System analysis and design

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This page is intentionally left blank SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Fifth Edition This page is intentionally left blank SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN Fifth Edition ALAN DENNIS Indiana University BARBARA HALEY WIXOM University of Virginia ROBERTA M ROTH University of Northern Iowa John Wiley & Sons, Inc http://www.wiley.com/college/dennis CREDITS VP & PUBLISHER: EXECUTIVE EDITOR: EDITORIAL ASSISTANT: MARKETING MANAGER: DESIGNER: SENIOR PRODUCTION MANAGER: SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR: Don Fowley Beth Lang Golub Elizabeth Mills Christopher Ruel Maureen Eide Janis Soo Joyce Poh This book was set in 10.5/12 Times New Roman by Aptara and printed and bound by RR Donnelley The cover was printed by RR Donnelley This book is printed on acid-free paper Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship Copyright © 2012, 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dennis, Alan Systems analysis and design /Alan Dennis, Barbara Haley Wixom, Roberta M Roth.–5th ed p cm Includes index ISBN 978-1-118-05762-9 (acid-free paper) System design System analysis Computer architecture I Wixom, Barbara Haley, 1969-II Roth, Roberta M (Roberta Marie), 1955-III Title QA76.9.S88D464 2012 004.2’2–dc23 2011043317 Printed in the United States of America 10 To Kelly To Chris, Haley, and Hannah To my father—an inspiration to all who know him; and as always, to Rich and the boys This page is intentionally left blank PREFACE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK Systems Analysis and Design (SAD) is an exciting, active field in which analysts continually learn new techniques and approaches to develop systems more effectively and efficiently However, there is a core set of skills that all analysts need to know no matter what approach or methodology is used All information systems projects move through the four phases of planning, analysis, design, and implementation; all projects require analysts to gather requirements, model the business needs, and create blueprints for how the system should be built; and all projects require an understanding of organizational behavior concepts like change management and team building This book captures the dynamic aspects of the field by keeping students focused on doing SAD while presenting the core set of skills that we feel every systems analyst needs to know today and in the future This book builds on our professional experience as systems analysts and on our experience in teaching SAD in the classroom This book will be of particular interest to instructors who have students a major project as part of their course Each chapter describes one part of the process, provides clear explanations on how to it, gives a detailed example, and then has exercises for the students to practice In this way, students can leave the course with experience that will form a rich foundation for further work as a systems analyst OUTSTANDING FEATURES A Focus on Doing SAD The goal of this book is to enable students to SAD—not just read about it, but understand the issues so that they can actually analyze and design systems The book introduces each major technique, explains what it is, explains how to it, presents an example, and provides opportunities for students to practice before they it in a real-world project After reading each chapter, the student will be able to perform that step in the system development life cycle (SDLC) process viii Preface Rich Examples of Success and Failure The book includes a running case about a fictitious company called Tune Source Each chapter shows how the concepts are applied in situations at Tune Source Unlike running cases in other books, this text focuses examples on planning, managing, and executing the activities described in the chapter, rather than on detailed dialogue between fictitious actors In this way, the running case serves as a template that students can apply to their own work Each chapter also includes numerous Concepts in Action boxes that describe how real companies succeeded—and failed—in performing the activities in the chapter Many of these examples are drawn from our own experiences as systems analysts Incorporation of Object-Oriented Concepts and Techniques The field is moving toward object-oriented concepts and techniques, both through UML 2.0, the new standard for object-oriented analysts and design, as well as by gradually incorporating object-oriented concepts into traditional techniques We have taken two approaches to incorporating object-oriented analysis and design into the book First, we have integrated several object-oriented concepts into our discussion of traditional techniques, although this may not be noticed by the students because few concepts are explicitly labeled as objectoriented concepts For example, we include the development of use cases as the first step in process modeling (i.e., data flow diagramming) in Chapter 4, and the use (and reuse) of standard interface templates and use scenarios for interface design in Chapter Second, and more obvious to students, we include a final chapter on the major elements of UML 2.0 that can be used as an introduction to object-oriented analysts and design This chapter can be used at the end of a course—while students are busy working on projects—or can be introduced after or instead of Chapters and Real-World Focus The skills that students learn in a systems analysis and design course should mirror the work that they ultimately will in real organizations We have tried to make this book as “real” as possible by building extensively on our experience as professional systems analysts for organizations such as IBM, the U.S Department of Defense, and the Australian Army We have also worked with diverse industry advisory boards of IS professionals and consultants in developing the book and have incorporated their stories, feedback, and advice throughout Many students who use this book will eventually apply the skills on the job in a business environment, and we believe that they will have a competitive edge by understanding what successful practitioners feel is relevant in the real world Project Approach We have presented the topics in this book in the SDLC order in which an analyst encounters them in a typical project Although the presentation necessarily is linear (because students have to learn concepts in the way in which they build on each other), we emphasize the iterative, complex nature of SAD as the book unfolds 554 Index Information systems (IS), Infrastructure analyst, 10 Inherit (term), 508 Inheritance, 507–508 In-house experience, 271 Initial state, 537 Inputs: in program specification, 393 types of, 343–345 for use cases, 153 validation of, 345–346 Input design, 340–346 basic principles of, 341–343 multiple layout areas for, 316–318 types of inputs, 343–345 validation of input, 345–346 Input mechanism, 314 Instances: in entity relationship diagrams, 226, 227 in object-oriented approach, 505 Instance sequence diagrams, 530–531 Instantiation, 413 Institutionalization (of new systems), 491 Intangible benefits, 29, 30 Intangible costs, 30 Intangible value, 18 Integrated CASE (I-CASE), 71 Integration: information, 129–130 systems, 266 Integration tests, 454, 455 Intelligent agents, 459 Interaction, 314 Interactive evaluation, 333 Interfaces, types of, 314 Interface actions, 328 Interface design, 14 See also User interface design Interface design prototypes, 323, 329–332 Interface evaluation, 323–324, 332–334 Interface icons, 328 Interface metaphors, 327 Interface objects, 328 Interface standards design, 323, 327–329 Interface structure design, 325–327 Interface structure diagram (ISD), 323, 326–327 Interface templates, 327, 328 Interfile clustering, 430 Intergraph Corp., 343 Internal triggers, 152 International Institute of Business Analysis (IIBA), 105, 107 International Standards Organization (ISO), 294 Internet, 134 and cloud computing, 289 public key infrastructure of, 299 Interpersonal skills, 68, 69, 118 Intersection entity (ERDs), 235–236 Interviews, 112–119, 129 conducting, 116–118 follow-up to, 118, 119 preparing for, 116 questions for, 114–116 schedule for, 112–113 Interview notes, 118, 119 Interview report, 118, 119 Interview schedule, 112–113 Intrafile clustering, 430 Intrusion prevention system (IPS), 297 Invertible algorithms, 298–299 Iowa Soybean, 486 IPS (intrusion prevention system), 297 IS (information systems), ISD (interface structure diagram), 323, 326–327 ISO (International Standards Organization), 294 ISO 17799, 294 Iteration: in building structure charts, 374 in building use cases, 158 in DFD design, 199 in identifying use cases, 161, 162 Iterative development, 54, 55, 59, 60 of ERD creation, 233 in object-oriented approaches, 511 Iterative development RAD, 510 IT project failures, 6, J Jacobson, Ivar, 510 “Jelled team,” 58n.12 Jetsmart system, Joint application development (JAD), 54, 129 as most common technique, 112 for requirements elicitation, 119–124 training for, 128 Jones, Capers, 119 Jones, Chris, 494 K Kelly, Brian, 297 Keystrokes, minimizing, 342 KnowledgePLAN, 62 Index L Language controls, 335–336 Language prototypes, 330–332 Late projects, 78 Layout: for data flow diagrams, 196, 197 in interface design, 315–318 Learning, ease of, 321 Legacy databases, 409–411 Legacy database management systems, 416 Legacy systems, 266 Legal requirements, 300, 301 Level DFDs, 191, 192, 194, 199, 200 Level DFDs, 191–192, 194, 199–206 Level support, 491 Level DFDs, 192–194, 199, 204 Level support, 491, 492 Level DFDs, 194, 199 Level DFDs, 194 Lewin, Kurt, 472, 473 Library modules, 375, 376 Lifeline, 531–532, 535 Links, 459, 532 Linked lists, 407 Liquidity, 26–27 List boxes, 344, 345 Lithonia Lighting, 298 Logical cohesion, 388 Logical data flow diagrams, 366 Logical entity relationship diagrams, 418–419 Logical process models, 184, 366 Look-up files, 409 Look-up tables, 428 Loop (structure charts), 375, 376 Lower CASE, 71 Lynch, Conor, 486 M McAfee, McDermid, Lyn, 49 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 472 Magnetic stripe readers, 342 Mainframe, 286 Maintainability requirements, 291, 292 Maintenance, system, 473, 492–495 Management: organizational, 33–34 of outsourcing relationships, 269 of requirements definitions, 109 Management information system (MIS), 415, 416 Management policies: defined, 483 revision of, 483 Margin of error (estimates), 75 Marriott Corporation, 50 Master files, 409 Max Productivity Incorporated, 490 Measures, cash flow, 25–26 Measurements (change management), 483 Media, output, 349, 351 Members (databases), 411 Menus, 314 defined, 336 design of, 336–337 Menu bars, 337 Messages: navigation, 338–340 in object-oriented approach, 506 in sequence diagrams, 532–534 Metadata: for entity relationship diagrams, 230–233 updating, 369 Metaphors, interface, 327 Methods: in class diagrams, 524, 525 in object-oriented approach, 506 Methodologies, 51–61 agile development, 57–59 defined, 51 parallel development, 53 rapid application development, 54 selecting, 59–61 waterfall development, 51–54, 58–59 Microcomputer, 287 Microsoft, 494 Microsoft Internet Explorer, 33 Middleware, 284 Migration plan, 473–490 business contingency plan, 478–480 change management, 481–490 components of, 472–473 conversion strategy, 474–478 costs and benefits assessment, 484–486 management policy revisions, 483 motivating adoption, 486–488 preparing people, 481 preparing technology, 480 and resistance to change, 481–483 training, 488–490 555 556 Index Milestones, 65 Miracle processes, 208 MIS (management information system), 415, 416 Mission critical system, 296 Mistakes, navigation, 334–335 M:N relationships, 229, 236, 251 Modality (ERDs), 230 Modular approach, 371–373 Modular conversion, 476 Modules, 371 cohesion of, 384–388 conversion, 476 identifying, 380, 382 loosely coupled, 386 for structure charts, 374–377 Motivation, 69–70, 486–488 Moving to new system, 472 See also Transition to new system Multidimensional databases, 414–416 Multilingual requirements, 299–301 Multiplicity (associations), 526 N Naming standards, 79 Natural language, 336 Navigation controls, 335–338 Navigation design, 334–340 basic principles of, 334–335 multiple navigation areas, 315–316 types of controls, 335–338 Navigation mechanism, 314 Net present value (NPV), 28, 32 Networks, 283 Network databases, 411 Nielsen Media, 90 Nike, 479, 480 Nodes (PERT charts), 94 Nonfunctional requirements, 107, 108 in architecture design, 282, 291, 302–303 defined, 104 Non-identifying relationship, 235 Normal course (use cases), 152, 156, 162 Normalization: in ERD validation, 240, 243 to optimize data storage, 424, 427 rules of, 250–254 steps in, 250 NPV (net present value), 28, 32 n-tiered architecture, 285–286 Null relationships, 230 Number boxes, 344 O Objects: interface, 328 in object-oriented approach, 505–506 in sequence diagrams, 531–534 Object–action order, 335 Object classes, 413 Object (object-oriented) databases, 413–414 Object Management Group (OMG), 513 Object-oriented approach, 504–512, 539 See also Unified Modeling Language (UML Version 2.0) classes, 505–506 defined, 504 dynamic binding, 509–510 encapsulation, 506, 507 information hiding, 506, 507 inheritance, 507–508 messages, 506 methods, 506 objects, 505–506 polymorphism, 509 systems analysis and design, 510–512 Object-oriented database management systems (OODBMSs), 413, 416 Object-oriented systems analysis and design, 510–512, 539 architecture centric, 511 incremental development, 511 iterative development, 511 use case driven, 511 “Object think,” 512 Observation, 126–129 Off-page connector, 375, 376 Offshore outsourcing, 58n.13 OMG (Object Management Group), 513 On-demand training, 491 One-on-one training, 489, 490 1:N relationships, 229, 234–235, 428, 429 1:1 relationships, 229, 428, 429 Online documentation, 457 Online processing, 341 Online support, 491 On-page connector, 375, 376 On-screen list boxes, 344, 345 OODBMSs (object-oriented database management systems), 413, 416 Open-ended questions, 114 Open-source DBMSs, 407 Index Operations (class diagrams), 525, 528, 529 Operational costs, 29 Operational requirements, 108, 291–292, 303 Operations group, 491 Optical character recognition, 342 Optimization: of access speed, 427–432 of data storage, 424–425 of data storage efficiency, 425–427 Oracle, 88, 413 Organizational feasibility, 24, 32–34 Organizational management, 33–34 Orvis, 294 Outcome analysis, 134, 136 Outputs: in program specification, 393 in use cases, 153 Output design, 347–351 basic principles of, 347–348 media, 349, 351 multiple layout areas for, 316–318 types of outputs, 348–350 Output mechanism, 314 Outsourcing, 270 as acquisition strategy, 267–269 types of contracts for, 269 when to use, 270–271 Over-budget projects, 78 Overhead, 433 Oxford Health Plans, 88, 294 P Packages, 162, 527 Packaged software, 265–267, 270–271 Paglia, Todd, 494 Paper-based documentation, 457 Parallel conversion, 474, 475, 478, 480 Parallel development methodologies, 53, 59 Parents (DFDs), 192 Parent entity (ERDs), 228 Partial dependency, 250 Patterns, for user interfaces, 319 Payback method, 26 Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards (PCI DSS), 294 PC (Processing Complexity), 90 Perception of costs/benefits, 483 Performance requirements, 108, 292–294, 303 Performance testing, 455 PERT chart, 74, 94, 96–97 Pets.com, 132 Phases (SDLC), 11 Phased conversion, 475–476, 478 Physical data flow diagram, 366–371 Physical data models, 406 defined, 224 moving from logical data models to, 418–419 Physical entity relationship diagrams, 418–421 Physical models, 184 Physical process models, 366–369 Pilot conversion, 475, 477, 478 PKI (public key infrastructure), 299 Planning phase (SDLC), 12–13 Platinum Technology, 224 PMP (Project Management Professional), 46 Pointers, 411 Political requirements, see Cultural and political requirements Political strategy (motivating adoption), 487 Polymorphism, 509 Pop-up menus, 337, 339 Portability requirements, 291, 292 Portfolio management, 47–48 Postconditions (use cases), 153 Postimplementation activities, 491–496 project assessment, 495–496 system maintenance, 492–495 system support, 491–492 Post-session report (JAD), 123 Potential adopters, 481, 484, 488 PPM Center software, 47 Preconditions (use cases), 152 Presentation logic, 283 Primary actor, 161, 173 Primary keys, 411, 419, 420 Primavera Systems, 46, 47 Priority (in use cases), 150 Private attributes, 525 Private clouds, 289 Private key, 298 Probing questions, 114 Problem analysis, 130, 136 Problem report, 491, 492 Procedural cohesion, 388 Procedural programming languages, 373 Procedure manuals, 458, 460 Process: basic elements of, 187, 188 in data flow diagrams, 187–188 defined, 187 557 558 Index Process descriptions (DFDs), 193 Processing Complexity (PC), 90 Process models: defined, 184 requirements in, 106 Process modeling, 184–217 applying concepts of, 217 creating data flow diagrams, 193–210 defining business processes with data flow diagrams, 189–193 elements of data flow diagrams, 187–189 reading data flow diagrams, 185–187 Process-oriented requirements, 106 Programs, 47 Program design, 15, 366–398 modular approaches to, 371–373 physical data flow diagram, 366–371 program design document, 373–374 program specification, 391–397 structure chart, 374–391 Program design document, 373–374 Program Evaluation and Review Technique, see PERT chart Program log, 448 Programming languages, 373 fourth-generation/visual, 54 object-oriented, 506 Programming process, 446–449 assigning tasks, 446, 447 coordinating activities, 447–448 schedule management for, 448–449 Program specifications, 391–397 applying concepts for, 394, 396–397 syntax, 391–394 writing, 372–373 Project activities, coordinating, 70–73 Project and Portfolio Management (software), 46 Project assessment, 473, 495–496 Project binder, 72 Project charter, 70 Project identification and initiation, 15–23 apply concepts of, 20–23 system request, 18–20 Project initiation, 13 Project management, 13, 46, 73–79 and acquisition strategy, 272 applying concepts of, 80–84 critical success factor for, 46 problem prevention with, 480 refining of planning estimates in, 74–75 risk management in, 78–79 scope management in, 75–77 timeboxing, 77–78 Project Management Institute, 46 Project Management Professional (PMP), 46 Project manager, 10, 13, 46 Project.net software, 46 Project plan, 13, 51–65 estimation of project time frame in, 61–63 margin of error in, 75 methodology options in, 51–61 work plan in, 63–67 Project portfolio management, 46, 47 Project selection, 47–50 Project size, 25 Project skills, 271–272 Project sponsor, 13, 17–20, 481, 488 Project standards, 73 Project team review, 495 Project time frame, 61–63 Project work plan, 65–68 ProSight, 46 Protected attributes, 525 Prototyping: interface design prototype, 329–332 system, 54, 55, 59, 60 throwaway, 56–57, 59, 60 Pseudocode, 393–394 Public attributes, 525 Public clouds, 289 Public key, 298 Public key encryption, 298 Public key infrastructure (PKI), 299 Publix, 128 Pyramid Technology, 88 Q Qantas, Queries, 431 Query operations (class diagrams), 525 Questionnaires, 123–126, 129 Quicken, 327 Quinnipiac University, 297 R RAD, see Rapid application development Radio buttons, 344, 345 Radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, 342 Index Radisson Hotels & Resorts, 30 Range check, 345, 346 Rapid application development (RAD), 54, 59, 61 competition in, 373 iterative, 510 timeboxing with, 77 Rate of return, 26–27 Rational Software Corporation, 510, 514 Rational unified process (RUP), 514 Raw data, 433 RDBMSs (relational database management systems), 411–413, 416 Ready adopters, 487 Real-time information, 341 Real-time reports, 347 References, 525 Reference documents, 457–458 Referential integrity, 411–413 Refreezing new system, 473 Relational database management systems (RDBMSs), 411–413, 416 Relational databases, 411–413, 424 Relationships (ERDs), 228 cardinality, 229 identifying, 234–235 metadata for, 232 modality, 230 Reliability, system, 60 Reluctant adopters, 487, 488 Repeating attributes, 246, 250 Repeating groups, 250 Reports, 314 content awareness in, 317 layout of, 315–318 understanding usage of, 347 Reporting structure, 65, 68, 69 Request for information (RFI), 273 Request for proposal (RFP), 273 Request for quote (RFQ), 273 Required rate of return, 26–27 Requirements: defined, 104 prioritizing, 111 types of, 104–108 Requirements analysis, 130–136 activity-based costing, 133 activity elimination, 136 duration analysis, 132, 133 informal benchmarking, 133–134 outcome analysis, 134 problem analysis, 130 root cause analysis, 130–132 technology analysis, 134 Requirements analyst, 10 Requirements definition statement (requirements definition), 109–111 Requirements determination, 104–140 applying concepts of, 136–139 defined, 104 process of, 107, 109 requirements analysis strategies, 130–136 requirements definition statement, 109–111 requirements elicitation, 111–130 transitioning to design from, 260–262, 277 types of requirements, 104–108 Requirements elicitation, 111–130 with document analysis, 126 with interviews, 112–119 with joint application development, 119–124 by observation, 126–128 in practice, 111–112 with questionnaires, 123–126 selecting techniques for, 128–130 Requirements gathering, 14 Requirements testing, 455 Research-oriented development, 449 Resistance to change, 481–483 Resource allocation, 483 Response time, 292 Return on investment (ROI), 26, 33 Rewards (change management), 483 RFI (request for information), 273 RFID (radio frequency identification) tags, 342 RFP (request for proposal), 273 RFQ (request for quote), 273 Rheingold, Ted, 132 Risk(s): with conversion to new system, 477 feasibility analysis of, 23 Risk analysis, 24 Risk assessment, 78, 79 Risk management, 78–79 Role (use case diagrams), 518 Role-play: in use case analysis, 169 in validating DFDs, 209 Root cause analysis, 130–132, 136 Rumbaugh, James, 510 RUP (rational unified process), 514 559 560 Index S SaaS (Software as a Service), 267 Sabre Holdings Corporation, 47 Salesforce.com, 267 Sample (questionnaire), 124 SAN (storage area network), 289 San Jose, California police department, 343 Sans serif fonts, 319 SAP, 479, 480 Sarbanes–Oxley Act, 294 Scalable architectures, 284 Scenarios, 517 business, 149 use, 323–325 Schedule: and choice of methodology, 61 estimating, 94 interview, 112–113 missing dates on, 76 for programming, 448–449 visibility of, 61 Scope creep, 54, 75–77, 448 Scope management, 75–77 Screen layout, 315–318 Scribes, 120 Scroll bars, 344, 345 Scrum, 57 Seattle University, 80 Second normal form (2NF), 250–253 Security requirements, 108, 294–299, 303 Security testing, 455 Selection (structure chart), 374 Selection boxes, 344 Semantics errors, 206–210 Sequence (structure chart), 374 Sequence diagrams, 516, 530–535 creating, 533–535 elements of, 531–533 Sequential cohesion, 388 Serif fonts, 319 Servers, 283 Server-based architectures, 286–287 Server virtualization, 33, 288 Sets (databases), 411 Shamrock Foods, 486 Silver bullet syndrome, 263 Simultaneous conversion, 476, 478 Size: project, 25 system, 90–93 Skills: and acquisition strategy, 271–272 critical thinking, 102–103 interpersonal, 118 and staffing decisions, 68, 69 Slider, 345 Smart cards, 342 Social media, 135 Software: hardware and software specifications, 304–306 installing, 480 Software architect, 10 Software as a Service (SaaS), 267 Software bugs, 450, 477–478, 494, 496 Software systems, functions of, 283 Solutions, problems vs., 130, 131 SOPs (standard operating procedures), 483 Sotheby’s, 265 Source data automation, 342 South Dakota Department of Labor, Workers’ Compensation division, 20 Special connections, identifying, 382, 383 Special issues, in project assessment, 19, 20 Specialized actors, 518 Speed requirements, 292–293 Sponsor, project, 13, 17–20, 481, 488 Sprint Corporation, 19 SQL (Structured Query Language), 413 Staffing plan, 65, 68–70 Staffing projects, 65, 68–73 coordinating project activities, 70–73 staffing plan, 65, 68–70 Stakeholder(s): defined, 33 for organizational feasibility, 34 in requirements determination, 109 in requirements elicitation, 111–112 Stakeholder analysis, 33 Stamp coupling, 389 Standards: defined, 72 file naming, 79 interface standards design, 327–329 project, 73 security, 294 for teams, 72 Standard operating procedures (SOPs), 483 Star schema design, 428–430 States, 535, 537, 538 State symbol, 535, 536 Index Static binding, 509 Static models, 521 Static view, 511 Steering committee, 13, 47 Steps (SDLC phases), 11 Storage area network (SAN), 289 Storage size, estimating, 432–435 Storage virtualization, 289 Storyboard, 329, 332 Strategic alignment, 33 Structure chart, 374–391 applying concepts for, 380–384 building, 377–380 defined, 372 design guidelines for, 384–391 syntax, 374–377 Structured English, 193 Structure diagrams, 513 Structured interviews, 115, 116 Structured Query Language (SQL), 413 Stubs, 451 Style, conversion, 474–475 Subclasses, 413, 507, 508 Subject areas (in data models), 241 Subordinate modules, 374 Summary report, 348 Superclasses, 507 Support plan, 15 Symmetric encryption algorithm, 298 Syntax errors, 206–208 System acquisition, see Acquisition strategy(-ies) Systems analysts, 7–10 roles of, 9–10 skills of, 8–9 System architecture, see Architecture design System boundary, 519–520 System complexity, 60 Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), 10–15 analysis phase, 12–14 and choice of methodology, 51 defined, design phase, 12, 14–15 estimating time frames for phases, 62 gradual refinement of, 13 implementation phase, 12, 15 key person in, phases of, 11–13 planning phase, 12, 13 streamlining, 57 System documentation, 456 Systems integration, 266, 463 System integration requirements, 291, 292 System interfaces, 314 System interface testing, 455 System maintenance, 473, 492–495 System proposal, 14, 103 System prototyping, 54, 55, 59, 60 System reliability, 60 System requests, 13, 18–20, 22, 105 change requests as, 493 creating, 22 defined, 18 System requirements: defined, 104, 107 transitioning to design from, 260–262 System review, 495–496 System size, 90–93 System specification, 15, 262 System support, 473, 491–492 System tests, 454, 455 System users, as stakeholders, 34 System value, 295–296 T Tables, changing entities to, 418, 419 Table of contents, 458, 459 Table scan, 430 Tab menus, 337, 339 TAFP (total adjusted function points), 90, 92 Tangible benefits, 29 Tangible value, 18 Task dependencies, 65 Task identification, 63–65 Technical environment requirements, 291–292 Technical feasibility, 24–25 Technical lead, 68 Technical risk analysis, 24 Technical skills, 68, 69 Techniques (SDLC), 11 Technology: emerging, 15–16 familiarity with, 24–25, 60 preparing for transition, 480 Technology analysis, 134, 136 Template, interface, 327, 328 Temporal cohesion, 386, 388 Temporal triggers, 152 Temporary objects (sequence diagrams), 532 Terminals, 286 561 562 Index Test case, 451 Testing, 449–456 acceptance tests, 455, 456 inadequate, 449 integration tests, 454, 455 system tests, 454, 455 test plan, 451–454 unit tests, 454, 455 usability, 333–334 and use cases, 156 Test plan, 451–454 Text boxes, 343 Text design, 319 Text search, 459 Textual analysis, 528 Thick clients, 283 Thin clients, 284 Third normal form (3NF), 253–254 Three-clicks rule, 322 Three-tiered architecture, 285 Throwaway prototyping, 56–57, 59, 60 Time and arrangements contracts, 269 Timeboxing, 77–78 Time estimates, margin of error in, 75 Time factor, in conversion, 478 Time frame, acquisition strategy and, 272 Tipping Point Technology, 297 TMR Telecommunications Consultants, 78 To-be models, 366 To-be system, 14 See also Transition to new system Tool bars, 337, 339 Tool tips, 328 Top-down interviews, 115–116 Top-down modular approach, 371, 372 Total adjusted function points (TAFP), 90, 92 Total unadjusted function points (TUFP), 90, 92 Toys R Us, Trade-offs: defined, 48 in project management, 73–74 in project selection, 48 Training: on-demand, 491 in transition to new system, 488–490 Training plan, 15 Transactions files, 409 Transaction processing, 341 Transaction processing systems, 415 Transaction structure, 379 Transcript, 236 Transform structure, 379, 380 Transitions, 537, 538 Transition to new system, 472–498 applying concepts of, 496–498 migration plan, 473–490 postimplementation activities, 491–496 Transitive dependency, 253 Travelers Insurance Company, 58 Triggers (use cases), 149, 152 TUFP (total unadjusted function points), 90, 92 Turnaround documents, 348, 350 Tutorials, 458, 460 24/7, 294, 308 Two-tiered architecture, 285 U Ultrathin client, 287 Umphress, David, 80 Unfreezing habits and norms, 472 Unified Modeling Language (UML), 503, 510 Unified Modeling Language (UML Version 2.0), 513–540 behavioral state machine diagrams, 516, 535–538 class diagrams, 516, 521–530 diagram techniques in, 514–516 rational unified process, 514 sequence diagrams, 516, 530–535 use case diagrams, 516–521 U.S Army, 113, 206, 479 U.S Department of Defense, 206 U.S Department of Justice, 33 U.S Marine Corps, 206 U.S Navy, Unit tests, 454, 455 University of Georgia, 319, 320 Unstated norms, 300, 301 Unstructured interviews, 115 Update operations (class diagrams), 525 Upgrading, 496 Upper CASE, 71 Usability testing, 333–334 Use, ease of, 321 Use cases, 149 alternative formats for, 154–156 confirming correctness of, 169–170 and data flow diagrams, 187 defined, 148, 511 elements of, 150–154 identification of, 158–162 for use case diagrams, 519 Index Use case analysis, 148–177 alternative formats for use cases, 154–156 applying concepts of, 172–177 building use cases, 157–171 elements of use cases, 150–154 and functional requirements, 156 identifying elements within steps, 166–169 identifying steps in, 162–166 revising functional requirements based on, 170–272 and testing, 156 Use case diagrams, 516–521 creating, 520–521 elements of, 517–520 Use case driven systems analysis and design, 511 Use case package, 162 User documentation, 456, 457 User effort minimization (interface design), 322 User experience (interface design), 321–322 User interfaces, 314 User interface design, 314–358 applying concepts of, 351–357 input design, 340–346 interface design prototype, 329–332 interface evaluation, 332–334 interface standards design, 327–329 interface structure design, 325–327 navigation design, 334–340 output design, 347–351 principles for, 314–322 process of, 323–334 use scenario development, 324–325 User interface testing, 455 User involvement, in requirements determination, 130 User requirements, 105, 107 defined, 104, 148 for methodologies, 59 User role: in data modeling, 240 in use cases, 150, 151 Use scenarios, 323–325 Use scenario testing, 455 Valid value, 419 Valley Enterprises, 78 Value: tangible and intangible, 18 valid, 419 Value-added contracts, 269 VDI (virtual desktop infrastructure), 287 Verizon wireless, Versions, 54 Viewpoint, 196 Virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI), 287 Virtualization: in architecture design, 288–289 server, 33 Viruses, 299 Virus control requirements, 299 Visibility (of attributes), 525 Visible Analyst Workbench, 388 Visual Basic, 373 V-model, 53–54, 59 Volumetrics, 432, 433 W Walk-through, 103 Walk-through evaluation, 333 Waterfall development, 51–54, 58–61 Web pages, 314 Weighted alternative matrix, 274–275 Welch Foods, Inc., 267 White-box unit testing, 454, 455 White space, 319 Whole-system conversion, 476 Wilson, Carl, 50 Wilson, Doug, 78 Workarounds, 266 Work breakdown structure, 64–65 Work plan, 13, 63–67 project work plan, 65–68 task identification in, 63–65 X V Validation: of data flow diagrams, 206–210 of entity relationship diagrams, 240–245 of input design, 345–346 XP (extreme programming), 57, 58 Z Zero client computing, 287 563 This page is intentionally left blank This page is 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