sarah Lee Chapter appears as an extended version of the original study, and includes more detail than was permitted to appear in its original published form due to space limitations I am grateful to all the colleagues and students at Manchester who might have helped in providing scholarly comment or assisting in any way to shape this study Chapters 5, and were for the most part both written during an enriching, two-year Visiting Fellowship at the National University of Singapore Department of English Language and Literature, 2007-2008, while working in a “dream” office overlooking a romantic tropical harbour, dotted with shining white cargo ships and lined with coconut palms I am grateful to colleagues and students at the Chinese Department of the National University of Singapore for their comments on the study in Chapter 5, and for inviting me to present an earlier version of the study as a colloquium in their department Chapter was the output of a small grant provided by the NUS Faculty Staff Support Scheme (2008-9), and I thank in particular my student assistant, Amelyn Thompson, for her ideas and assistance in data gathering for that study To the many colleagues from the Department of English Language and Literature at NUS, including Bao Zhi Ming, Vincent 280 References Kwan‑Terry, Anna 1992 Towards a dictionary of Singapore English ‑issues relating to making entries for 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The challenge of English variational data for construction‑grammar research Handbook of world Englishes DOI: 10.1093/ oxfordhb/9780199777716.013.31 Ziegeler, Debra P To appear Historical replication in contact grammaticalisation Ziegeler, Debra P & Sarah Lee 2006 Causativity reduction in Singapore English English World‑Wide 27 265–294 Ziegeler, Debra P & Sarah Lee 2009 A metonymic analysis of Singaporean and Malaysian English causative constructions In: Klaus‑Uwe Panther, Linda L Thornburg & Antonio Barcelona (eds.), Metonymy in grammar and discourse [HCP 25], 291–322 Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Corpora used CLMET(EV): The Corpus of Late Modern English Texts (Extended Version), compiled by Hendrik de Smet https://perswww.kuleuven.be/~u0044428/clmet.htm Helsinki Corpus: Helsinki Corpus of English texts, Diachronic Part Compiled by Matti Rissanen, Merja Kytö, Leena Kahlas‑Tarkka, Matti Kilipiö, Saara Nevanlinna, Irma Taavitsainen, Terttu Nevalainen, Helena Raumolin‑Brunberg Available from The Oxford text Archive ICAME International Computer Archive of Modern and Medieval English http://icame.uib.no/ The ICE Corpus: The International Corpus of English: http://ice‑corpora.net/ ice/avail.htm ICE‑GB [=The ICE Corpus (Great Britain): The International Corpus of English: http://ice‑corpora net/ ice/avail.htm.] ICE‑IND [= The ICE Corpus (India): The International Corpus of English: http://ice‑corpora.net/ ice/avail.htm.] ICE‑SIN [= The ICE Corpus (Singapore)): The International Corpus of English: http://ice‑corpora net/ ice/avail.htm.] Index Aboh, Enoch 231 acrolect 21, 24 adstrate 7, 17, 40, 204, 261 agentivity 11, 79, 102n, 111–112, 219 Aikhenvald, Alexandra 217, 219 Aktionsart 32, 144, 146 allo-constructions 259 already 30, 129, 156, 170, 172–173, 175, 231, 231n, 265, 268 Alsagoff, Lubna 22, 24, 26, 28–29, 31, 34–35, 39, 168, 183, 195, 249, 256 analogy 51–52, 64, 78, 92, 177, 212, 222, 256, 259, 270 animacy-definiteness hierarchy 200 Ansaldo, Umberto 2, 7, 17, 21n, 24, 127, 261–262 anterior(ity) aspect/clause 11–12, 30, 120–121, 148, 152–153, 156, 158–159, 160, 162–164, 167–168, 170, 174n , 175, 178, 215, 268 Aorist 152 areal (features) 30, 129, 217, 237 Aristotelian Square of Oppositions 138 back-formation 11, 140, 252–253, 268 Backus, Ad 100 Bakker, Peter 2, 23 Bao, Zhi Ming (Zhiming) 1–2, 15–17, 24, 30, 33–36, 96, 117, 120, 126–127, 172, 216, 229–231, 235–237, 265–266, 270 basilect 22, 24, 26, 39, 283 Bencini, Gulia M.L. 88 benefactive (construction, roles) 86, 92–93, 111n, 218 Bergen, Benjamin K. 43, 236 Bickerton, Derek 17, 21, 39, 184, 189, 241 Bioprogram (Bickerton’s) 183 bleaching 63, 78, 90–91, 251 Boas, Hans 42–44, 47–53, 74, 78, 238 Bolton, Kingsley 17 borrowing 14, 23–25, 157n, 217, 219–221, 224, 277 Brinton, Laurel 244 Brisard, Frank 143 Brown, Adam 38, 67, 93, 120 Bruyn, Adrienne 127, 223–225 Butler, Susan 23 Bybee, Joan 32, 32n, 41, 52, 61, 70n, 112, 144, 149–150, 163, 170, 172, 240, 269 calque 23, 24, 35, 38, 121, 220, 240, 269 Cameroon English Pidgin 189 Cantonese 15, 20, 37–38, 95, 97, 123, 153, 203, 236, 240, 261, 282 Cappelle, Bert 259 caused motion (construction) 8–9, 42, 50, 52, 52n, 57, 58, 69, 74, 87 Chappell, Hilary 15, 121, 123, 126, 126n, 139, 141–142, 176, 252, 268 Changsha 123 Chaozhou dialect (see Teochew) Chaudenson, Robert 16 Cheng, Robert L. 152–153 Chiang, Andy 154, 156 Claridge, Claudia 154, 197 coercion 67–68, 68n, 69, 74, 181–182, 184, 204–212, 214, 257–258, 269, 272, 287 Cognitive Construction Grammar 53–54, 272 Cognitive Grammar 55, 57, 280 Colleman, Timothy 42, 42n Communicative Pressure 127–128 Comrie, Bernard 32n, 35, 144–145, 150–151, 151n, 172, 175, 266, 277 congruence 219 construct 48n, 63 constructicon 42, 46, 61, 74, 214, 216, 249, 262, 267–269 constructionalisation 55, 61–62, 62n, 63, 66, 73, 266 contact dialect 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 67, 105, 127, 181, 200, 232, 245 continuity, semantic 7, 8, 91–92, 117, 248, 250 continuum, sociolectal 22, 27, 39 convergence 4, 7, 30, 38, 117, 131, 215–218, 220, 226, 234–235, 239, 242, 246, 253, 258–259, 271, 276, 281 conversational implicature 92, 141 290 Index convertible construction 259 copying – global 220 – material 24, 36, 219, 241, 258 – partial 220 – pattern 36, 95, 219, 222, 236, 239, 246, 258, 260 – polysemy 223–225, 228 Corne, Chris 219 creoloid 6, 17, 21, 21n, 283 Crewe, William 20, 31, 283 Cristofaro, Sonia 149–150 Croft, William 3, 43–46, 48, 54, 57, 62, 65, 71, 80, 236, 238, 242, 265 countability 13, 182–184, 200, 270 Cultural Orientation Model (COM) 26–28 Dahl, Östen 30, 129, 150–151, 172, 265 Davidse, Kristin 86, 286 Davydova, Julia 18 DeCamp, David 21 definiteness 183, 186, 188, 195, 200–203, 240, 275 DeGraff, Michel 231 DeSwart, Henrietta 67, 210, 241 Deterding, David 31, 287 Detges, Ulrich 224 diasystemic construction grammar, diaconstructions 245–246, 278 diglossia, diglossic 1, 9, 17, 22, 24, 26–28, 31, 40, 232, 249, 275 discourse particle 24, 37, 37n, 38, 197n, 276, 287 ditransitive 8, 42, 48n, 50, 52n, 61 Dutch (Modern) 90, 133, 138–139, 142, 237, 252 East African English 40 equivalence 13, 225–228, 237, 239, 247, 252, 277 evidential 121, 123, 126, 126n, 139, 176, 176n, 273 feature pool 261–262 Ferguson, Charles 22, 275 Fillmore, Charles 41, 49, 51, 73, 186 frame (semantics) 49–52, 55, 214, 283 free-choice (item) 118–119, 136, 140–141, 278 free variation 31–32 Fried, Mirjam 8, 43, 48, 53–55, 57, 272, 280 fusion 218–219, 239, 249, 259, 281 Fuzhouese 123 Gan 123 Gast, Volker 130 German 64, 133, 177, 185, 188, 199, 217, 220–222, 225, 227–228, 245–247, 252 Gil, David 195, 200–201, 227, 240 Givón, Talmy 12, 89n, 127n, 144, 144n, 149, 184–185, 202 Goldberg, Adele 2–3, 8, 10, 43–44, 47, 47n, 49–52, 57–58, 63, 64–65, 77–78, 80–82, 100, 234, 242, 272 grammaticalisation 7–8, 14n, 33, 40–42, 60–61, 63–67, 72–73, 77, 107–108, 112–113, 115, 141–142, 145, 173, 189–190, 199, 218, 225–226, 228, 235, 237, 240, 247, 265, 273, 280, 283 – accelerated 127–128, 131 – contact/replica 7, 118–119, 127, 127n, 128–131, 137, 142, 173, 217, 220, 221–227, 230, 237, 247, 265, 270 – hyper- 33, 113, 239 – hypo- 113 Guerts, Bart 184–186 Gumperz, John J. 217–218 Gupta, Anthea 6, 9, 15–20, 22–25, 27, 39, 209, 271 Hagège, Claude 127 Haitian Creole 228–229, 280 Hakka 15, 123, 153, 261 Haspelmath, Martin 74, 80, 129, 136, 237 Hawaiian Creole 188, 197, 284 Heine, Bernd 6–7, 13, 40, 63, 66, 100, 118, 127–129, 160, 172, 198–199, 217–220, 222–227, 238, 241, 244, 247, 252, 260, 265, 270 Hewson, John 150, 174 Hiberno English (see Irish English) Himmelmann, Nikolaus 61 Index Ho, Mian Lian 9, 11–12, 19, 30–32, 37, 117, 119–125, 137, 145–148, 154–155, 183, 197, 239 Höder, Steffen 1, 13, 245–247, 260 Hoeksema, Jack 138 Hokkien 15, 19, 27, 36–38, 94–97, 119, 123–127, 152, 157n, 197n, 236, 240, 261, 268, 272 Hong Kong English 183, 272 Hopper, Paul 39, 42, 56, 65–66, 83, 85, 108, 112, 126, 169, 206, 224, 226, 248, 275 Horn, Laurence 133, 136n, 137, 137n, 138, 141 Hudson, Richard 4, 59 hyperanalysis 72, 203 Idealized Cognitive Model 82 immanent aspect 174 implicational perfective 254–255, 264 importation 220 Indian English 35, 40, 94n, 198, 198n, 199, 223, 284 individuation 187, 200–201, 206, 209, 256–257, 282 inducee-conflation 81 Inheritance Links 8, 52, 52n, 109–110, 110n innovation 12, 220, 239, 241, 247, 254 interlingual identification 242, 245, 247, 249, 255, 258, 260 Irish 131, 226, 243–244, 245 Irish English 35, 226, 242 irrealis 32, 144, 144n, 149, 150, 160, 173–174, 174n, 175–179, 274 isomorphism 217–218, 220, 231, 258, 277 Israel, Michael 118, 118n, 119, 132, 132n, 133, 141 Jamaican Creole 21, 187–189, 197, 283 Jespersen, Otto 133, 137 Johanson, Lars 217 Kaltenböck, Gunther 37 Kay, Paul 41–43, 73, 275 Keesing, Roger M. 221 Kejia dialect (see Hakka) Kemmer, Suzanne 89 Kövecses, Zoltán 82, 108–109, 212 291 Krifka, Manfred 176 Kru (creole) 150 Kuteva, Tania 6, 39–40, 118, 125, 127–129, 190, 198–199, 217–220, 222–223, 225–227, 238, 241, 252, 270, 277, 279 Kwan, Terry, Anna 37n, 38–39 Lakoff, George 82 Lakoff, Robyn 90, 92 lamitives 30, 128, 266 Langacker, Ronald W. 55–57, 59, 74, 112, 172–174, 176, 236, 250 layering 126, 226 Lee, Sarah 10, 79 Lefebvre, Claire 123, 219, 228–231, 233, 265, 270 Lehmann, Christian 61, 108, 239 Lehmann, Winifred 111 Leimgruber, Jacob 15–16, 22, 26–28 Leiss, Elisabeth 176–177, 188, 287–288 Leuschner, Torsten 132–133, 136, 286 Levin, Beth 52 Lexical Construction Model 49n lexical diffusion 70n, 78 Lexical Prototype Construction 69, 71–72, 210 lexifier 4, 6, 30, 36, 58–59, 128, 131, 216, 224, 228–229, 230–233, 236, 265 – filter 30, 33, 121, 231, 236–237 Li, Charles 80, 108, 112–113, 153, 171, 202–203, 235, 280 Liberian Settler English 190, 285 Lim, Lisa 15–16, 19, 37, 37n, 38, 197n, 287 lingua franca 10, 16–17, 20, 26, 128, 183 loanshift 219 loan translation 156, 221–222, 247 Low, Ee Ling 67, 93, 120, 274 Macedonian 218 Macedonian Turkish 218, 235 macro/meso-construction 60–61, 64 macro-roles 84 Malay 7, 15–18, 36–38, 94–95, 97–98, 119, 124–127, 135, 201, 216, 234 – Baba 94 – Bazaar 16, 19, 37 Malayalam 150 292 Index malefactive 36, 93 Mandarin 1, 7, 16, 19n, 20, 27–28, 33–38, 94–96, 108, 119–120, 123–124, 146, 152, 172, 183, 202, 226, 229–231, 231n, 232, 240, 249, 281 Matras, Yaron 2–4, 7, 130–131, 218–219, 219n, 220–222, 230, 233, 235, 238, 246–247 Matthews, Stephen 15, 129–130, 153, 203, 226–228, 266, 287 Media Lengua 23 medial perfect 131, 244 mesolect 21–22, 188n metaphor 70, 108, 182, 210–13 metonymy 8–9, 67, 69–70, 79, 82, 90, 108–110, 114, 138, 182 , 205, 208, 210–214, 269, 279, 283–284 , 288 – grammatical 82 Michaelis, Laura 12, 63, 67–68, 195, 204–208, 210–211 micro-construction 60–61 middle voice 111 mini constructions 49–50, 52–54, 71, 78 minimizer 11, 119, 138, 141, 242, 253, 263–264, 268 mismatch 67–69, 204–205, 208, 211, 214, 282 mixed language 2, 19, 23, 248, 264, 266, 271, 281 modal (verb) 31–33, 40, 45, 149–150, 162–163, 177, 179, 223, 252, 273 model language 6, 8, 13, 58, 128, 130, 131, 172–173, 218–219, 221, 223, 226, 228, 233, 238–239, 241, 247, 252, 260, 270 Mufwene, Salikoko 29, 36, 127, 183, 187–188, 202, 219, 223–224, 228, 233 Muysken, Pieter 36 Nau, Nicole 14, 221 negative polarity 11, 118–119, 122–123, 125, 132–134, 136, 137n, 138–141, 214, 236, 242, 252–253, 268 Newbrook, Mark 18–19, 25, 29 New English(es) 4, 216, 223, 283–284 Nigerian Pidgin English 190, 193, 201, 285 Noël, Dirk 65–66, 71 nominal modality 181, 302 Old English 64, 132–133, 138, 174, 174n, 176, 189, 223 Ooi, Vincent 154, 156 Override Principle 205, 207 Panther, Klaus-Uwe 82, 90, 108, 114, 274, 277, 284–285, 288 Patrick, Peter 188, 188n passive 36, 36n, 88–89, 89n, 90–91, 98, 107, 109–111, 114, 130, 231–232, 272 performatives 12, 171–173, 174n, 175–176, 178, 239, 245, 254–255, 264, 268–269 pidgin/China Pidgin English 16–17, 17n, 39, 127–128, 189–190, 201, 216, 221, 223, 274 Pietsch, Lukas 1, 13, 131, 242–245, 247, 260, 270 pivot 141–142, 221–222, 223, 247, 258, 260, 263, 266 pivot-matching 130–131, 142, 222, 230, 244, 249–250, 252–254 Platt, John 1, 5, 9, 11, 15, 17, 19, 20–21, 23–24, 29–30, 34, 37, 39, 143, 145–148, 170, 197, 239 polysemy 7, 14, 14n, 50–51, 130, 131, 221–223, 225, 227–228, 250, 259, 260 Poplack, Shana 190, 201, 285 precedence 12, 178, 216, 254–255, 259, 263, 269 preterite-presents 12, 176, 177 pre-transitive marker 96, 235 Principle of Maximised Motivation 77 Principle of Relevance 145 progressive (aspect) 40, 68–69, 94n, 120, 149, 172, 173–174, 242, 254, 284 Proto-roles 77 punctual aspect/verbs 12, 31, 145–146, 162, 255 quantifier 25, 119, 132–133, 136–137, 137n, 138, 142, 183, 201, 203, 231, 253 Queller, Kurt 140 Radden, Günter 9, 82, 108–109, 205, 210, 213, 274 Index Radical Construction Grammar 46, 56–57, 62, 274 reanalysis 62, 117, 137, 140, 142, 224, 249, 252, 256, 277 Recipient language 219 referentiality 136, 159, 182, 184, 186, 190, 194–195, 200, 202–203, 207–208, 211, 213–214 reflexive, reflexive causativity 88, 89n, 92, 106–107, 234, 249, 267 reification 227 relabelling (see relexification) relexification 219, 224, 228–230, 234, 236–237, 247, 258, 265, 270, 280 repeatability 121n, 123, 135, 141, 252–253, 259, 263–264 replacement, lexical/syntactic 108 replica language 6–7, 13–14, 59, 128, 130, 220–223, 226–228, 230, 239, 242, 242–248, 260 – pre-contact 6, 233, 248–249, 252 restructuring 14, 216, 225, 265, 275 resultative/causative-resultative 50, 79–83, 88, 88n, 89–91, 108–110, 110n, 171, 235, 267, 276 retention, lexical 34, 249 retentionist (approach) 39, 131, 242 Romaine, Suzanne 39 Ruiz de Mendoza Ibañez, Francisco 71, 280 Sag, Ivan 42–43, 184, 275 Sakel, Jeanette 131, 219–222, 230, 233, 238, 246–247, 258 Sasse, Hans-Jürgen 32, 144 selection restrictions 87, 112, 114, 206, 235 Serbo-Croatian 151–152, 268 serial verb 107–108, 249 Schneider, Edgar 5, 19, 275 Shanghainese 123 Sharma, Devyani 40, 198, 198n Shibatani, Masayoshi 80, 111, 113, 211, 295 Singler, John 150, 190 Sinti Romani 220–221 293 Slavic 144, 150–151, 224, 227 Smith, Carlota 32n, 36, 144–145 Source language 36, 59, 75, 118, 131, 141–142, 216, 219, 231, 248 Southern Min dialect (see Hokkien) Speak Mandarin Campaign 20, 94 Sranan 223–224 Stefanowitsch, Anatol 110 Stewart, Michele 187–188 subjectivity 185 Subject-Predicate construction 47, 54, 113, 206, 208 substrate 6–7, 13–14, 19, 24, 28–30, 33–34, 40, 94–95, 117, 123, 128–129, 142, 198–200, 221, 228–230, 232–233, 261–262, 265–266, 268 Superventive Relations 83 systemic transfer 172, 228, 236, 239, 247, 258, 265, 272 Szmrecsanyi, Benedikt 209 Tagliamonte, Sali 190, 201, 283 Talmy, Leonard 81, 83–84, 89 Tamil 7, 16, 18–19, 94–95, 98, 150, 199, 216 Tan, Peter K W. 154–156 Teochew 15, 94, 261 Thomason, Sarah G. 23, 217, 219–220 Thornburg, Linda 82, 90, 108, 114, 288 Tomasello, Michael 74 tone 37, 37n, 38 topicalisation, topic-prominence 4, 11, 35, 79, 111–114, 211, 235, 235n, 251, 261, 266–267, 272, 281, 284 transitivization 80–81 transnumerality 198, 203, 209, 269 Traugott, Elizabeth 3–4, 8, 39, 41–43, 45, 54, 57, 59, 60–61, 62–66, 71n, 72–73, 117, 205, 213, 224, 265n, 266 Trousdale, Graeme 3, 8, 45, 59, 63–66, 74, 77, 272–274, 276, 278, 286 Trinidadian English 223 Turkish 80, 137, 217–218, 235, 244 unboundedness 256–257, 259, 264, 269 Undergoer (role) 83, 83n, 84–85, 88, 106, 107 294 Index Van der Auwera, Johan 130, 266 verb-specific constructions 3, 52, 71 voice-conversion 88, 91 Von Heusinger, Klaus 185–186 Wee, Lionel 36–37, 231, 271 Weinreich, Uriel 242, 245 Winford, Donald 219 Wong, Jock 37–39 Wong, Richard 95 Yap, Foong Ha 88, 95n, 98, 125, 227 Yip, Virginia 129–130, 153, 203, 226–228, 266 Ziegeler, Debra 32–33, 42, 69–70, 113, 145, 174, 190–191, 199, 214, 240, 269