INTRODUCTION
Research background
In the 21st century, globalization remains a significant force in higher education, fostering a shared academic environment characterized by values such as democracy, modernity, and academic freedom The advancement of information technology and the prevalence of English as a global language have facilitated easier academic exchanges between countries, leading to collaborative international research projects Students increasingly seek opportunities abroad, often feeling a stronger connection to the cultures of their host countries than to their own, as they pursue prestigious academic institutions This shift indicates that students prioritize the reputation of universities over the country of study, highlighting globalization's influence on academic migration and the selection of appealing destinations for their educational journeys.
Globalization's impact on higher education has raised concerns about brain drain, particularly as talented individuals from developing countries seek better educational and life opportunities in the West This phenomenon creates a dilemma for these nations, as they struggle to retain potential students while facing challenges of limited university access However, it can be argued that academic globalization may transform brain drain into "brain gain," as many who left may return to capitalize on opportunities in their home countries' evolving economies Altbach (2004) notes that universities risk exclusion from the 21st-century higher education landscape if they fail to adapt to the trends of globalization in economic and social contexts.
In the 21st century, universities are increasingly competing on a global scale, striving to internationalize their operations and ambitions This internationalization serves as a crucial strategy for enhancing the competitiveness of higher education institutions and advancing domestic universities to meet the demands of economic development and competition.
Globalization significantly influences higher education (HE) through economic and technological trends, as noted by Altbach (2004) In contrast, internationalization provides countries with the flexibility to formulate policies and initiatives that can help them adapt to globalization's effects This process allows higher education institutions (HEIs) to pursue development strategies that align with their unique contexts rather than simply following global trends Despite this potential for autonomy, there is limited evidence of any country successfully opting out of the internationalization trend in higher education.
Altbach & Knight (2007) highlight that the internationalization of higher education (HE) is driven by significant profit opportunities, leading to the rise of for-profit universities alongside traditional non-profits Universities are increasingly engaging in multinational agreements, establishing branches, and offering diverse study abroad models like licensing and joint ventures, while enhancing cross-border research and student exchange programs Countries such as the UK, US, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand reap substantial benefits from global student recruitment In Asia, nations like China, Singapore, Taiwan, and Japan have recognized the potential of international scholars Japan's "The 100,000 by 2000" initiative aimed to enhance education quality and foster a supportive environment for international students, followed by the Global 30 Project in 2009 to attract 300,000 international students by 2020 Similarly, China's Project 985, launched in 1998, funded elite universities to develop research centers and attract international talent, significantly increasing the number of foreign students in the country.
Japan and China's proposals highlight the advantages of Higher Education (HE) Internationalization According to De Wit & Hunter (2015), internationalization is defined as the intentional integration of global dimensions into post-secondary education to enhance educational quality and societal contributions However, the aforementioned projects lean more towards Internationalization at Home (IaH) rather than broader internationalization or Internationalization Abroad (IA) Knight (2006) describes IA as encompassing cross-border education and mobility, while IaH focuses on incorporating international elements into domestic curricula and activities Beelen & Jones (2015) define IaH as the purposeful integration of international and intercultural dimensions within domestic learning environments The concept of IaH was first introduced at the 11th EAIE Conference in 1999 as a response to the misconception that internationalization solely equates to student mobility This notion emerged from the Erasmus program, which prioritized administrative solutions over program quality Despite IaH gaining recognition, it has not matched the prominence of IA in recent decades (de Wit & Altbach, 2021a) Ultimately, internationalization is driven by profit, but countries also gain benefits from the process before realizing direct profits IaH is particularly crucial for building capacity in developing countries (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b).
Problem statement
In Vietnam, English Medium Instruction (EMI) plays a significant role in the internationalization of higher education (HE) as noted by Duong & Chua (2016) Understanding the effectiveness of government initiatives to promote EMI is essential, with current studies primarily focusing on EMI policies and management (Nguyen et al., 2017; Tran & Nguyen, 2018; Nguyen, 2018) However, the perspectives of Vietnamese lecturers on EMI implementation have been largely overlooked, with only one notable study addressing this issue (Vu & Burns, 2014) This gap is concerning, as lecturers are key contributors to internationalization in higher education (Robson et al., 2018), highlighting the need for further exploration of their views on EMI's impact on HE internationalization in Vietnam.
Research purpose
EMI programs are widely adopted in higher education systems globally, yet their benefits and challenges vary by country In Vietnam, while EMI programs are prevalent in universities, research on their implementation issues is scarce This study utilizes a qualitative approach focusing on lecturers, who play a crucial role in developing EMI-related learning practices that indirectly impact students The findings aim to assist university administrators and educational policymakers in formulating or revising policies based on the insights gained.
Research questions
In light of the above-mentioned issues, this study attempted to answer three research questions:
1 What are the lecturers' beliefs and attitudes on the implementation of EMI programs in their HEIs?
2 What are the most significant problems that lecturers in EMI programs face?
3 How do the lecturers perceive the role of EMI programs towards HE IaH in Vietnam?
Research scope and time
This study gathered primary data through in-depth interviews with randomly selected university lecturers from various institutions nationwide The research specifically focused on those teaching English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs during the epidemic outbreak in Hanoi, with interviews conducted online.
Research significance
This study aims to equip Vietnamese higher education institutions (HEIs) and policymakers with realistic insights into the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs The recommendations based on lecturers' perceptions will significantly aid the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and university administrators in making timely adjustments for more effective EMI adoption in the future Additionally, this research contributes to the theoretical landscape of EMI by validating existing theories and enhancing the literature in this field.
In this scope of this study, ROAD-MAPPING theoretical framework is validated.
Structure of research
The thesis will contain five chapters with the contents as follow:
Chapter 1: Introduction illustrates the research background and clarifies the problem and purpose of the study The research questions, and the significance of the study are also presented in this section
Chapter 2: Literature Review comprises 2 main sections, including literature review and theoretical framework In the first section, the two first subsections in turn emphasize the importance of world HE in general, then reviewing the development process of HE in Vietnam Subsequently, other subsections review EMI-related practice development both in the global context and in Vietnam The review of the many EMI literatures in different contexts in this chapter helps this study to identify issues that need to be investigated later Importantly, this chapter has an entire subsection that examines the research literature on lecturers' perspective on EMI practice development The last section focuses on expressing and describing the theoretical framework of this study h
Chapter 3: Methodology focuses on describing how to collect and exploit qualitative data in this research This chapter also addresses the ethical aspects required when this research is conducted such as consent form, ensuring the confidentiality of the interviewees' identities as well as storing the collected data in the safest way
Chapter 4: Qualitative data analysis discusses the data collected from the interviews
The key findings are organized around central themes such as the Roles of English, Academic Disciplines, Language Management, Practices and Processes, and the impacts of Internationalization and Globalization This chapter further interprets these findings by addressing three primary research questions in a representative manner.
Chapter 5: Implications and Conclusions provides policy implications for EMI practices in the future h
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review
The higher education (HE) system is crucial for national development, significantly contributing to economic stimulation and social progress According to Jamil Salmi, a World Bank expert on higher education, governments and institutions aspiring to achieve world-class status must first consider the necessity of such universities for their country This inquiry arises from the understanding that knowledge is a key driver of economic growth and global competitiveness, with universities playing an essential role in generating that knowledge (Salmi, 2009) This acknowledgment is well-founded and highlights the importance of HE in fostering development.
Founded in 1810 in Prussia, the University of Berlin emerged as a pivotal institution aimed at revitalizing the nation intellectually after the devastating defeat by Napoleon in 1806 This defeat left German society in turmoil, with a crippled economy and a decline in scientific progress, while England advanced through the Industrial Revolution The closure of Prussian universities by Napoleon underscored the need for educational reform, leading to the establishment of the University of Berlin as a beacon of hope This reform mandated that public servants receive university training, ultimately producing a capable civil service that facilitated Germany's recovery and transformation in the 19th century By the century's end, the University of Berlin had become a model for modern universities across Europe, the United States, Japan, and China, symbolizing Germany's remarkable resurgence.
The United States emerged as a superpower, akin to Germany, due to the rapid advancement of higher education (HE) that fueled its economic, social, and defense capabilities This growth was significantly bolstered by a continuous influx of talent from Europe and beyond, particularly in the aftermath of the tumultuous Nazi regime The reputation of "Made in America" remains a dominant force in higher education, unlikely to be eclipsed in the foreseeable future This success is not merely a result of migration but also stems from the strategic development of American universities, particularly during the transformative post-war periods.
2001) In the first period, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Land Act
In 1862, the American government enacted a land allocation law aimed at enhancing higher education (HE) to foster scientific advancement and economic recovery during the Civil War, underscoring the belief in HE's critical role in national reconstruction This legislation set the stage for the expansion of American universities in the 20th century, particularly following World War II, when the GI Bill facilitated college access for returning veterans The post-war era, beginning in the 1960s, marked a significant transformation in American universities, shifting from elite training institutions to inclusive environments welcoming qualified individuals from diverse backgrounds This evolution enabled countless students worldwide to aspire to attend prestigious American universities, which played a vital role in driving the remarkable economic growth seen in the United States and Germany.
Asian countries are increasingly recognizing the vital role of universities in advancing various sectors, including economics and defense, similar to the post-World War II awakening in the United States Nations such as China, India, Singapore, Korea, and Japan have openly aimed to elevate their universities to world-class status, essential for training skilled human resources and conducting high-level scientific research This initiative is crucial for fostering economic development, enhancing national prestige, and bridging the knowledge gap with Western countries Historically, Japan and China established their universities—like Peking University (1898), Tokyo University (1886), and Kyoto University (1897)—with the urgent mission of reforming their nations in response to perceived threats from Western powers.
Universities have emerged as symbols of innovation and national power, essential for the development of science and industry, particularly in developing countries eager to send students to advanced higher education institutions in the United States and Europe This trend highlights the global exchange of ideas, allowing students and academics to thrive based on their insights rather than backgrounds However, Altbach (2015) points out that while universities are seen as engines for economic growth, their social roles are often overlooked Historical examples show that universities can also be misused for political ends, as seen during the Nazi regime and Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution Despite recognizing the importance of scientific research for economic development, some societies remain hindered by cultural beliefs and restrictive academic practices, particularly in Asian universities, which often emphasize rote learning over independent thinking and limit freedom of expression (Levin, 2010).
As universities achieve universal access, they face the challenge of maintaining educational quality amidst an influx of students seeking promising degrees, which can lead to economic compromises and increased pressure on faculty This situation risks producing graduates with a superficial interest in science, ultimately harming societal progress A society cannot thrive if its universities foster passive learners who do not engage critically with their education or challenge established ideas Therefore, higher education plays a crucial role in shaping the future of a nation, especially in the 21st century, where globalization has created uncertainty about universities' true missions.
2.1.2 The Vietnamese HE system in the stages of development
During the feudal period in Vietnam, higher education primarily aimed at exam success and official training rather than fostering logical thinking (Phuong, 2006) The evolution of Vietnamese universities produced graduates for public service, but during the French invasion, higher education saw limited progress compared to global advancements (Welch, 2010) Traditional Confucian learning gave way to scientific disciplines, yet access to higher education remained restricted to specific individuals, primarily to meet the staffing needs of public institutions Foreign cooperation, particularly with the former USSR, played a crucial role in developing higher education in Northern Vietnam, which followed a Soviet-style system until 1986 This system revealed its limitations amid socio-economic crises stemming from post-war challenges and the centrally planned economic model (Harman & Bich, 2010) In 1987, Vietnam shifted to a market economy under socialist orientation, initiating the Doi Moi period, which spurred significant changes in higher education alongside socio-economic development Nevertheless, Vietnam's ambition to evolve into a knowledge economy faces hurdles, as only 11% of the workforce currently holds a university degree (Parajuli et al., 2020).
(see Figure 1) Thus, it is very likely that the proportion of the labor force with a university degree in Vietnam will not increase significantly by 2050
Figure 1 Vietnam’s Labor Force Distribution by Education Level
(Source: World Bank (2018) Vietnam’s Future Jobs: Leveraging Mega-Trends for h
This also reflects the low access to higher education in Vietnam (see Figure 2) From
From 2000 to 2016, Vietnam's Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) lagged significantly behind other East Asian countries, trailing Malaysia by 15 years by 2016 Despite notable advancements, Vietnam's GER in 2016 was comparable to Malaysia's but still lower than the Philippines' in 2002 Additionally, a study by Tran et al (2022) assessed the economic impact of 172 Vietnamese higher education institutions and revealed a lack of exceptional efficiency in their performance from 2012 to 2016.
Figure 2 Tertiary Education GER in some East Asia countries, 2000-2016
In Vietnam, the internationalization of higher education (HE) is significantly influenced by various processes and activities, including the concept of Internationalization at Home (IaH) This movement is characterized by a strategically directed effort to enhance the global engagement of Vietnamese institutions (Nguyen & Tran, 2018; Ryu & Nguyen, 2021).
Since 2005, Vietnam's Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA) has aimed to fundamentally transform the higher education system from 2006 to 2020, aligning it with the nation's socio-economic development and the demand for a skilled workforce to facilitate international economic integration Key objectives of HERA include preparing for international agreements, fostering internationalization at home (IaH), and promoting cross-border higher education Additionally, the "Strategy for Education Development for Vietnam 2011–2020" further emphasized the importance of international cooperation, increasing funding for faculty to study abroad, and establishing modern universities and research centers to attract both domestic and international researchers The Vietnamese government's approach to higher education internationalization operates on three levels: student mobility, institutional initiatives such as Advanced Programs (APs), Joint Programs (JPs), and High-Quality Programs (HQPs), and governmental efforts to create excellent universities in collaboration with foreign entities.
At the student level, studying abroad is viewed as a realistic answer for the country to the human resource demand and to catch up with regional and national advancements
At this level, both talented students and faculty are involved, with government initiatives like Project 322 and Project 911 aimed at sponsoring qualified candidates to study abroad However, these projects lack policies to encourage the return of these students and the Vietnamese diaspora, failing to provide attractive working conditions for those who prefer to build their careers overseas Additionally, policies related to student mobility are vulnerable to unexpected challenges, such as pandemics, immigration restrictions, and the impacts of Brexit (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b).
The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has established APs, joint or twinning programs, and HQPs to produce graduates with superior English proficiency compared to those in traditional mass programs These initiatives utilize English as the medium of instruction, allowing students to access cutting-edge materials from highly regarded universities by incorporating curricula from institutions ranked among the top 200 globally While these programs play a crucial role in enhancing the internationalization of higher education in Vietnam, they also represent a significant shift in educational approaches.
In Vietnam, the emphasis on "policy borrowing" has hindered the integration of international elements into the curriculum (Tran et al., 2018) The focus of educational programs is predominantly on demand-driven fields such as business administration, accounting, finance, and banking (Hoang et al., 2018) Additionally, access to these programs is restricted to a small group of elite students who can afford the high tuition costs (Hoang et al., 2018; Tran & Marginson, 2018).
In terms of the governmental level, the government initiated an ambitious project in
In 2006, the "Excellent University" project aimed to establish or upgrade institutions in Vietnam to become research universities that meet global education and research standards, supported by developed countries Despite its ambitious goals, concerns arose regarding financial dependence and the availability of qualified full-time faculty, as many foreign lecturers were only part-time (Hoang et al., 2018) This indicates that the internationalization of Vietnamese higher education (HE) is viewed more as a goal in itself rather than a means to enhance educational quality, research, and societal service (de Wit & Altbach, 2021b) Consequently, while the Vietnamese HE system seeks greater internationalization, it has been relatively inactive in developing proposals, initiatives, or policies to support this aim Nguyen (2009) characterized the situation as an enhancement of international and regional cooperation and integration in higher education.
Theoretical framework
This study utilizes the ROAD-MAPPING framework, designed for English-medium education in multilingual university environments (Dafouz & Smit, 2016) The authors emphasize the necessity of a comprehensive understanding due to the lack of consensus among English Medium Instruction (EMI) theoretical perspectives ROAD-MAPPING effectively integrates diverse viewpoints, serving as a valuable reference for analyzing specific contexts while recognizing the ongoing interaction between global and local influences This approach enables researchers to extend their analyses beyond individual cases, facilitating comparisons and conclusions across various educational settings (Dafouz & Smit, 2016, p 398).
The term EMEMUS represents a global trend in higher education, highlighting the significance of English-medium instruction for academic success and international communication It underscores the importance of multilingualism in universities, focusing on English as a primary medium of instruction This approach reflects English's critical role in academia, the internet, commerce, and research To effectively navigate this landscape, ROAD-MAPPING serves as a comprehensive model that outlines various aspects of English Medium Instruction (EMI), providing valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders on effective EMI policy strategies (Tri & Moskovsky, 2019).
ROAD-MAPPING integrates three key theories: twenty-first-century sociolinguistics, language ecology, and language policy, alongside the concept of social practice as discourse The sociolinguistic framework emphasizes the crucial role of language in shaping social interactions and order, highlighting that contemporary societies are increasingly fluid and dynamic Language ecology examines the interplay between languages and their societal contexts, revealing a deep interconnection among various agents within any environment This understanding is complemented by language policy, which focuses on deliberate efforts to modify linguistic landscapes.
Dafouz & Smit (2016) argue that social practices in teaching and learning are shaped by discourse, which serves as a mode of thinking and knowledge construction This perspective allows for a deeper investigation of social behaviors Their framework identifies six key dimensions: Roles of English, Academic Disciplines, Language Management, Agents, Practices and Processes, and Internationalization and Globalization, all centered around the concept of discourse Discourse acts as a pivotal entry point to explore these interconnected elements.
Figure 3 The ROAD-MAPPING framework (Dafouz & Smit, 2016) h
This study examines the perspectives of Vietnamese lecturers on the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, highlighting English's role within a multilingual context where it serves as an academic language, a means of communication, and a medium for teaching and learning The research categorizes academic disciplines into various types—hard vs soft and pure vs applied—while exploring the specific characteristics of each in relation to EMI It also addresses language management, focusing on the policies that guide EMI implementation and the administrative decisions that regulate language use in this context, often revealing implicit rather than explicit language rules Furthermore, the study identifies key stakeholders involved in EMI-related decisions, including planning and assessment activities It emphasizes the teaching and learning practices in EMI classrooms that shape disciplinary knowledge and influence instructors' views on these processes Lastly, the study acknowledges the impact of internationalization and globalization, which higher education institutions must navigate in today's knowledge economy.
METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes how the information was gathered and analyzed For establishing the relevance of the data obtained, Minichiello et al (2008) suggested three basic steps
The process of generating ideas involves systematically organizing and presenting facts Initially, primary data was collected, coded, and categorized into relevant themes, as outlined by Creswell and Poth (2016) The study identified specific themes, which were then structured into six dimensions based on a defined framework Consequently, key findings and relevant verbatim quotes were provided for each theme, detailed in Chapter 4.
This research employs a qualitative approach to gain a deeper understanding of the social environment from the perspective of its participants (Bryman, 2004) In-depth interviews were conducted with 14 Vietnamese lecturers involved in three primary types of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs in Vietnam: APs, JPs, and HQPs The key characteristics of each program type are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3 Summary of the main features of three main kind of EMI programs
1505/QD-TTg, APs in Vietnamese Universities in the period of 2008-2015
73/2012/NĐ-CP, The foreign cooperation and investment in education Hanoi, VN
23/2014/TT-BGDĐT, Issues provisions on high quality training at university learning
Majors are delivered 100% in English
Majors are delivered at least 20% in English
Curriculum Imported 100% from partner universities
Due to the significant effects of the COVID pandemic, all interviews were conducted online, with individual semi-structured sessions lasting between 45 to 60 minutes The interview protocol was crafted by the study's author, aligning with the theoretical framework's dimensions To protect the lecturers' identities and ensure the confidentiality of their universities, Table 3 provides information about the participants without disclosing their specific fields of expertise, maintaining anonymity within this small qualitative sample.
Table 4 Summary of collected participants’ information
Participant Gender Age Degree Experience as
Type of EMI Programs teaching
Lecturer 1 Male 42 PhD More than 5 years Advanced programs Lecturer 2 Female 36 Master More than 5 years Joint programs
Lecturer 3 Female 31 Master Less than 5 years Joint programs/HQPs Lecturer 4 Female 32 Master Less than 5 years Joint programs
Lecturer 5 Female 40 Master More than 5 years Joint programs/HQPs Lecturer 6 Female 32 Master Less than 5 years HQPs
Lecturer 7 Female 31 Master Less than 5 years Joint programs
Lecturer 8 Male 39 PhD More than 5 years Joint programs
Lecturer 9 Female 35 Master More than 5 years Advanced programs/
Joint programs/ HQPs Lecturer 10 Female 38 Master More than 5 years Joint programs/HQPs Lecturer 11 Male 38 PhD More than 5 years Joint programs
Lecturer 12 Female 30 Master Less than 5 years Joint programs/HQPs h
Lecturer 13 Female 26 Master Less than 5 years HQPs
Lecturer 14 Male 28 Master Less than 5 years Joint programs
For qualitative analysis, recorded audios and transcripts were converted into written form, capturing speech patterns, emotions, moods, and non-verbal communication The transcripts were organized in Excel, providing an easily understandable coded format for qualitative data This coded material was subsequently translated into English, with participant responses numbered consecutively.
To ensure content accuracy and translation quality in this study, codes and quotes were translated into English by a bilingual author familiar with the concepts in the record forms Given that participants spoke Vietnamese and shared a cultural background, language gaps and cultural barriers were minimized To prevent bias in the researcher-translator's decisions, translations were back-translated into Vietnamese, ensuring reliability (van Nes et al., 2010) This back-translation was performed by a bilingual Vietnamese student majoring in English at the University of Linguistics and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, and adjustments were made until acceptable equivalence was achieved Once translation quality was confirmed, verbatim quotations were utilized as part of the results, as they provide the most reliable evidence of participant understanding (Corden & Sainsbury, 2006) The most relevant quotations for each theme were selected to illustrate the analysis effectively.
In qualitative research, it is crucial for researchers to address ethical considerations This study ensured informed consent from both authors and participants prior to the interviews, as outlined in Appendix A Participants agreed to partake in the study only after comprehensively understanding the interview's purpose and voluntarily consenting to participate They were provided with detailed information about the study beforehand to help them make an informed decision regarding their involvement.
The author emphasized that the information obtained from interviews was exclusively for the benefit of this study, ensuring strict confidentiality of all participant data It was highlighted that participants’ responses remained private and unidentifiable, with no public disclosure After data collection, the audio recordings were securely stored in a protected database on the researcher's computer.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Findings
Chapter 4 discusses the findings of a qualitative study that investigated lecturers’ perceptions about EMI-associated practices in Vietnamese tertiary context The findings provided in this chapter were derived from a study of qualitative data collected from lecturers Before leading to the overall discussion, the findings are provided in six thematic sections representatively
* Language proficiency of lecturers and students
In discussions about the necessary English proficiency for effective teaching and learning in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, many teachers expressed uncertainty regarding specific language requirements They emphasized that lecturers should first be masters of their professional knowledge, with the assumption that those selected for EMI programs are qualified graduates who have studied in English-speaking environments, thus possessing a reliable level of language proficiency Similarly, while English is deemed essential for students in EMI programs, it is not the sole determinant of academic success Some lecturers noted that high scores on international language certificates do not always correlate with strong performance in specialized subjects, highlighting that language certification does not equate to possessing in-depth knowledge in a field.
English is primarily a tool for basic communication between teachers and students, enabling understanding during lessons and facilitating the expression of opinions At the university level, students should prioritize developing their professional knowledge over merely achieving high proficiency in English However, excelling in both English and specialized knowledge would be an ideal scenario.
Mastering English skills without a grasp of specialized knowledge is a significant concern for students Participation in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs should enable students to effectively communicate with teachers, comprehend lesson content, and engage in discussions To achieve this, I believe students should aim for an IELTS score of at least 6.5 or higher.
While the interviewed lecturers did not specify the exact English proficiency required for students in EMI programs, they unanimously agreed that participating in these programs, particularly those conducted entirely in English, enhances learners' foreign language skills at the university level.
* The influence of English on Vietnamese
Lecturers interviewed indicated that acquiring specialized knowledge in English, whether 20% or 100%, has minimal impact on their use of Vietnamese, including its application as an academic language They believe that studying in English within a domestic setting occupies only a small fraction of their overall time, which is predominantly spent communicating in their mother tongue with family and friends.
“Only using English in the university period will certainly affect students' development and use of Vietnamese as an academic language As a lecturer myself,
I feel that influence very clearly, especially since I studied in English from university to master's degree Sometimes I find it more difficult to explain technical terms in Vietnamese than in English.” (L6)
Lecturers in EMI programs share a consensus on the importance of English for students, highlighting their concerns regarding the organization and design of specialized English courses Many lecturers lack collaboration with specialized English teachers and are unaware of the content taught in these classes Despite students having completed specialized English courses prior to their major studies, lecturers noted that many still struggle with the language requirements of their academic programs.
Due to the observation that students struggle to absorb knowledge and engage in discussions in English, we have made the decision to conduct our studies in Vietnamese while maintaining the curriculum, subject content, and presentation slides in English.
I aim to conduct my classes entirely in English; however, I worry that without occasionally using Vietnamese, my students may lose interest in their studies Despite my efforts to encourage them to read and familiarize themselves with the material beforehand, it seems that this approach has not been effective, as I sense they are not fully engaging with the content.
In the past, strict rules mandated that students must pass specialized English classes to pursue their majors This requirement has since changed, allowing students to focus on their major while fulfilling English requirements later This shift has positively impacted class quality, as it enables me to assist students with technical terms without the added challenge of their struggles with basic communication skills.
Teachers in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs that utilize 100% English for all subjects report more favorable feedback regarding students' challenges in studying their majors compared to those in programs where only 20-50% of subjects are taught in English They attribute this to the increased exposure students have to the English language, which enhances their familiarity with the language Consequently, in 100% English EMI programs, students may face difficulties primarily with specialized terminology in academic literature that they have yet to encounter, rather than with the language itself.
* Curriculum, syllabus, and subject content
Feedback from interviewed lecturers indicates that, aside from EMI programs like APs and JPs, which fully adopt curricula from partner universities, most EMI programs are primarily designed by their faculty These faculty members often reference foreign university curricula, adapting them to suit local students Lecturers who do not hold positions such as program director typically do not participate in curriculum development Many lecturers expressed that their freedom to design course content led to a lack of focus on overall curriculum development Furthermore, most prefer using English materials from global universities, believing it is more beneficial for Vietnamese students to access resources in English rather than relying on translated materials.
Teaching a fully imported curriculum accredited by prestigious global universities provides me with a greater sense of security compared to using frameworks developed by local Vietnamese lecturers, which can appear inconsistent and lack international recognition.
Having majored in my teaching subject since university, I initially studied Vietnamese However, while pursuing my master's degree, I was surprised to find that the English terms I encountered differed significantly from my understanding in Vietnamese This experience motivates me to ensure that my students grasp these terms correctly from the start, preventing them from facing similar challenges in the future.
Explaining specialized terms in English often proves to be easier than in Vietnamese due to the challenge of finding precise equivalent meanings Consequently, even when conducting lessons in Vietnamese, I prefer to retain the original English names and definitions of these terms.
* Disparities in discipline in EMI programs
Discussion
This study examined the views of Vietnamese lecturers on the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs in higher education, highlighting positive attitudes towards their operation Many lecturers advocate for the continued development and expansion of EMI programs, viewing them as essential for aligning with the country's educational and economic objectives in a globalized context They recognize that EMI enhances students' language proficiency, fosters active learning, and promotes entrepreneurship Interviews revealed that EMI students are perceived to have better employment prospects in international settings compared to those in traditional Vietnamese Medium Instruction (VMI) classrooms Previous research supports this notion, indicating that EMI significantly enhances future job opportunities, as students acquire both specialized knowledge and language skills that are valuable in the job market.
EMI programs are deemed essential for the advancement of higher education in Vietnam, as English is widely recognized as the global language of academia The study indicates that most specialized learning materials are produced in English, allowing both lecturers and students to access current scientific knowledge directly By engaging with original English texts, they can understand the material's true meaning, which may be lost in translation This approach not only enhances comprehension but also prepares Vietnamese students for international integration and academic standards These findings align with previous research (Tran & Nguyen, 2018).
The results drawn from the study also show that the lecturers have the same opinion about the implementation of EMI programs that do not cause inequity for Vietnamese
The study's findings suggest that the growth of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs will diversify the higher education (HE) market, challenging previous research by Hoang et al (2018) and Tran & Marginson (2018) While acknowledging that EMI primarily benefits elite students with strong English skills and those from affluent backgrounds, the research argues that the establishment of EMI programs can retain talented students in Vietnam rather than encouraging them to study abroad Furthermore, it highlights the importance of attracting foreign students to Vietnam through EMI programs, which would allow for self-sustaining tuition fees and generate revenue for the Vietnamese higher education sector, similar to practices in more developed countries.
In a study on code-switching in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, interviewed lecturers expressed two opposing views Half of the lecturers argued for the necessity of using 100% English in EMI classes, fearing that switching to Vietnamese could foster a reliance on the mother tongue and diminish the value of EMI education, a concern echoed in previous research (Kyeyune, 2003) Conversely, the other half supported flexible code-switching, especially when clarifying complex terms, as noted by Karakas (2016) and Simbolon (2017) They emphasized that such flexibility is crucial for alleviating student anxiety and enhancing engagement, particularly when students have varying levels of English proficiency This approach helps maintain interest and motivation in the classroom, as a lack of interaction can lead to boredom and a teacher-centered environment, undermining the intended student-centered focus of EMI programs.
Our study indicates that lecturers face challenges in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs primarily related to workload and mental health While instructors acknowledge the increased time required for lesson preparation, including clarifying complex terms and creating lecture materials, they view this as a necessary professional obligation However, they express frustration over additional side jobs that lack appropriate compensation Previous research corroborates the rise in workload associated with EMI programs Although the lecturers did not report severe mental health issues, their responses suggest an awareness of stressors impacting their well-being, primarily stemming from workload, feelings of non-conformity, and student assessment scores.
The motivations driving lecturers to participate in English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs are largely influenced by the appeal of status and salary, which seem to overshadow concerns about their mental health While they acknowledge the potential risks to their well-being, these educators prioritize their professional commitments Notably, the findings indicate that Vietnamese teachers in this study are not coerced into EMI teaching, as suggested by earlier research, but are instead motivated by their own ambitions Furthermore, their motivations appear to be more pragmatic compared to those observed in previous studies.
In contrast to previous studies, this research highlights that the primary motivation for lecturers to remain engaged in teaching is not the internationalization of domestic higher education or the welfare of students, but rather a salary that reflects their abilities.
The Government of Vietnam prioritizes the establishment and growth of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs as a key component of its higher education reform strategy These programs are seen as a vital means to enhance the internationalization of higher education, equipping Vietnamese students with essential English language skills and competencies needed for the global workforce Qualitative data indicates that lecturers' perceptions of the motivations behind EMI implementation align with previous studies, highlighting globalization and internationalization as significant factors driving the adoption of EMI in Vietnam.
The implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs in Vietnamese higher education is significantly influenced by globalization and internationalization, which have reshaped societal demands for a standardized workforce and altered student learning needs This shift has prompted universities to adapt their development strategies and align with national policies Lecturers in the study highlight the Vietnamese government's proactive approach to harnessing the benefits of globalization and internationalization through EMI, including the recruitment of foreign experts and Vietnamese educators with international experience, the adoption of foreign curricula and textbooks, and attracting foreign investment in higher education Consequently, they view EMI as a crucial strategy for globalizing and internationalizing Vietnamese higher education, ultimately preparing its citizens for successful integration into the global landscape.
The study reveals a significant discrepancy between the perceptions of interviewed lecturers and the expectations set by the Vietnamese government regarding English Medium Instruction (EMI) policies While the government anticipated a strong correlation between EMI implementation and improved university rankings, the lecturers expressed skepticism about such a direct relationship They acknowledged that while EMI programs could support internationalization efforts, they cannot solely enhance Vietnam's educational quality or rankings The lecturers emphasized that to maximize the impact of EMI on university reputation and international integration, a multifaceted approach involving various strategies is essential.
Lecturers in Vietnamese universities have mixed views on whether the implementation of English Medium Instruction (EMI) promotes Internationalization at Home (IaH), particularly in light of the government's "policy borrowing" strategy This strategy allows for the adaptation of foreign educational programs while adhering to their core content and teaching methods While lecturers acknowledge that "policy borrowing" provides valuable access to high-quality resources for both educators and students, they argue it does not inherently foster IaH They emphasize the need for activities that facilitate a shift from traditional mindsets and enhance intercultural competence, considering factors like the ratio of international students to faculty These insights align with previous research, indicating that higher education IaH in Vietnam serves to strengthen international and regional cooperation in the sector.
IMPLICATIONS, CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS
Many non-English speaking countries, including Vietnam, have embraced English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, influenced by various factors such as economic, social, political, and educational contexts In Vietnam, the adoption of EMI is driven by educational and socioeconomic factors, yet there is limited research on the challenges of implementing these programs This study explores lecturers' views on how EMI affects the internationalization of higher education (HE) in Vietnam, utilizing the ROAD-MAPPING framework to identify key dimensions of EMI While focusing on the impact of EMI on HE internationalization, it highlights the interconnectedness of English language use, academic disciplines, language management, and other factors with internationalization efforts The findings suggest that for EMI to effectively enhance HE internationalization in Vietnam, it is crucial to develop policies that consider these various aspects The study also reveals a disconnect between government policies and actual practices in EMI implementation, indicating the long-term ineffectiveness of current programs aimed at promoting internationalization Although universities operate under the Ministry of Education and Training's oversight, they retain autonomy over tuition fees, recruitment, and management Therefore, the lecturers in this study advocate for a more proactive approach from Vietnamese universities and HE policymakers in implementing EMI programs.
To enhance the quality of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs in Vietnamese universities, it is crucial to establish clear language requirements for lecturers Currently, the standards for teachers' English proficiency are primarily based on their study abroad experiences, leading to a situation where many lecturers become EMI instructors without proper training This reliance on short-term pedagogical certificates could have detrimental long-term effects on the effectiveness of EMI education Furthermore, the pedagogical skills necessary for EMI courses are frequently neglected, with many instructors continuing to utilize traditional Vietnamese-language teaching methods To address these issues, universities should implement specific language requirements alongside comprehensive guidelines for EMI teaching methods, ensuring that while teaching quality is improved, lecturers retain the flexibility to express their creativity in the classroom.
To enhance the effectiveness of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, universities must focus on revitalizing their EMI faculty by alleviating them from unrelated responsibilities This allows lecturers to engage in professional development activities, such as attending national and international seminars, expanding their networks, and collaborating on research projects Given the unique characteristics of each discipline within EMI programs, university leaders should organize regular academic meetings and seminars at the departmental level to facilitate faculty interaction and knowledge sharing Additionally, universities need to implement a robust financial support system and an appealing recognition and reward framework to foster the professional growth of EMI lecturers Furthermore, providing increased financial assistance to students and promoting this through faculty channels will enhance lecturers' connection to the EMI program and its students Notably, as EMI programs often attract elite students due to their higher tuition fees compared to Vietnamese Medium Instruction (VMI) programs, this connection is crucial for faculty engagement and program success.
Scholarships play a vital role in attracting talented students from financially challenged backgrounds, enabling them to pursue their education By providing essential financial support, these scholarships empower students to gain knowledge and skills, ultimately allowing them to contribute positively to the development of their home country after graduation.
To enhance the effectiveness of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, it is essential to foster collaboration between specialized English teachers and subject matter instructors While many EMI teachers may believe their language skills are adequate for teaching in English, this partnership should focus on integrating language support into content delivery rather than merely separating responsibilities Unfortunately, content teachers often overlook their role in facilitating students' language development, which undermines the Ministry of Education and Training's (MOET) objective of improving language proficiency among Vietnamese students Consequently, the responsibility for enhancing language learning in EMI settings is often unjustly placed on instructors without specialized knowledge, highlighting the need for a more integrated approach.
To meet the language requirements for English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs, students often obtain language certificates like IELTS or TOEFL or complete additional English courses offered by their universities However, holding these certificates does not guarantee that students have received adequate academic English training relevant to their majors Therefore, it is essential for content and language instructors to collaborate and establish a clear understanding of the knowledge required at each stage of student learning This partnership allows language instructors to identify the skills students need before entering their majors, while content teachers can address any gaps in knowledge, ensuring a more cohesive educational experience.
Last but not least, universities should create a coherent and smooth communication channel on all issues with EMI lecturers For example, when the government of
Vietnam aims to enhance the internationalization of higher education, but this objective may falter if lecturers overlook its significance It is crucial for universities to effectively communicate this mission to their faculty, ensuring that educators understand the importance of English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs Consequently, EMI-related policies in Vietnam should be developed through a bottom-up approach rather than a top-down strategy to foster better engagement and implementation at the grassroots level.
The study reveals that lecturers in Vietnam view English Medium Instruction (EMI) programs as beneficial for higher education Despite facing challenges, the importance and value of these programs are acknowledged by educators There is optimism for the continued discovery and effective implementation of EMI programs, supported by policies that encourage participation at individual, organizational, and governmental levels This research aims to provide an authentic insight into the current operational status of EMI programs from the lecturers' perspective.
In addition, the results from the study are a useful contribution to improve policies related to EMI implementation and development in the future
This study has a few limitations
The conclusions drawn from participants' opinions may not accurately reflect actual EMI practices in lectures To gain a more comprehensive understanding, future research should consider conducting a longitudinal study that includes observations, surveys, questionnaires, or focus group discussions with a diverse range of stakeholders.
The study primarily involved lecturers from esteemed universities located in major Vietnamese cities, which may limit the applicability of its findings to higher education institutions in other regions of the country.
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Vietnam National University, Hanoi Vietnam – Japan University
Research topic: English Medium Instruction (EMI) as a means of HE IaH in Vietnam: The lecturers’ perspective