Principles of Modern Grinding Technology Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Principles of Modern Grinding Technology Second Edition W Brian Rowe AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier William Andrew is an imprint of Elsevier 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, UK First edition 2009 Second edition 2014 Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: (144) 1865 843830, fax: (144) 1865 853333, e-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk You may also complete your request by visiting the Elsevier website at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-323-24271-4 For information on all William Andrew publications visit our website at http://store.elsevier.com/ Printed in the United States of America 14 15 16 17 18 10 Dedication I dedicate this book to my wife Margaret Ruth for her love and support throughout my work, the mother of my children Ivor and Ella and my constant companion Preface Principles of Modern Grinding Technology explains in simple terms the principles that led to rapid improvements in modern grinding technology over recent decades Removal rates and quality standards have increased a hundred-fold Very fine tolerances are routine due to improved understanding of the process and the factors that need to be controlled Superb grinding machines now produce optical-quality finishes due to developments in process control and machine design It is the same for extremely high removal rates This book shows how best quality can be improved and costs can be brought down at the same time as output is increased The book is aimed at practitioners, engineers, researchers, students and teachers The approach is direct, concise and authoritative This edition introduces additional materials including data, photographs, updated references and design examples There are additions in most chapters including abrasives, dressing, cooling, highspeed grinding, centreless grinding, materials, wear, temperatures and heat transfer There are numerous worked examples Progressing through each major element of a grinding system and then on to machine developments, the reader becomes aware of all aspects of operation and design Trends are described demonstrating key features Coverage includes abrasives and superabrasives, wheel design, dressing technology, machine accuracy and productivity, machine design, high-speed grinding technology, cost optimization, ultra-precision grinding, process control, vibration control, coolants and fluid delivery, thermal damage and grinding temperatures Advances in the field are supported with references to leading research Analysis is presented in later chapters and appendices with new contributions to machine design, intelligent control, centreless grinding, fluid delivery, cost analysis and thermal analysis for prediction and control of grinding temperatures are provided By selecting the right conditions, extremely high removal rates can be achieved accompanied by low temperatures Techniques for measurement of grinding temperatures are also included This edition includes recent process developments and additional design examples G G G G G Trends in high precision and high-speed grinding are explored Principles underlying improvements in machines and processes are explained Numerical worked examples give scale to essential process parameters Recent research findings and original contributions to knowledge are included A number of ultra-precision grinding machine developments are included Acknowledgements I wish to record sincere gratitude for the help and friendship provided by research students, research fellows, colleagues and visiting scholars with whom I had the privilege to work and whose valuable contributions made this volume possible A number of these have achieved well-deserved distinction in academic and industrial spheres The list, roughly in date order, includes D.L Richards, J.I Willmore, M.J Edwards, P.A Mason, J.P O’Donoghue, K.J Stout, S Spraggett, D Koshal, W.F Bell, F.S Chong, R Gill, N Barlow, R.N Harrison, S.P Johnson, T.W Elliott, S Yoshimoto, D Ives, C Goodall, G.K Chang, J.A Pettit, S Kelly, D.R Allanson, D.A Thomas, K Cheng, M Jackson, M.N Morgan, H.S Qi, X Chen, S Black, N Shepherd, Y Chen, Y Li, C Statham, C.T Schaeffer, X.Z Lin, D McCormack, S Ebbrell, R Cai, V Gviniashvili, T Jin, A.D Batako, D Cabrera, A.R Jackson, V Baines-Jones and Zhang Lei I would especially like to mention Paul Wright who, through his invaluable contributions, helped me and many researchers succeed in their projects Eventually he became manager of the laboratories within the School of Engineering at Liverpool John Moores University W Brian Rowe About the Author W Brian Rowe is a research and consulting engineer, Emeritus Professor and previous Director of Advanced Manufacturing Technology and Tribology Research Laboratory (AMTTREL) at Liverpool John Moores University in the United Kingdom A multiple recipient of prizes from The Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMECHE), Dr Rowe has four decades of experience in academic and industrial positions concerned with machine tools, grinding processes and tribology His accomplishments include over 250 published papers, several books, international visiting professorships and international consulting in industry List of Abbreviations ACO AE ANSI BN CBN CIRP CNC CVD CW ED EDD ELID EP FEPA FWM GW HEDG HEG HSS ID ISO JIS LFM MQL MRR PCD PLCs PVD RMS SD SEM SG SI SiC UFM VHN WP Adaptive control optimization Acoustic emission American National Standards Institution Barkhausen Noise Cubic boron nitride International Academy of Production Engineering Research Computer numerical control Chemical vapour deposited Control wheel Electrical discharge Electrical discharge dressing Electrolytic in-process dressing Electroplated Federation of European Producers of Abrasives Fluid wheel model of fluid convection Grinding wheel High-efficiency deep grinding High-efficiency grinding High speed steel Impregnated diamond International Standards Organization Japanese Industrial Standards Laminar flow model of fluid convection Minimum quantity lubrication Material removal rate Poly-crystalline diamond Programmable logic controls Physical vapour deposition Root mean square Single-point diamond Scanning electron microscope Seeded gel (alumina composite abrasive) trade name ISO international system (e.g units) Silicon carbide Useful flow model Vickers Hardness Number Workpiece Notation for Grinding Parameters Note: Symbols within a special context are explained in the relevant text a ad ae ap b, br, bw bcu bd br c c, cp cd, cv, ca d dc de dg ds dw e ec,u ech erf( ) f f f h h, hf hcu heq hg hw hwg j k k kw, kg lc lf lg Depth of cut or hydrostatic bearing land width Dressing depth of cut Effective (real) depth of cut in grinding Programmed (set) depth of cut in grinding Width of grinding wheel contact with work Width of uncut chip Dressing tool contact width Radial width of cut Machine damping Specific heat capacity Discharge, velocity and area coefficients in nozzle flow Diameter in pipe flow Control wheel diameter in centreless grinding Effective grinding wheel diameter Mean abrasive grain diameter Actual grinding wheel diameter Workpiece diameter Error Specific grinding energy (energy per unit volume removed) Specific energy carried in chips Error function given in math tables Frequency in cycles per second (Hz) Interface friction factor τ/k Grain force Thin film or chip thickness Convection factor and work-fluid convection factor Uncut chip thickness Equivalent chip thickness Convection factor into a grain Work height in centreless grinding Convection factor into the workpiece at a grain contact Complex number operator Shear flow stress Thermal conductivity Thermal conductivity of work material and abrasive grain Contact length Contact length due to force and deflection of grinding wheel and workpiece Geometric contact length due to depth of cut xxxiv n n nd ns nw p pp q q qd qflash rcu ro s t td ts ts tt ui uo v vd vf vfd vj vs vw x x, y, z A A Ac Acu Al2O3 B C C Ct D E Fa, F0 a Fn, F0 n Ft, F0 t G H Ha Notation for Grinding Parameters Number of grinding passes Junction growth factor Number of dressing passes Grinding wheel rotational speed Work rotational speed Instantaneous power Fluid pumping pressure Speed ratio vs/vw Flux value heat per unit area in unit time Dressing roll speed ratio vd/vs Flux into the workpiece at a flash contact Uncut chip width/chip thickness ratio bcu/hcu Average effective grain contact radius Laplace operator in vibration theory Time Dressing time Point/flash contact time of grain and workpiece Grinding cycle time Grain contact time within contact length Total cycle time including grinding and dressing Input to a control system Output from a control system Mean velocity in pipe flow Dressing roll speed Work feed rate Dressing feed rate Jet velocity Wheel speed Work speed Deflection Position coordinates Geometric stability parameter in centreless grinding Wear flat area on grinding wheel as fraction or percentage Apparent area of grinding contact zone lc b Cross-section area of uncut chip Aluminium oxide, alumina Lateral grain spacing Number of active abrasive grains per unit area cutting edge density C-factors giving temperature for particular grinding conditions Total cost per part Diameter as in journal diameter Young modulus of elasticity Axial force and specific value per unit width Normal force and specific value per unit width Tangential force and specific value per unit width G-ratio Feedback function in a control system Depth of cut function in vibrations G Index shape formation system, 282 283 wheel dressing, 273 275 control wheel dressing, 273 275 control wheel run-out, 275 grinding wheel dressing, 273 work feed, 271 273 plunge feed, 271 through-feed, 272 tilt angle, 272 273 work speed, 276 Ceramics, 4, 37, 40, 48, 210, 212, 215 C-factors for maximum temperature, 395 C-frame structure, 181 Chatter, 46, 60, 103 104, 117 condition, 252 253 adding vibration damping, 260 261 graphic stability determination, 254 255 machine system, adding flexibility to, 259 260 reducing grinding wheel contact stiffness, 258 259 traverse grinding, reducing overlap in, 257 258 using measured frequency responses, 256 257 varying work speed, 260 wheel speed, 260 Chemical and tribo-chemical conditions, 370 371 Chemical reaction, 113 Chemical thermal degradation, 39 Chemical wear, 375 Chemo-mechanical, 43 Chip, 21 22 cross-section area, 309 310 energy, 345, 384 385 formation, 362 363 formation energy, 346 length, 308 mean chip thickness, 311 312 shape models, 307 308 thickness, 107, 299 300, 341 volume, 308 309, 340 width, 310 Circular arc heat source, 384 Cleaning up, 64 Cleavage planes, 39 CNC See Computer-numerical control 423 Coarse dressing, 67, 71 72 Coherence, coherent length, 137 Column deflection, 199 201 Complex operator, 246 Compliance, 247 248, 259 Compressive stresses, 120 Compressive to tensile stress, 351 Computer simulation, 264 265 Computer-numerical control (CNC), 204, 207, 227 228 Concentrate, 128 129, 129t Concentration, 53 Conditioning, 63 64 Conduction into grain, 411 412 into workpiece, 411 Cone and sphere model, 357 Contact angle, 394 Contact area, 125 126 Contact length, 94 98, 103 104, 106f defining, 329 331 deflected, 96 filtering, 248 249 geometric, 95, 323 324, 330 331 kinematic, 95 96 ratio, 98, 331 333 real, 323 326, 373, 386 total, 96 98 Contact stiffness, 258 259 Contact surface temperatures, 417 Contact time, 323, 331f, 332 Contact width, 18 19, 23 24, 31f, 98 Continuous dressing, 77 Control capability, 222 Control systems, 236 240 Control wheel, 184 185, 184f, 273 275, 278 Convective contact zone cooling, 151 156 experimental convection factors, 154 155 and predicted convection factors, comparison of, 155 156 fluid convection factor, 151 fluid wheel model (FWM), 151 153 laminar flow model (LFM), 152 153 useful flow model (UFM), 153 154 Convenient waviness, 277 278 Conventional abrasive, 40 Conventional grain depths, 367 424 Coolant, 101, 103 104, 109 110 Cooling, 17 Corrective action, 277 278 Corrosion, 126, 129t, 375 Corundum, 40 42 Cost analysis, total life cycle costs, 160 Cost per part, cost/part, 160 166 Cost reduction, 159 AISI 52100, cost comparisons for, 170 172 best condition, 171 conventional-speed Al2O3, 171 conventional-speed CBN wheels, 171 cost comparison, 172 grinding wheels, 171 high speed B91 CBN wheel, 171 redress life, 173 174 SG wheels, 171 cost per part, analysis, 161 166 cost elements, 161 dressing cycle time, 163 dressing frequency, 163 grinding cycle time, 162 labour cost/part, 165 parts per wheel, 163 164 total cycle time, 162 total variable cost/part, 166 wheel cost per part, 164 cost reduction, trials, 167 170 basic trials, 167 168 best condition, selection of, 169 170 confirmation trials, 170 direct effect, 168 169 cost variables, 160 161 Inconel 718, cost comparisons for, 172 174 conventional-speed Al2O3, 173 conventional-speed vitrified B151 CBN wheel, 173 grinding wheels, 173t high speed B 151 CBN wheel, 173 labour cost, 161 machine cost, 161 output, 160 overhead costs, 161 quality, 160 redress life, 173 174 total life cycle costs, 160 wheel cost, 161 Index Cost variables, 160 161 Cost(s), Crack propagation, 366 367, 369 Cracks/Cracking, 113, 119f propagation, 350, 374 Crankshaft grinding, 108 Creep-feed grinding, 13 14, 106 107, 126, 384, 405 Cryogenic cooling, 131 Crystallite size, 42 Cubic boron nitride (CBN), 25, 26f, 29, 39 40, 120, 387 Cubitron, 42 Cup dresser, 67 68 Curve fits, 398 Cutting, 17, 22, 25, 29, 344 348 Cutting edge, 300 305 density, 303 304 Poisson distribution, 302 303 shape, 304 305 spacing, 300 302 times, 305 306 wear effect, 304 Cycle, cycle time, 160 162, 229 230, 236, 239 Cylindrical, 179 181, 190 191, 200 Cylindrical grinding, 6, 21 22, 26, 26f, 111 Cylindrical plunge grinding, time constant in, 234 D Damage, 105 avoidance, 114 temperatures, 386 Damping, 180 181 parameters, 252 253 Database, intelligent, 238 Debris, 125 126 Deburring tools, 44 46 Deep cut, 405 406 Deep grinding, 103, 106f, 383 384, 405 Deep-form grinders, 207 208 Deflected contact length, 96 Deflection, 20, 21f in-phase, quadrature, 250, 259 260 length, 327, 329 static deflections, 289 293 Density, 127t Depth of cut, 243 245, 254, 341, 401 402 Index Depth of cut, real and programmed or set, 18 Depth of grain penetration, 15 17 Depth of material removed, 17 21 Design examples, 414 418 Determination of Archard constant (K), 374 Developments, 103 104, 107 Diamond, 38 39 Diamond grains, 387 Diamond micro-grinding tools, 43 44 Diffusion, 117 119 Diffusivity, 393 394 Disc dresser, 67 68 Disposal, disposal cost, 127 128, 160 161 Down-cut grinding, 17 Down-feed, 17, 20 Drag power, 26 Dressable metal bond, 48 Dresser, 177, 178t Dresser cost, 160 161 Dresser sharpness, 178t Dresser size, 222 Dresser wear, 222 223 Dressing, 11 12, 106 conditions, Dressing depth of cut, 65 66 Dressing effects, 344 Dressing feed per revolution, 65 66 Dressing frequency, 163 Dressing process, 65 66 Dressing roll speed ratio, 69 Dressing time, dressing cycle time, 163 Dressing tool, 178t sharpness, sharpness ratio, 66 67 Dressing tool wear, 72 Dressing traverse rate, 70 Dressing vibrations, 69 70 Drill-flute grinding, 108 Dry electro-discharge truing, 64 Dry grinding, 29 30, 128, 400 401 Dullness, 304 305 Dust, 125 Dwell, 186 Dwell period, 222, 225 226, 230, 232 235 Dwell time, 160 163 Dynamic deflections, 290 291 Dynamic magnifier, 252 253, 256 257 Dynamic relationships, 245 248 Dynamic stability charts, 291 293 Dynamic stiffness, 244 245, 252 253 425 E Eccentricity ratio, 193 Effect of wear, 304 Effects, direct effects, 168 169 Elastic deformation, 244 Elastic modulus, 323 Elastic wheels, 13 Elasticity, 259 260 wheel, 59 61 Electro-discharge dressing (EDD), 43, 80 Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID), 4, 43 44, 48, 64, 78 80 Electroplated superabrasive, 49f Electroplated wheels, 64 ELID See Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) ELID grinding, 48 Empirical relationships, 300 Emulsifier, 129, 129t Emulsion, 103 104, 129 Enclosed, 126 Energy, 109, 339 340 Energy components, 345 Environmental aspects, 127 Epoxy bonds, 46 Equivalent chip thickness, 21 22, 107f limitations, 300 Equivalent diameter, 92 94, 324 325 Error compensation, 224, 226 Errors, 177, 184 187, 197, 201 203, 202f, 211, 212f Esters, 130 Excitation test, 249 251 Experimental convection factors, 154 155 and predicted convection factors, comparison of, 155 156 Experimental plan, 168t Extreme-pressure, 130 F Face grinding, 6, 93 94 Fatigue, fatigue life, 113 Fatigue wear, 374 Feed, 118, 121 122 Feed change points, 222 Feed increment, 17 Feed position, 222, 226, 228 Feed rate, 222, 225 226, 228, 231 Feed time, 162 163 426 Feedback, 207 Feed-drive, 201 207 Ferrite, 115, 120 121 Filtration, 128 129, 131 132 Fine dressing, 67, 71 72 Fires, 126, 130 Flash contact, 306 Flash heating, 388 389 Flash temperature estimation, 413 414 Flexibility, 259 260 Flexible grinding operation, Flood delivery, 125f Flow fall, 146 Flow-rate, 133, 143 148, 193 194 Fluid boiling, 384, 393 Fluid convection, 384, 393 Fluid convection factor, 151, 393 Fluid cooling, 107, 384, 405 Fluid delivery, 12, 133 139 air barrier, 133 134 air scraper, 135 auxiliary nozzle, 136 137 coherence, 137 coherent length, 138 finishing requirements, 133 fluid speed, 135 highly porous wheels, 134 hydrodynamic effect, 133 jet positioning, 137 nip, 139 nozzle arrangement, 136 nozzle comparisons, 138 nozzle position, 135 pore feeding, 134 135 roughing, 133 sealing the wheel, 134 shoe nozzle, 138 139 size control, 133 Webster nozzle, 137 138 Fluid drag, 26 Fluid supply system, 132f Fluid wheel model (FWM), 151 152 versus laminar flow model, 152 153 Fluid(s) delivery, 114 properties, 127 Fluids, application of, 123 alternative lubrication, 128 bulk cooling, 126 Index contact area cooling, 126 dry grinding, 128 fluid accelerate, power required to, 148 151 spindle power, 148 149 fluid disposal, 127 fluid properties, 127 gas-jet cooling, 130 131 grinding fluids functions of, 125 types of, 124 MQL, neat oils, 129 130 mineral oil, 130 synthetic oils, 130 nozzle design See Nozzle design nozzle flow rate, requirement, 143 148 oil, 126 127 pumping system, 131 133 See also Pumping system safe use, 127 swarf flushing, 126 total life cycle costs, 128 total power, 149 151 water-based fluids, 126 129 fluid composition, 129 fluid treatment, 128 129 re-circulation system, 128 wheel wear, reduction of, 126 Flushing, 126 Force loop, 184 185 Forced vibration, 242 243 Form dressing tools, 64 Fracture, 37 38, 40 42 Fracture toughness, 369 Free vibration, 247 Friability, 37 38, 40 42 Friction, 126, 138 Friction angle, 358 359 Friction factor, 353, 355 356, 360 362, 364 Friction power, 195 Fume extraction, 127 Fungal growth, 126 G G ratio, 89 91, 102 Gap elimination, 239 Gas-jet cooling, 130 131 See also under Minimum quantity lubrication Index Gauging, 178, 224 226 Geometric contact length, 95, 323 324, 330 331 Geometric instability, geometric stability, 285 286 Geometric stability parameter, 286 Geometrical interference, 244 Grade, wheel grade, 52 Grain contact analysis, 386 Grain contact time, 305 306 Grain density, 341 variations, 314 Grain depth, 343 Grain distribution, 85 86 Grain heating, 389 Grain impact, 17 Grain macro-fracture, 88 Grain micro-fracture, 17, 88 Grain penetration, 15 17, 16f, 306 307 Grain shape, 342 344 Grain sharpness, 30, 83 84, 106, 403 Grain size, 83 84 grit size, 49 52 Grain spacing, 85 86, 306 307, 311 313, 318 319 Grain temperatures, 398 399 Grain thermal properties, 387 Grain wear, 16 17, 87 92 bond fracture, 88 G ratio, 89 91 grain macro-fracture, 88 grain micro-fracture, 88 preferred wheel wear, 89 re-sharpening, 91 92 rubbing wear, 87 wear flats, 91 wear measurement, 89 wheel loading, 88 89 Grains as cutting tools, 298 Griffith relationship for cracking, 369 Grind, difficult materials to, 376 378 Grind hardening, 120 121 Grinding chips, 298 299 Grinding conditions, 114, 121 122 Grinding contact temperature solutions, 408 410 Grinding efficiency, 128 Grinding energy, 24 25, 91, 335 grain shape, sharpness effect, 342 344 427 dressing effects, 344 indentation model, 343 344 quantifying sharpness, 342 343 wear, 344 measured, 336 338 relationship to heq, 337 338 requirements predicting, 338 339 to remove material, 335 336 rubbing, ploughing and cutting, 344 348 size effect, 338 339 physical reasons, 339 surface area effect, 339 342 chip thickness, 341 chip volume, 340 depth of cut, 341 grain density, 341 work speed, 341 342 threshold force effect, 339 Grinding fluid, 9, 376, 403 Grinding force(s), 28 29, 102, 105, 110 ratio, 27 stiffness, 246, 256 Grinding in manufacture accuracy, cost, machining hard materials, origin of, quality, reducing the operations, role of, speed of production, strategic process, surface quality, surface texture, value-added chain, Grinding machine, developments, 9, 13, 175 bearings See Bearings column deflection, 199 201 feed drives, 201 207 grinding machine elements, 179 joints, 201 207 machine base, 199 machine layout and deflections, 180 186 design principles for, 186 188 machine requirements, 176 178 accuracy, 177 428 Grinding machine, developments (Continued) stiffness, 177 178 thermal deflections, 177 178 wear, 178 machine stiffness, compliance bearing deflections, 182 C-frame structure, 181 compliances, 184 185 force loop, 184 185 grinding performance, improvement, 185 186 slide-ways, 182 spark-out time, improvement, 186 static stiffness, 180 U-frame structure, 181 vibration damping, 180 181 slide-ways, 201 207 spindle bearings, wheel heads, 188 spindle elements, 188 spindle roundness, 188 spindle types, 188 190 thermal deflection, 200 201 trend in, 207 209 Grinding performance, 70 72 coarse dressing, 71 72 dressing tool wear, 72 dressing traverse rate, 70 fine dressing, 71 72 medium dressing, 71 72 Grinding power, 26 27, 71, 74 Grinding system elements, specification, 10 atmosphere, 10 basic elements, elements characteristics, grinding fluid, 10 grinding machine, 10 system elements, tribological system, 10 Grinding temperatures, 13 14, 386 Grinding wheel developments, 9, 11 12, 35 abrasives, 36 46 See also individual entry grinding wheel shapes, 48 49 high-speed wheels, 55 59 See also individual entry wheel bonds, 46 48 See also individual entry Index wheel design, application, 53 55 balancing, 55 safety, 53 54 wheel mounting, 54 wheel elasticity, 59 61 wheel specification, 49 53 See also individual entry wheel vibrations, 59 61 Grinding wheel dressing, 63 CBN wheels, touch dressing for See also Touch dressing continuous dressing, 77 electro-discharge dressing (EDD), 80 ELID, 78 80 grinding performance, 70 72 See also individual entry laser dressing, 81 rotary dressing tools, 67 70 See also individual entry speed, 70 stationary tools, dressing, 64 67 See also individual entry Grinding wheel stiffness, 18 19 Guide plates, 272 H Halogenate, 130 Hardened, 115, 120 121 Hardness, 36 37, 37f, 52, 353, 356, 364, 372, 375 Health, 127 and safety, Heat, 103 104 Heat capacity, 127 Heat dissipation, 387 389 Heat exchanger, 132 Heat flow into chips, 391 392 Heat flows, 383 Heat flux, heat flux definition, 388 Heat input, 387 389 Heat partitioning, 385 386 Heat treatment, 120 HEDG See High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) HEG See High-efficiency grinding (HEG) High aspect ratio grains, 42 High removal rate grinding, 403 High wheel speed grinders, 207 Index High work speed grinding, 111 High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG), 11, 39, 103, 107 111 High-efficiency grinding (HEG), 103 106 High-porosity, 304 wheels, 47 High-speed domains, 103 High-speed grinding, 101 creep-feed grinding, 106 107 HEDG, 107 111 chip thickness, 107 crankshaft grinding, 108 development, 107 drill-flute grinding, 108 peel grinding, 110 111 specific energy, 109 temperature analysis, 108 viper grinding, 109 110 HEG, 103 106 developments, 103 104 emulsion, 105 machine requirements, 104 neat oil, 105 wheel work speed ratio, 105 106 high work speed grinding, 111 cylindrical grinding, 111 speed-stroke grinding, 111 high-speed domains, 103 temperature analysis, 111 temperature effects, 111 trends in, 102 103 accuracy, 102 103 cost, 102 productivity, 102 quality, 102 removal rate, 102 103 High-speed wheels, 55 59 balanced stresses, 55 58 practical consideration, design of, 58 bonded segments, 58 59 bonding to a metal hub, 58 central reinforcement, 58 dressable metal bond, 59 metal bonds, 59 solid wheels, 58 tapered wheel, 58 unbalanced stresses, 55 429 Hoop stresses, 48, 54 Horizontal surface grinding, 17, 20, 23f Hydrodynamic effect, 133 Hydrostatic bearing, 178 I Ice air jet blasting, 131 Impregnated diamond dressing tools, 64 Impulsive vibration, 242 Inconel, 172 174 Indentation analysis, 358 359 Indentation model, 343 344 Indentation with sliding, 359 Inertia deflections, 177 infeed, 17 Infeed rate, 17, 30, 31f, 276 Integer speed ratio, 242 243 Integer wave stability, 287 Intelligent control, 228 229 Interface friction, 353 354 Interference, 280 281 Internal grinding, 7, 7f Interrupted cuts, 46 Iron, iron-carbon diagram, 114 117 Irritant effects, 127 J Jet, jet nozzle, 136, 139f, 140f, 149 150 Joints, 201 207 Journal, 197 198 Junction growth, 354 K Kinematic contact length, 95 96 Kinematic models, 307 Kinematics, L Labour cost, 161, 165 Laminar flow model (LFM), 152 versus fluid wheel model, 152 153 Laser dressing, 81 Legislation, 127 Light running tests, 251 252 Limit chart(s), 31 33, 228 229, 265 Limiting stability, 247 Linear motor, 208, 216 217 Linearized curve-fits, 398 Loss of contact, 280 281 430 Low-temperature grinding, 358 Lubrication, 350, 361, 363, 372, 376 mechanical, chemo-physical, 125 M Machine control, 226 229 Machine cost, 161, 166 Machine design, 275 276 Machine layout and deflections, 180 186 Machine mountings, 242 Machine requirements, 104, 176 178 Machine stiffness, 275 Machine tool stiffness, 18 19 Macro-fracture, 67 Magnetic fluid grinding, 214 Marking systems, 49 Martensite, 115, 118 121 Material removal, basic, 15 abrasive type, effect of, 30 chip thickness, 21 22 forces, 26 30 grinding energy, 24 25 grinding force ratio, 27 grinding power, 26 27 limits charts, 31 33 process limits, 30 material removal rate, 22 24 material removed, depth of, 17 21 barrelling, 21, 21f size error, 20 21 stiffness factor, 20 power, 26 30 removal process, 15 17 removal rate maximising, 30 33 typical forces, 28 29 wet grinding, 29 30 Material removal, grains, 298 299 chip cross-section area, 309 310 chip length, 308 chip thickness, 299 300 chip volume, 308 309 cutting edge contacts, 300 305 See also Cutting edge cutting tools, 298 grinding chips, 298 299 mean chip thickness, 311 312 removal rate, 308 309 surface roughness, 315 317 uncut chip, 306 308 Index Maximum chip thickness, 312 315 Maximum removal rate, 32 33 Maxwell’s principle, 254 Mean chip thickness, 311 312 Measured grinding energy, 336 338 measured temperatures, 401 405 effect of abrasive properties, 401 effect of depth of cut, 401 402 effect of grain sharpness, 403 effect of grinding fluid, 403 high removal rate grinding, 403 Measurements, 331 Mesh number, 50 51 Metal bonds, 47 48, 59 Metal-bond wheels, 78 Micro-fracture, 40 42, 72 Micro-grinding, 177 Micro-grinding tools, 43 44 Micro-grinding wheels, 45f Micro-hardness, 118 Mineral oil, 130 Minimum energy, 346 347 Minimum energy principle, 352 Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), 127 128, 130 131 cryogenic cooling, 131 ice air jet blasting, 131 mist cooling, 131 with oil, 130 131 Mist cooling, 131 oil, 130 131 Mode, rocking mode, tuning fork mode, 250 Monitoring, power, 121 122 Monitoring tangential force, 122 Morphology, 41t Movement directions, 201 203 Moving band source, 408 Moving heat source, 383 Moving line source, 407 408 Moving point source, 407 MQL See Minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) Multi-part grinders, 208 209 Multi-plunge grinding, 236 Multi-point diamond tools, 64 Multi-tool grinders, 209 Index N Nanogrinding, 11, 13, 177, 210 212 Natural frequency, 197, 244 245, 253, 256 257 Neat oil(s), 105, 129 130 New abrasives, 11, 36 New processes, 11 Nip, 139 Nital etch, 117 118 Nitrogen, 128, 130 131 No-load power, 26 Normal force, 26 27, 30 Nozzle design calculations, 140 143 rectangular nozzle, 142 143 round orifice nozzle, 140 141 round pipe nozzle, 141 142 turbulence, 140 Nyquist stability criterion, 284 285 O Oblique cutting, 363 364 Oblique heat source, 383 384 Oil, 126 127, 403 405 One-dimensional method, 397 398 Operator inputs, 239 Optimisation, 13, 30 Organic bonds, 46 Orifice(s), 137 138, 140 143, 197 198 Origins, Output, 160 Overhead costs, 161 Overlap, 257 258 Overlap ratio, 66 Oxidation and oxidative wear, 375 Oxidising, 117 P Part feeding, 187 Part program, 230f, 238 Partition ratio, 393 Parts per dress, parts/dress, 163 164, 172 Parts per wheel, 163 164 Passes, 17, 20 Payback time, 166 Pearlite, 120 121 Peclet number, 393 394 Peel grinding, 5, 98, 110 111 Pendulum grinding, time constant in, 234 431 Peripheral grinding, pH, 129 Phase, phase angle, phase shift, 243 244, 246, 256 257 Phase transformation, 113 Phenolic bonds, 46 Physical reasons, 339 Pink alumina, 40 42 Planar grinding, Plastic bonds, 46 Ploughing, 15 16, 16f, 344, 347 348 Ploughing contact, 356 357 Plunge grinding, plunge feed, 271 Pneumatic hammer, 197 Polar plot, 250 Polyamide bonds, 46 Polyurethane bonds, 46 Pore feeding, 134 135 Porosity, 52 53 Position offset, 222 223 Power, 104 Power level, 121 122, 235, 239 Power monitoring, 238 Power ratio, 195 196 Precipitation, 113 Preferred wheel wear, 89 Pre-production trials, 229 Pressure, 133 Pressure distribution, 326 327 Preston’s law, 372 Primary shear, 350 351 Process compensation, 13 Process control, 121 122, 221 grinding, intelligent control of, 229 236 adaptive control of multi-plunge grinding, 236 adaptive dwell control, 232 235 adaptive feed rate control, 231 adaptive strategy, 230 system integration, 229 230 time constant See Time constant knowledge-based intelligent control system, 236 240 ACO See Adaptive control optimisation (ACO) advisory system, 238 CNC See Computer-numerical control frame work for, 237 238 gap elimination, 239 432 Process control (Continued) intelligent databases, 238 operator inputs, 239 power sensing, 239 temperature sensing, 239 thermal damage, 239 240 touch dressing, 239 machine control, classes of, 226 229 CNC, 227 228 intelligent control, 228 229 manual control, 227 switching control, 227 process variability, 221 226 dresser wear, size variation due to, 222 223 dresser wear, variation due to, 222 223 in-process gauging, 224 226 limits, 223 224 process stabilisation, 224 tolerances, 223 224 wheel wear, variation due to, 222 Process limits, 30 Process monitoring, 121 122 Process operation and control, 13 Process stabilisation, 224 Process variability, 221 226 Production rate, 209 Productivity, 102, 275 276 Pumping power, 194 195 Pumping system, 131 133 elements, 131 132 heat exchanger, 132 pressure, 133 separation, 132 supply flow rate, 133 unbalance due to fluid in the grinding wheel, 132 PVD coatings, 401 Q Quality, 3, 102, 160 Quantifying sharpness, 342 343 Quenched, quenching, 115 116, 120 121 R Random, 242 Real contact, 321 apparent contact area, 321 323 Index contact length ratio, 331 333 defining contact length, 329 331 Qi measurement, 331 real contact length, 323 326 rough wheel analysis, 328 329 roughness factor, calibration of, 329 333 comparison with Verkerk, 329 smooth wheel analysis, 326 327 Real contact area, 321 323 Real contact length, 323 326, 373, 386 Real contact pressures, 328f Recirculation system, 128 Rectangular nozzle, 136, 136f, 142 143 Redress life, 38, 48, 173 174, 224, 228 229, 372 373 Redressing, 114, 121 122 Redundant energy, 352 Regenerative, 243 245 Regenerative vibration, 243 245 Regions of instability, 288 289 Regulating wheel, 265 266, 273 Re-hardening, damage, 118 119 Reinforced wheels, 58 Relative vibration, 250 Removal parameters, 268 271 Removal process, 15 17 Removal rate, 11, 25, 102 103, 114, 120 122, 143, 208 209, 308 309, 403, 405, 415 maximising, 30 33 Repeatability, 178t, 211, 221 222 Re-sharpening, 91 92 Residual stresses, 120 Resin, 107f Resin-bonded CBN, 67 68 Resinoid, 40 42, 46, 52 Resolution, 178t, 187, 201, 210 211, 213 214 Resonance, resonant frequency, 188, 197, 252 253 Restrictors, 198 Role of grinding, Roll dressers, 67 68 Roots, 247 Rotary dressing tools, 67 70 dressing roll speed ratio, 69 dressing vibrations, 69 70 grinding wheel dressing speed, 70 Rotational stresses, 55 57, 57f Index Rough wheel analysis, 328 329 Roughness, 17, 30, 102, 111, 160 161, 167 169, 168f, 186, 186f, 210 211, 213, 215 217, 228 229, 239, 315 317 Roughness factor, calibration of, 329 333 Round orifice nozzle, 140 141 Round pipe nozzle, 141 142 Rounding, rounding process, 270, 278 282 Roundness, 13, 161, 167 169, 178t, 186, 186f, 212, 223 226, 232, 239 errors, 275 276 Rowe temperature rise model based on energy partition, 390 391 Rubber wheels, 46 Rubbing, 15 16, 16f ploughing and cutting, 344 348 Rubbing contact, 353 356 Rubbing wear, 87 Ruby alumina, 40 42 Run-out, 177, 178t, 212, 275 S Safe use, 127 Safety, 53 54 Safety and health, Sealing the wheel, 134 Seeded gel (SG), 36, 42 Segmented designs, 48, 55 56, 58 59 Self-lubricating, 128 Self-sharpening, 42, 114 Sensors, 121 Servo, 178t, 206 207, 212f Set-up, 268 271 SG See Seeded gel (SG) Shallow grinding with deep grinding, 415 416 oil compared with water cooling, 415 Shallow-cut, 405 406 Shape conformity, 84 Sharpness effects, 342 344 Shear strain rates, 351 Shear zones, 350 351 Shelf life, 46, 53 54 Shellac wheels, 46 Shock, 242 Shoe grinding, 267 Shoe nozzle, 136, 136f, 138 139 Side plates, 147 433 Silicon carbide, 40 Silicones, 130 Single layer wheels, 48 Single-point diamonds (SDs), 65 Sintered alumina, 42 Sintered brittle ceramics, 369 Size control, 133 Size effect, energy variation and, 338 339 Size error(s), 20 21, 102 Sliced bread analogy, 340 341 Slide-ways, 182, 201 207 Sliding heat source, 383 384 Sliding or rubbing energy, 345 Slip-line field, 358 Smooth wheel analysis, 326 327 Soft wheels, 46, 59 60 Softening, 113, 118, 121 Sol-gel process, 42 Solid lubricants, 128 Solid wheels, 58 Solubility wear, 370 371 Soluble oils, 129 Spark-out, 20 21, 26f, 117 118, 160 163, 165, 168, 170, 173 174, 186, 225 226, 232, 235 Sparse contacts, 329 330 Specific energy, 109, 336, 338, 341 342, 345, 416 418 Specific energy and grindability, 24 25 Specific grinding energy, 32, 33f Specific heat capacity, 127t, 148 Specific removal rate, 26f Speed, 3, 117 118, 121 Speed ratio, 105 106 Speed-stroke grinders, 208 Speed-stroke grinding, 12, 111 Spindle bearing, 188 Splash guards, 200 Stand-off distance, 162 163 Static deflections, 289 290 Static stiffness, 252 253, 256 Stationary tools, dressing, 64 67 coarse dressing, 67 dressing process, 65 66 dressing tool sharpness, sharpness ratio, 66 67 fine dressing, 67 form dressing tools, 64 multi-point diamond tools, 64 434 Stationary tools, dressing (Continued) overlap ratio, 66 single-point diamonds (SDs), 65 Steel, 171 Stick-slip, 204 Stiffness, 249 252 machine, 177 178, 180 Stiffness factor, 20, 185 Stock removal, 162 163 Strategic process, Structure number, 52 Sub-surface temperatures, 396 398 Superabrasive wheels, 161 Superabrasives, 11, 38, 114 Surface area effect, 339 342 Surface grinding, Surface quality, Surface roughness, 298 299, 300f, 309, 315 317 Surface texture, 4, 16 17 Swarf, 8, 8f Swarf flushing, swarf separation, 125f, 126, 132 Synthetic oils, 130 System elements, T Tailstock, 179 Tangent angle, 269 Tangential force, 15, 26 27, 30 Tapered wheel, 58 Temper, damage, 117 118 Temperature analysis, 111 Temperature measurement, 398 401 background temperature methods, 399 dry grinding, 400 401 grain temperatures, 398 399 surface temperature thermocouples, 399 400 wet grinding, 401 Temperature modelling, 122 Temperature rise, 196 Temperature sensing, 239 Temperatures in grinding, 10, 13 14, 108 background heating, 389 chip energy, 384 385 damage temperatures, 386 flash heating, 388 389 fluid convection, 384 Index grain contact analysis, 386 grain heating, 389 grain thermal properties, 387 heat dissipation, 388 heat flows, 383 heat input, 387 389 heat partitioning, 385 386 moving heat source, 383 power measurement, 386 real contact length, 386 sub-surface temperatures, 396 398 temperature measurement, 398 401 work partition ratio, 385 workpiece conduction, 383 384 workpiece surface temperatures, 389 396 workpiece thermal properties, 387 work-wheel fraction, 385 Tensile, 114, 120 Thermal conductivity, 120, 126 127 Thermal damage, 12, 126, 239 240 avoidance, damage, 114 avoiding, 113 bum, damage, 117 118 grind hardening, 120 121 iron-carbon diagram, 114 117 process control, 122 process monitoring Barkhausen, noise sensor, 121 monitoring power, 121 122 monitoring tangential force, 122 re-hardening, damage, 118 119 surface cracks, 119 residual stresses, 120 temper, damage, 117 118 types of, 113 Thermal deflections, 177 178, 200 201 Thermal expansion, 120 Thermal gradient, 121 Thermal properties, 37, 127t Thermal shock, 39 Thermal wear, 376 Thermocouples, 399 400 Three-dimensional stresses, 354 356 Threshold, 255 Threshold force effect, 339 Through feed, thru feed, 272 Tilt, 186 187, 201 202, 213 214, 217f Tilt angle, 272 273 Time constant, 232 234 Index 435 in cylindrical plunge grinding, 234 during dwell, 235 during in-feed, 234 in pendulum grinding, 234 role of, 232 234 Tolerance(s), 4, 11 12, 223 224 Tool wear, 350, 376 Topography, 303f, 315 Total contact length, 96 98 Total life cycle costs, 128 Touch dressing for CBN wheels, 73 77 acoustic emission, 75 76 contact sensing, 75 76 grinding performance, 73 74 purpose of touch dressing, 73 touch dressing equipment, 74 75 wheel loading, 77 equipment, 74 75 Toughness, 369 Transfer functions, 247 248 Transformation, 113, 119, 121 Transformation toughening, 369 Transition, 120 Transitional flow, 141 142 Traverse grinding, 21, 21f, 257 258 Trends, 102 103 Triangular chip, 308f Tribo-chemical conditions, 370 371 Tribological system, 10 Truing, 36, 47, 64 Turbulence, 140 Twisting loads, 46 Two-dimensional method, 396 397 V Value added, Vapours, water vapour, 128 Vibration, problem solving, 241 chatter condition, 252 253 contact length filtering, grinding wheel, 248 249 damping, 252 253 forced vibration, 242 243 grinding, dynamic relationship for, 245 248 basic equations, 245 247 basic solutions, 247 block diagram, 245 free vibration, 247 transfer functions, 247 248 impulsive vibration, 242 machine stiffness characteristics, 249 252 excitation test, 249 251 light running tests, 251 252 practical problem-solving, 261 262 regenerative vibration, 243 245 resonance parameters, 252 253 stiffness, 252 253 Vibration absorbing mounts, 199 Vibration damping, 180 181 Vibration mode, 249, 252 253 Vibrations, 13, 222 Viper grinding, 109 110 Vitrified, 107f Vitrified bonds, 47 Vitrified CBN, 67 68, 73 Volume, 120 121 U U-frame structure, 181 Ultra-precision, 210 217 Ultra-precision grinding, 43 Ultrasonic grinding, 11 Ultrasonic-assisted grinding, 215 216 Unbalance, 242 243, 249 Uncut chip, 306 308 Up-grinding, 96 Useful flow, useful flow-rate, achievable useful flow-rate, 143 144 Useful flow model (UFM) of convection, 153 154 W Waste disposal, Water evaporation, 127 Water-based fluids, 126 127 Wave models, 360 361 Wave rubbing, 360 361 Wave wear, 361 362 Wavelength, 242 243, 248 Waviness, 277 278 Waviness break frequency, 60 61 Wear, 178, 344 abrasive wear, 375 adhesion and wheel loading, 371 adhesive wear, 372 436 Wear (Continued) Archard’s law, 373 chemical and tribo-chemical conditions, 370 371 chemical wear, 375 corrosive and chemical, 375 determination of Archard constant (K), 374 difficult materials to grind, 376 378 grinding fluid and role of additives, 376 oxidation and oxidative wear, 375 real contact length, 373 thermal wear, 376 wear life cycle, 372 373 wear particles, 118 119 wheel wear, 222 yield mode and process energy, 374 Wear flats, 91 Wear length, 323 Wear measurement, 89 Wear processes, 370 378 Wear resistance, 37 38 Webster nozzle, 137 138 Wet grinding, 29 30, 401 Wheel behaviour, 12 Wheel bonds, 46 48 metal bonds, 47 48 organic bonds, 46 vitrified bonds, 47 Wheel cleaning, 126, 131, 133, 136 137 Wheel contact and wear effects, 83 abrasive surface, 83 87 See also Abrasive surface contact length, 94 98 contact length ratio, 98 deflected contact length, 96 geometric contact length, 95 kinematic contact length, 95 96 total contact length, 96 98 contact width, 98 grain wear See Grain wear peel grinding, 98 wheel-workpiece conformity, 92 94 equivalent diameter, 92 94 Wheel contact time, 306 Wheel cost, 161 Wheel deflection, 18f Wheel design, 53 55 Wheel dulling, 126 Index Wheel elasticity and vibrations, 59 61 Wheel flanges, 54 Wheel flexibility, 86 87 Wheel interference, 249 Wheel life, 42, 48, 56, 304 Wheel loading, 77, 88 89 Wheel mounting, 54 Wheel porosity, 143, 145 146, 145f Wheel roughness, 222 Wheel shape, 222 Wheel sharpness, 17 19, 24 25, 28, 37 38, 42, 70, 232f, 234, 239 Wheel size, 222 Wheel specification, 49 53 concentration, 53 conventional abrasive wheels standard marking system for, 50f grade, 52 grain size, 49 52 porosity, 52 53 selection, 120 structure number, 52 super abrasive wheels marking system for, 50f Wheel speed, 32, 102 103, 107, 111, 222, 224, 233f, 260, 373, 375, 377 Wheel structure, 13 Wheel wear, 10, 13, 17, 19, 30, 32, 67, 72, 74 75, 77, 102, 109 110, 241 242, 244, 246 248, 323, 403 404 in HEDG, 403 404 reduction, 126 Wheel-head, 188 190 Wheel-regenerative vibration, 243 245, 247 248, 260 Wheel work speed ratio, 105 106 Wheel workpiece conformity, 92 94 Whiplash effect, 177, 182 183 White layer, 118 119 Width of grinding contact, 23 24 Work feed, 271 273 Work height, 269 Work material, 405 Work partition ratio, 385 Work speed, 17, 32, 117 118, 121, 242 243, 248, 251, 256 257, 259 260, 276, 341, 373, 375, 390, 410f, 415 Index Work-head, 179, 191, 201 202, 215 Workpiece bending, 21 Workpiece conduction, 383 384 Workpiece material(s), 8, 36 38, 40, 47 Workpiece point contact time with grain, 306 Workpiece roughness, 70 Workpiece sub-surface temperatures, 396 398 approximate one-dimensional method, 397 398 averaging, 398 linearized curve-fits, 398 two-dimensional method, 396 397 Workpiece surface temperatures, 389 396 C-factors for maximum temperature, 395 contact angle, 394 contact-surface temperature rise, 395 396 diffusivity, 393 394 finish-surface temperature rise, 395 396 437 fluid convection factor, 393 heat flow into chips, 391 392 partition ratio, 393 Peclet Number, 393 394 Rowe temperature rise model based on energy partition, 390 391 temperature rise, 390 work-wheel fraction, 392 393 Workpiece temperature rise, 390 391 Workpiece thermal properties, 387 Work-plate angle, 268 Work-regenerative vibration, 243 244 Work-table, 179f, 208 Work-wheel fraction, 385, 392 393, 410 413 Y Yield mode and process energy, 374 Yield stress, 120 Z Zirconia alumina, 40 42