Geoinformation  remote sensing, photogrammetry, and geographic information systems 2nd ed

iB0 r ằ k / Thu' viỗn - 0H Quy Nhan CRC Press ® T a y lo r & F r a n c s C r o u p ) • lllllllllllllllimillllllllllllllllllllllllll I ' M J l’c" * S S k é Remote Sensing, P tio to g m m e try , a n d Geographic in fo rm a tio n S y s te m s SECONb EDITION • - i »* , f v w, , « Gottfried Konecny GEOINFORMATION Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, and Geographic Information Systems SECOND EDITION GEOINFORMATION Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry, and Geographic Information Systems SECOND EDITION Gottfried Konecny Syi.¡U'ùiJü w/y Uyy ö sv ï\ Hi1VIEW _ • $ / A - A & CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an inform a business CRC Press Taylor 8c Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2014 by Taylor 8c Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor 8c Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20140127 International Standard Book Number-13:978-1-4200-6856-6 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmit­ ted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400 CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Konecny, Gottfried Geoinformation : remote sensing, photogrammetry and geographic information systems / Gottfried Konecny Second edition, pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-4200-6856-6 (hardback) Geographic information systems Remote sensing Photogrammetry Title G70.212.K65 2014 910.285-dc23 Visit the Taylor 8c Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com s Preface Acknowledgments Author List of Figures Introduction xi xiii xv xvii Surveying and Mapping in Transition to Geoinformation Geodesy Surveying Remote Sensing Photogrammetry Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Current Status of Mapping in the World Integration of Geoinformation Technologies United Nations Initiative on Global Geospatial Information Management 2 10 12 13 13 Remote Sensing 19 Electromagnetic Radiation Basic Laws Radiometric Quantities Electromagnetic Spectrum Energy-Matter Interaction Atmospheric Transmission Energy Interaction at the Object Interaction of Energy in Plants Energy Arriving at the Sensor Sensor Components Optical Imaging ' Photographic Process Color and Color Photography Digital Imaging Imaging Sensors Aerial Survey Cameras 19 19 21 21 21 21 24 26 26 28 28 30 32 35 36 36 V VI Comeni.s Image Quality of Aerial Survey Cameras Optomechanical Scanners Laser Scanners Optoelectronic Scanners Image Spectrometers Oblique Imaging Radar Imaging Polarization of a Radar Beam Radar Interferometry Radar Imaging Modes Platforms Aircraft Satellites Ground Resolution versus Repeatability Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) Image Interpretation The Human Eye Stereovision Visual Interpretation of Images Image Processing Raster Scanning of Photographic Images Gray Level Changes Filtering Geometric Resampling Multispectral Classification Classification Accuracy Image Fusion Remote Sensing Applications Meteorology and Climatology Ozone Cloud Mapping Rainfall Wind Weather Prediction Climate Studies Oceanography Ocean Productivity Ocean Currents Sea Ice Bathymetry 47 69 61 63 65 66 67 72 7^ 76 79 79 82 83 89 89 89 90 96 96 96 97 100 104 106 111 112 113 121 121 121 123 125 125 125 125 126 127 127 129 C o n ten ts Environment Hazardous Waste Plumes Oil Spills Nonrenewable Resources Mineral Exploration Oil Exploration Renewable Resources Land Cover and Land Use Vegetation Natural Hazards Earthquakes Landslides Land Subsidence Volcanoes Floods Forest and Grass Fires Photogrammetry Evolution of Photogrammetry Single-Image Photogrammetry Analogue Stereo Photogrammetry Measuring Marks Analytical Photogrammetry Digital Photogrammetry Principles of Analytical and Digital Photogrammetry Coordinate Transformations between Image and Terrain Image Coordinates and Local Cartesian Object Coordinates Transverse Mercator and Geographic Coordinates Geographic Coordinates and Geocentric Cartesian Coordinates Transformation between Geocentric and Local Cartesian Coordinates Space Intersection Space Resection Aerial Triangulation Relative Orientation Absolute Orientation Digital Photogrammetric Operations SIDIP DPLX DPCOR 129 ¡29 131 131 132 133 133 134 134 135 138 133 138 138 138 139 139 143 143 143 150 157 174 181 183 183 184 iS8 190 191 193 195 200 208 210 213 213 213 217 vii viii Contents BLÜH LISA-FOTO Image Matching Semiglobal Matching Digital Elevation Models Orthoimage Generation LISA-Basic RacursPHOTOMOD Airborne Laser Scanning Geographic Information Systems Introduction Hardware Components Input Devices Processing and Storage Devices Output Devices Software Components Operating Systems Programming Languages Networking Software Graphic Standards G1S Application Software Vector Systems Object Representation Vector Geometry Raster Systems Databases GIS Systems GIS and the Internet Esri’s ArcGIS GIS Applications Global Applications National Applications and Spatial Data Infrastructure Local Applications Cadastral Applications Facility Management City Models Spatial Analysis Applications Emergency GIS over Crisis Areas General Spatial Information Systems 217 221 222 228 230 233 238 241 256 261 261 264 265 267 269 269 269 270 270 271 271 272 272 277 282 283 285 286 287 339 339 340 342 342 349 351 360 362 365 C o n ten ts Positioning Systems 381 The Global Positioning System (GPS) GPS Signals Differential GPS GPS Satellite Geometry and GPS Software Accuracy Augmentation Systems GSM Mobile Phone Location Cost Considerations 381 381 384 388 389 389 ■ Costs of Aerial Photography, Orthophotography, and Topographic Line Mapping GPS-Supported Ground Surveys Digital Elevation Models Aerial Triangulation versus Direct Sensor Orientation Mapping from Space Automated Feature Extraction 393 394 397 398 398 399 404 Technological Changes 407 Bibliography 409 Index 415 ix In the 1990s, surveying and mapping underwent a transition from disciplineoriented technologies, such as geodesy, surveying, photogrammetry, and car­ tography, to the methodology-oriented integrated discipline of geoinformatics This is based on the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), or GPS, posi­ tioning, remote sensing, digital photography for data acquisition, and a geo­ graphic information system (GIS) for data manipulation and data output This book attempts to present the required basic background for remote sensing, digital photogrammetry, and GIS in the new geoinformatics concept in which the different methodologies must be combined For remote sensing, the basic fundam entals are the properties of elec­ trom agnetic radiation and their interaction with matter This radiation is received by sensors and platforms in an analogue or digital form, and is subjected to image processing In photogrammetry, the stereo concept is used for the location of information in 3D With the advent of high-resolution satellite system s in stereo, the theory of analytical photogram m e­ try restituting 2D image information into 3D is of increasing importance, merging the remote sensing approach with that of photogrammetry The result of the restitution is a direct input into geographic information sys­ tems in vector or raster form The fundam entals of these are described in detail, with an emphasis on global, regional, and local applications In the context of data integration, a short introduction to the GPS satellite posi­ tioning system is provided Tliis book will appeal to a wide range of readers from advanced undergradu­ ates to all professionals in the growing field of geoinformation xi Google E a rth im age o f K ibera, 371 Google E a rth im ages, 343 Google E a rth stre e t view of th e U niversity of H annover, G erm any, 378 Google E arth 3D view of H am burg City Hall, G ermany, 379 Google E a rth view of th e U niversity of H annover, G erm any, 376 Google E a rth zoom view of th e U niversity of H annover, G ermany, 377 Google M aps, 370 Google M aps view of th e University of H annover, G ermany, 377,378 governm ental, residential, and com m ercial holdings in th e city of Bangkok, 363 hydrological m odeling, 341 identification of featu res by unique num ber, 358 inclusion of feature points, 358 industrial air pollution in a city, 367 Josephine cad astre, 342 land register, 342 lan d re g istra tio n d o cu m en ts, 356, 360 L andsat classification of wildlife conflict area so u th of N airobi Park, 373 layers of a crisis m anagem ent G1S over Kosovo, 368 local applications, 342 m anholes, 349 m ap of game m ovem ents, 374 m erging up -to -d ate im agery w ith p lanning inform ation to m onitor stru ctio n progress screenshot, 361 m etes and bounds description versus co o rd in ate description of b oundaries from own old papers, 359 m etes and bounds system , 342 m ultipurpose cad astre, 343 n a tio n a l ap p lic a tio n s a n d sp a tia l d a ta in fra s tru c tu re , -3 o w n ersh ip certificate, 346 ow nership pro tectio n cad astre, 343 o w n e rsh ip ty p e m ap o f a U.s city, 364 P h o to m o d eller p ro g ram , 352 p riv a tiz a tio n o f a g ric u ltu l la n d , 343 real e s ta te p ro p e rty c a d a stre , 342 reco m m en d ed c a d a s tra l surveys w ith b o u n d a rie s, 357 ru l p o p u la tio n w ith age over 65 in co u n ties in th e U nited States, 362 satellite im agery d p e d over the DEM, 369 SDI C ookbook, 339 section of topographic m ap 1:50000 of N airobi over K ibera, 370 sew erage in K ibera, 373 sp a tia l analysis ap p licatio n s, 360-362 su p erp o sitio n o f old c a d a stre an d d ig ital o rth o p h o to , 350 surveyed object to p o g rap h y tu rn e d into a m ap, 361 tax cad a stre , 343 TOID, 354 to u rist in fo rm atio n system s, 342 u rb a n u tility netw ork, 351 use of c a d a stra l in fo rm atio n for land m an ag em en t, 359 u tility in fra stru c tu re , 349 value-added d ig ital m ap, 341 v irtu a l reality application, 355, 356, 357 W orld B ank, 345 CIS system s, 285-286 AutoCAD form ats, 286 E thernet, 286 FTP server, 286 In te rn e t and, 286 JPEG form at, 285 FIFE form at, 285 vendors, 285 w ireless application protocol, 286 Index h a rd w a re co m p o n en ts, -2 charge-coupled device sensors, 265 client, 269 c o m p u te r c o n fig u ratio n s, 268 c o n fig u ratio n , 270 CPU p erfo rm an ce, 268 e x te rn a l sto rag e devices, 268 im ag ery in p u t, 265 in p u t devices, 265-267 I/O controller, 268 local a re a netw o rk , 269 m a in m em ory, 267 m aps, 266 o u u t devices, 269 p ro cessin g a n d sto rag e devices, 267-269 s te r devices, 269 server, 269 3D -vector d a ta , 267 v ecto r devices, 269 v ecto r d ig itizatio n , 267 w ide a re a netw ork, 269 h a rd w a re costs, 263 layer cep t, 276 p u rp o ses, 262 p y ram id , 263, 265 s te r system s, 282-283 algebraic tra n sfo rm a tio n s, 283 Blow an d S h rin k o p eratio n s, 283 Boolean o p erato rs, 283 cell resolution, 282 g eom etric tran sfo rm a tio n s, 282 m acro -o p eratio n s, 283 d io m e tric tran sfo rm atio n s, 282 relatio n sh ip betw een base d a ta and • th em atic d ata, 263 rem o te sensing, 10 so ftw are com ponents, 269-272 AIX, 270 C++ p ro g ram m in g language, 270 F o rtran , 270 GIS ap p lication softw are, 271-272 G raphical Kernel System, 271 grap h ical user interface, 270 HP-UX, 270 Linux, 270 local a rea netw ork, 270 MS-DOS, 270 n e tw o rk in g so ftw are, 270-271 o p e tin g system s, 269-270 p ro g m m in g lan g u ag e s, 270 T ran sm issio n C ontrol P ro to c o l/ In te rn e t P rotocol, 271 UNIX, 270 v ecto r a n d s te r geom etry, 272 V isual Basic, 270 w ide a re a netw o rk , 270 W indow s o p e tin g system s, 270 sp a tia l o bjects, 261 v ecto r system s, 272-282 a lp h a n u m e ric a ttrib u te s, 272 ATKIS, 276 a ttrib u te links, 273 CAD m odels, 276 edge cut-off, 282 g eo m etric sp a tia l queries, 279 GIS layer co n cep t, 276 g p h ic re p re se n ta tio n o f an a re a , 274 line-area tabic, 271 o bject g roups, 276 o b ject-o rien ted GIS, 277 object re p re se n ta tio n , 272-277 p o in ters, 276 p o in t, line, a n d a re a objects, 273 polygons, fo rm atio n of, 274 relatio n al d a ta b a se , 275 ro tatio n s, 282 scale change, 282 sp a g h e tti g rap h ics, 273 topological m odel, 275 tra n sla tio n s, 281 tw o-an d -a-h alf-d im en sio n al capability, 281 v ecto r geom etry, 277-282 Geoid, G eoinform ation, in tro d u c tio n to, 1-17 c u rre n t sta tu s of m ap p in g in the w orld, 12-13 base m ap d a ta , 12 surveys, 12 u p d a te rates of world m apping, 13 geocoding, geom atics, 423 in teg ratio n of geoinform ation technologies, 13 p h o to g ram m etry , 9-12 balloon ph o to g rap h s, co m p u ter developm ent, digital to g ram m etry , geographic info rm atio n system s, 10-12 governm ental a d m in istra tio n s, 11 in d u strial developm ent, 11 in-flight GPS, 10 Land Inform ation System, 11 laser scanners, 10 Open GIS C onsortium , 12 sensor position, 10 surveying an d m apping in tra n sitio n to geoinform ation, -8 ancien t Greece, c a rt wheel com puting, conform al projections, d irect d istan ce m easu rem en ts, first, electronic field book, E uropean T errestrial Reference Fram e, G auss-K rüger projection, geodesy, -6 geoid, h y perspectral sensing devices, ideal reference surface, Intern atio n al T errestrial Reference Fram e, L am bert conic conform al projection, L andsat, leveling, microwaves, m onum ented benchm arks, P-code observations, photographic em ulsion, plan position indicator, Q uickbird, rem ote sensing, 7-8 R enaissance, satellites, 4, selective availability, spirit leveling, surveying, -7 ta c h e o m e te rs, th eo d o lites, tid a l b e n c h m a rk s, to ta l sta tio n s, tria n g u la tio n n etw orks, U niversal T ran sv erse M ercato r p ro jectio n , w orldw ide m ap p in g , U nited N ations In itiativ e on G lobal G eo sp atial In fo rm atio n M an ag em en t, 13-17 aerial photography, 14 base scales, 15 c a d a stra l m aps, 14 g ro u n d sam ple d ista n c e s, 17 in te rn a tio n a l m ap vendors, 15 G eospace, 365 G eo statio n ary satellites, 82 G erm an iu m d etecto r, 60 G erm an M etric cam era, 113 G E-Sm allworld, 285 G estalt, 220 GIS; See G eographic in fo rm atio n system GKS; See G raphical K ernel System Global M ap initiative, 339 Global M onitoring for E n v iro n m en t an d S ecurity (GMES) p ro g ram , 141 Global N avigation S atellite System (GNSS), 1, 220, 343 Global p o sitio n in g system (GPS), 381-389 absolute positioning, 383 am biguity term , 383 C/A code, 383 ca rrie r frequencies, 381 clear/acq u isitio n code, 382 continuously o p eratin g reference statio n netw orks, 385 CORS coverage for Serbia, 387 CORS netw ork of Turkey, 388 cycle slip, 383 d e n sifie d n e tw o rk of c o n tro l from GNSS o b s e r v a tio n s in S erb ia, 387 differential GPS, 81, 383, 384-387 d istu rb a n c e s of GNSS signals, 384 Index global GPS satellite configuration, 382 GPS sa te llite g eo m etry a n d GPS so ftw are, 8 -389 GPS signals, 381-383 in-flight, 10 io n o sp h eric delays, 383 m a g n itu d e of e rro r so u rces of GNNS signals, 384 m o d u la tio n o f c a rrie r wave, 382 NAVSTAR-GPS, 381 p recisio n code, 382 rea l-tim e k in e m a tic m ode of o p eratio n s, 386 relative p o sitio n in g , 385 SAPOS coverage for G erm any, 386 satellites, co m m o n reference fram e, 381 selective availability, 383 surveys, Real-Time K inem atic, 397 te rre stria l m easu re m e n ts, 385 G lobal sp a tia l d a ta in fra s tru c tu re (GSD1), 339 GMES pro g ram ; See Global M oniloring for E n v iro n m en t an d Security p ro g ram GNSS; See Global N avigation S atellite System GOME ex p erim en t, 121 Google E arth , 343, 368 Google M aps, 370 GPS; See Global p o sitio n in g system G raphical K ernel System (GKS), 271 G raphical u ser in terfa ce (GUI), 270 Gray level changes, 100 G round sam ple d ista n c e s (GSD), 17, 241 H H arv ard L aboratory for C om puter G raphics, 11 H azard o u s w aste, identification of, 129 Helava, Uki V., 178 H ew lett-P ackard, 286 H exagon cam era, 43 H obrough, G ilbert, 223 H orizon cam era, 10 HP-UX (Hewlett-Packard), 270 H ydrological m odeling, 341 H y p e rsp e c tra l devices, ,6 IBM, 228 ICRF; See In te rn a tio n a l C elestial R eference F ram e Idrisi, 285 Ikonos ,8 Im age p y ram id s, 225 Im ag in g sen so rs (rem o te sensing), 36 -79 a erial c a m e system , co m p o n en ts, 2,54 ae ria l film, 37 aerial su rv ey cam e ras, -4 a erial survey film s, 55 a z im u th al dim ension (rad ar beam ), 70 b a c k sc a tte re d energy, 70 c rab angle, 40 d ig ital elevation m odel, 76 d ig ital m o d u la r cam e ra, 64 d islo rlio n , 57 “D ragon Fly," DSM o rth o p h o to s, 46,4 facto ry c a lib tio n p ro ced u re, d isto rtio n in, 57 film d isto rtio n , 58 film g in size, 53 flight altitu d e , 54 g e rm a n iu m detecto r, 60 g ro u n d pixel size, 59 h y p e rsp e c tra l devices, 65 im age coordinate in flight direction, 72 im age m otion co m p en satio n , 39 im age q u ality of aerial survey cam eras, 47-59 im age sp ectro m e ters, -6 in e rtia l m ea su rin g u n it, 42 in terfe ro m etric principle, 73 laser altim eter, 61 laser im age from m obile van, 46 laser scan n ers, 61-63 lin e a r array, 60 m o d u latio n , 51 M ulti Ray p h o to g ram m etry , 48 o bject c o n tra st, 47 425 oblique im aging, 41 ,6 -6 opto electro n ic scan n ers, -6 o p to m ech an ical scan n ers, -6 overlapping fram es, 49 passive sensing, 67 phase u n w rap p in g p rocedure, 74 p h o to g ram m etric cam era developm ents, 41 Pictom etry, 66 principal p o in t in im age plane, 37 propagation coefficient, 69 push-broom principle, 63 push-broom sensor, sw ath of, 64 d a r b a c k scatterin g objects, 72 d a r beam , p o larizatio n of, 72 d a r im aging, 67-72 d a r im aging d isto rtio n s, 77 d a r im aging m odes, 76 d a r interferom etry, 73-76 d ia n t flux received, 69 reflected energy, 69 ro ta tin g shutter, 38 side-looking airb o rn e radar, 70, 72 slant range distance, 71 Spot satellite sensor, 64 survey of terrain , 38 synthetic ap e rtu re radar, 72 tangential lens disto rtio n s, 58 tru e orthophotos, 46 wave propagation, velocity of, 71 In d irect spatial access, 284 Inertial m easuring u n it (IMU), 42, 81-82,195 Inform ix (2D-Spatial D ata blade), 284 Inpho, 241 Intel Pentium Processors, 268 Interferom etric principle, 73 Intergraph, 285, 338 Interior o rientation, 216 In tern atio n al Celestial Reference Fram e (ICRF), In tern atio n al C h arter for D isasters program , 89 In tern atio n al Society for P ho to g ram m etry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS), 13 In te rn a tio n a l S ta n d a rd s O rg an izatio n (ISO), 270-271,286 In te rn a tio n a l T erre stria l R eference F ram e (ITRF), I/O controller, 268 iPhones, 326 J Java, 320 Jeffries-M atusita d ista n c e , 108 Jo in t P h o to g rap h ic E x p erts G roup (JPEG), 237, 285 Josephine ca d a stre , 342 K K alm an filtering, 389 K-D tree, 285 K epler’s th ird law, 82 KLT, 241 Kosmos satellites, 113 L L acm ann, O tto, 181 L am bert conic conform al projection, L am bert reflector, 26 LAN; See Local a re a n etw ork Land Inform ation System (LIS) (Sweden), 11 Land register, 342 L andsat, 8, 83, 128,363 Laser diode, 96 Laser im age (aircraft), 44 Laser im age (m obile van), 46 Laser scan n ers (rem ote sensing), 61-63 Laser sc an n in g (airborne), 256-259 L aussedat, Aimé, 145 L east sq u ares a d ju s tm e n t p rinciple, 203 L east squares m atch in g , 224, 230 Leica-Helava Systems, 62 LeicaLPS, 241 Leica P ushbroom S canner ADS 80, 44 Leica RCD 30 cam era, 44 Index Lens e q u atio n , 148 Leveling, 4, 7, 267 L H -S ystem s/L aser Scan L am ps so ftw are, 277 LH System s SD 2000/3000,180 LH System s SOCET-SET, 183 L inux, 270 LIS; See L and In fo rm a tio n System LISA-basic, -240 LISA-FOTO, 221-222, 230 Local a re a n etw o rk (LAN), 269,270 M M ah alan o b is classifier, 109 M aplnfo, 285 M ap W orld, 380 M axw ell eq u atio n s, 19 M esster, O skar, 156 M eteorological satellite, first, M etes an d b o u n d s system , 342 M ethylhydrochinon, 30 M eydenbaucr A lbrecht 145 M icrosoft Bing M aps, 380 “D ragon Fly,” 45 o p e tin g system s, 269 M icrosoft-Vexcel, 44, 395 MIR sp ace sta tio n , 113 M obile ph o n e location (GSM), 389-391 M o n u m en ted b en ch m ark s, M oravec o perator, 226 MS-DOS, 270 M ultiplex, 151 M u ltip u rp o se cad a stre , 343 M ultiray p h o to g ram m etry , 48 NDVI; See N o rm alized D ifference V egetation Index N etw ork d a ta b a se s, 284 N etw o rk in g so ftw are, 270-271 N iepce, Joseph N icephor, 144 NIMA; See U.S N atio n al Im ag in g a n d M ap p in g A u th o rity N im bus satellite, 127 N istri, U m berto, 162 NOAA satellites, 83 N okia, 286 N orm alized D ifference V egetation Index (NDVI), 135, 339 NSDI; See N atio n al sp a tia l d a ta in fra s tru c tu re o O bject-o rien ted GIS, 277 O b je c t-re la tio n a l d a ta b a se s, 284 O blique im aging, ,6 -6 O ceanography, 125 Oil ex ploration, 133 Oil spills, 131-132 O m n istar, 389 O pen GIS C o n so rtiu m (OGIS), 12 O p to elec tro n ic sca n n e rs, -6 O p to m ech a n ical scan n ers, -6 O racle Spatial, 275, 285 O racle Spatial an d G raph, 338 OrbView-2 satellite, 127 Ore deposits, 133 O rth o im ag e gen eratio n , 233-238 O w nership p ro te c tio n c a d a stre , 343 Ozone, 121 P N NASA Apollo m issions, Total Ozone M apping S pectrom eter, 121 NASA-JPL, AVIRIS sp ectro m eter, 65 N ational sp atial d a ta in fra stru c tu re (NSD1), 340 Palm , 286 PCI G eom atics, 285 P ersonal dig ital a ssista n ts (PDA), 286 P hoenics of H annover, 351 P h o to g ram m etry , 9-12, 143-259 a irb o rn e laser scan n in g , 256-259 a irb o rn e la se r p o in t cloud im age, 259 427 d ifferen t lase r sc a n p a tte rn s u s e d ,258 feasibility studies, 256 GNSS m easu rem en ts, 256 heig h t accuracy, 258 laser scan d u rin g flight, 257 p o in t cloud o btained, 257 principle, 256 vegetation classification, 258 balloon photographs, cam era developm ents, 41 co m puter developm ent, d igital ph o to g ram m etric o perations, 213-255 aerial trian g u la tio n b u n d le ad justm ent, 243 affine deform ation of search m atrix , 224 a irc ft scan n er im age, 219 alp h an u m eric display, 216 applications of d a r software, 251 area-b ased m atching, 228 asp e c t im ages, 240 autom atic aerial triangulation, 244 BLUH, 217-221 bundle block ad justm ent, 213 by-product of orthoim ages, 237 coarse tran sfer p o in t m atching, 242 coherent images, 250,252 collinearity model, 235 cro ss-co rrelatio n coefficient, 223, 224 d a ta transfer, 236 dense m atching carried o u t for aerial trian g u latio n , 244 dense transfer point m atching, 243 digital elevation models, 230-233 digital im age m atching, 223 OPCOR, 217 DPLX, 213-216 d rap ed orth o p h o to projected onto DEM, 240 DTM creation, 245 erro r equation, 227 excessive slope calculation, 235 feature-based m atching, 230 filterin g for a re a s w ith p o o r m atch in g , 246 filterin g to m a tc h a d ja c e n t DTM p a rts, 247 fitting o f ro o f te m p la te s for a u to m a tic ro o f v ecto rizatio n , 249 fittin g o f te rre s tria l im ages to faỗades by rectificatio n , 250 F ô rstn er o p erato r, 227,228 geocoded o rth o p h o to coverage, 236 illu m in a tio n differences, 224 im age c o o rd in a te c o rrectio n s d e te rm in e d by ad d itio n al p a m e te rs, 219 im age co rrelatio n , 238 im age d e ta ils of m ean a m p litu d e an d am p litu d e stability, 253 im age m a tch in g , 222-228 im age p y ram id s, 225 in terfe ro m etric d erivation of elevation, 255 in terio r o rien tatio n , 216 in te rp o la tio n in sto c h a stic field, 231 in te rp o la tio n of TINs and co n to u rs, 245 JPEG form at, 237 le a st sq u a re s a d ju s tm e n t so lu tio n , 218 least sq u ares m atch in g , 224, 230 EISA-basic, 238-240 LISA-FOTO, 221-222 loading of overlapping im ages, 242 m ean am p litu d e, 252 m e a s u re m e n t of fiducial m arks, 215 M oravec operator, 226 observ atio n m atrix, 226 o rth o im ag e generation, 233-238 orth o m o saic, 243, 248 PHOTOMOD, 241 pixel-by-pixel calculation, 240 pseudocolor rep resen tatio n to classify areas, 254 R acurs PHOTOMOD, 241-255 ratio n al polynom ial functions, 220 Index rectific a tio n p ro ced u res, 243 sc a n n e r im ages, 218 se a m lin e cre a tio n betw een a d ja c e n t o rth o im ag es, 247 search o p tim iz a tio n possibility, 230 sem iglobal m atc h in g , 228-230 SIDIP, 213 slope im ages, 240 sm o o th in g of c o n to u rs, 246 sp ace im agery, 220 stereo o rth o p h o to , 237 superim p o sitio n of vector info rm atio n on ortho p h o to , 236 3D city m odel creatio n , 249 3D v ecto riz a tio n by o p erato rs, 248 TIFF d a ta form at, 237 tria n g u la te d irre g u la r netw orks, 231,234 tru e o rth o p h o to s, 238,239 vehicle tra c k exam ple, 255 w ire fram e display o f DEM, 239 evolution, 143-183 ab so lu te o rien tatio n , 166, 174 A m erican Civil W ar, 143 an alo g u e stereo p h o to g ram m etry , 150-157 a n alo g u e stereo re stitu tio n in stru m e n ts, 157 an aly tical orth o p h o to p rinters, 181 a n aly tical p h o to g m m e try , 174-181 analytical p lotter principle, 176,181 balloon im age, 156 d ig ital o rth o rectificatio n , 181 d ig ital ph o to g ram m etry , 181-183 dig ital stereo w o rkstation, 182 d isp la c e m e n ts of p h o to g p h du e to h eig h t d ifferen ces an d tilt, 169 effects of changes in o rien tatio n elem ents, 170 erro rs in rectification, 148 G asser Projector, 160 g eo m etry of vertical p h o to g rap h s, 168 processing o perations, 179 G I S h o riz o n ta l p a lla x , 159,171 im ag e p lan e, sh ift of, 149 in te rio r o rie n ta tio n , 160 lens e q u atio n , 148 m e a s u rin g m ark s, 157-174 m e c h a n ic a l ste re o in s tru m e n ts , 167 m odel d efo rm atio n due to fau lty relative o rie n ta tio n , 172 M ultiplex, 151 optical stereoprojection device, 151 p ersp ectiv e, 147,148 p lo ttin g in s tru m e n ts , 166 p o la riz a tio n filters, 165 p rim e m a n u fa c tu re rs o f d ig ital w o rk statio n s, 183 P u lfrich ste re o c o m p a to r principle, 154 rectificatio n , 143,146,149 relative o rie n ta tio n , 164,173 Scheim pflug co n d itio n , 149 single-im age p h o to g m m e try , 113-119 stereo m e a su re m e n t, 165 stereo re s titu tio n devices, 159 stereo sco p ic m e a su re m e n t p rinciple, 150 stereo view ing, 150 v ertical photos, 158 von G ru b er p o in ts, 164, 171 W right b ro th ers, 150 Z e iss -O re l S te re o a u to g p h , 150, 155 g eo g rap h ic in fo rm a tio n system s, 10-12 go v ern m en tal a d m in istra tio n s, 11 in d u stria l developm ent, 11 in-flight GPS, 10 Land In fo rm atio n System, 11 laser scan n ers, 10 m ulti ray, 48 Open GIS C onsortium , 12 principles of an aly tical and d igital p h o to g ram m etry , 183-212 ab so lu te o rien tatio n , 210-212 aerial tria n g u la tio n , 200-207 atm o sp h eric refraction, 193 429 control p oints, 188,192 coordinate tran sfo rm atio n s betw een im age an d te rra in , 183 co p lan a rity equatio n , 208 e a rth cu rv atu re, 192 ellipsoidal height, 190 erro r eq u atio n m atrix , 205 G auss-K riiger co o rd in ates, 188 geo cen tric C arte sia n co o rd in a te s, 190 geographic co o rd in ates an d geocentric C artesian coordinates, 190-191 GPS flights, 207 im age co o rd in ates an d local C artesian object co o rd in ates, 184-188 im age an d object c o o rd in ate system s, 185 im age point, 197 inverse of coefficient m atrix, 199 invertible m atrix, 201 least squares a d ju stm en t principle, 203 m atrix m ultiplication, 187 model aerial trian g u latio n , 212 near vertical photography, 212 norm al equation m atrix, 206 object coordinate system , 187 photo co o rd in ate m easu rem en ts, 203 photos and models of block, 202 point residuals, 199 principal m eridian, 189 relative orientation, 208-210 rotatio n al m atrix, 186, 187 scale transfer, 210 self-calibration param eters, 207 space intersection, 193-195 space resection, 195-200 Taylor expansion, 209 transform ation betw een geocentric and local C artesian coordinates, 191-193 transverse M ercator and geographic co o rd in ates, 188-189 tria n g le vectors, 184 ty p ical co n tro l p o in t co n fig u tio n in block, 204 von G ru b er p o in ts, 212 sen so r p o sitio n , 10 stag es of developm ent, 407 stereo sco p ic o b serv atio n capacity, 91 P h o to g rap h y aerial, 14,79,398 color, -3 control, 38 false color, 35 ortho-, 343 p an o ram ic, 178, 220 rem o te sensing, 28 vertical, 198 PHOTOMOD, 241 P hotom odeller p ro g ram , 352 Pictom etry, 66 Pinhole cam era, d isa d v a n ta g e of, 28 P lan ck ’s d is trib u tio n law, 20 Plan p o sition in d ic a to r (PPI), -8 Poivilliers, G eorges, 163 P olarized light, 95 P ositioning system s, 381-391 accu racy a rg u m e n ta tio n system s, 389 K alm an filtering, 389 PPP, 389 principle, 390 W ide A rea A rg u m en tatio n System , 389 global p o sitio n in g system , 381-389 abso lu te p ositioning, 383 am b ig u ity term , 383 C/A code, 383 c a rrie r frequencies, 381 clea r/acq u isitio n code, 382 continuously o p e tin g reference sta tio n netw orks, 385 CORS coverage for Serbia, 387 CORS netw ork of Turkey, 388 cycle slip, 383 d ensified n etw o rk of c o n tro l from GNSS o b se rv a tio n s in Serbia, 387 differential GPS, 383, 384-387 Index d is tu rb a n c e s of GNSS signals, 384 global GPS sa te llite c o n fig u ratio n , 382 GPS sa te llite g eo m etry a n d GPS softw are, 388-389 GPS signals, 381-383 io n o sp h eric delays, 383 m a g n itu d e of e rro r so u rces of GNNS signals, 384 m o d u la tio n o f c a rrie r wave, 382 NAVSTAR-GPS, 381 p recisio n code, 382 real-tim e k in em atic m ode of o p eratio n s, 386 relative p o sitio n in g , 385 SAPOS coverage for G erm any, 386 satellites, com m on reference fram e, 381 selective availability, 383 te rre stria l m e asu rem en ts, 385 GSM m obile p hone location, 389-391 em ergency lo cation system s, 391 identification of coll 390 tra n sm itte d tim e code, 390 u rb a n areas, 390 PPI; See P lan positio n in d ic a to r P rin cip al co m p o n en t tran sfo rm a tio n , 108 Psion, 286 P ulfrich, Carl, 152 P u sh -b ro o m principle, 63 P y thon, 320 Q Q uasars, Q uickbird, R R ad ar b a c k sc a tte rin g objects, 72 R ad ar beam , p o larizatio n of, 72 R ad ar im aging, 67-72 R adar interferom etry, 73-76 R adatsat-1, 250, 251 R adiom etric function, 25 R andom access m em ory (RAM), 267 RASCOR, 238 R a ste r devices, 269 R aster sy stem s (GIS), 282-283 alg eb raic tra n sfo rm a tio n s, 283 Blow an d S h rin k o p eratio n s, 283 B oolean o p era to rs, 283 cell reso lu tio n , 282 g eo m etric tra n sfo rm a tio n s, 282 m a c ro -o p e tio n s, 283 d io m e tric tra n sfo rm a tio n s, 282 R atio n al po ly n o m ial fu n c tio n s (RPCs), 220 Rayleigh sc a tte rin g , 24 R aytheon-W ild, 220 Real-Tim e K in em atic GPS surveys, 397 R ectification (p h o to g m m e try ), 143 R em ote sensing, 19-142 ap p licatio n s, 113-142 b ath y m etry , 129 clim a te stu d ies, 125 cloud m ap p in g , 121-123 co m m o n ly u sed classical o p tical re m o te sen sin g sate llite s, 114-115 C opernicus, 141 e a rth q u a k e s, 138 en v iro n m en t, 129 floods, 139 forest a n d g rass fires, 139-142 global a p p licatio n s, 120 h a z a rd o u s w aste, 129-131 h isto rical d a r satellites, 118 K osm os satellites, 113 lan d cover an d land use, 134-135 landslides, 138 land subsidence, 138 m eteorological d a ta , 120 m eteorology an d clim atology, 121 m in eral exploration, 133 MIR space statio n , 113 n a tu l h azard s, 138 n o n im ag in g d a r scattero m eters, 128 non renew able resources, 132 N orm alized D ifference V egetation Index, 135 ocean c u rre n ts, 127 431 oceanography, 125 o cean productivity, 126-127 oil exploration, 133 oil spills, 131-132 ore deposits, 133 ozone, 121 plum es, 131 project-based research applications, 120 rainfall, 123 recen t high-resolution d a r satellite im aging system s, 119 recen t optical high-resolution satellite system s, 116 recent o ptical m edium -resolution satellite system s, 117 renew able resources, 134 sea ice, 127-128 sedim ents, 127 Sentinel satellites, 142 th erm al pollution in w ater, 131 vegetation, 135-138 volcanoes, 138 w ater p en etratio n in th e visual sp ectru m , 130 w eather prediction, 125 w eather zone, 121 w in d ,125 electrom agnetic rad iatio n , 19-21 basic laws, 19-21 electrom agnetic sp ectru m , 21 energy q u an tu m s, 20 Planck’s distrib u tio n law, 20 rad io m etric quan tities, 21 W ien’s law, 20 e n e rg y -m a tte r in teractio n , 21-28 atm ospheric tran sm issio n , 21-24 atm ospheric w indow s, 24 energy arriving a t the sensor, 26-28 energy in te c tio n a t the object, 4-25 incident radial flux, 27 incom ing energy, 25 interactio n of energy in plants, 26 L am bert reflector, 26 norm al reflection coefficients, 25 d ia n t flux, 26 d io m e tric fu n c tio n , 25 Rayleigh sc a tte rin g , 24 so lar p o sitio n , 25 U lbricht sphere, 28 im age in te rp re ta tio n , -9 a e rial p h o to g p h s, 92 an ag ly p h s, 93 ap p licatio n , 96 color im ages, 94 “c ry stal eyes” p rinciple, 95 ep ip o lar rays, 92 h u m a n eye, -9 lens system o f eye, 90 m ag n ificatio n , 92 n a tu r a l stereo sco p ic vision, 91 p o larized light, 95 stereovision, -9 visual in te rp re ta tio n of im ages, 96 im age processing, 96-113 B h a tta c h a ry y a d istan ce, 108 b ilin e a r in te rp o la tio n , 105 classification accuracy, 111-112 C ohen’s K appa Test, 111 covarian ce m atrix , 107, 108 decision rule, 109 d iagonal c o n tra sts, 102 eC ognition “c o n te x t-b a s e d ” classifier, 110 edge e n h an cem en t, 102 E uclidean d is ta n c e to clu ster cen ters, 107 filtering, 100-103 flatbed scan n ers, 97,98 geom etric resam pling, 104-106 gray level changes, 97-100 im age fusion, 112-113 inverse Fourier transform ation, 103 Jeffries-M atusita d istan ce, 108 laser diode, 96 M ahalanobis classifier, 109 m u ltisp ectral classification, 106-111 photo m ultiplier, 96 principal co m p o n en t tran sfo rm atio n , 108 ste r sc a n n in g of p h o to g rap h ic im ages, 6-97 Index re c o n s tru c te d im age, 103 resam p lin g , 104 se m a n tic netw o rk , 110 su p erv ised classification, 109 u n su p e rv ise d classification, 109 im a g in g sensors, 6-79 aerial c a m e system , co m p o n en ts, 52, 54 a erial film, 37 a erial survey c am e ras, -4 a erial survey film s, 55 a z im u th a l d im en sio n (ra d a r beam ), 70 b a c k sc a tte re d energy, 70 crab angle, 40 d ig ital elevation m odel, 76 d ig ital m o d u la r cam e ra, 64 d isto rtio n , 57 “D ragon Fly,” DSM o rth o p h o to s, ,4 facto ry c alib tio n pro ced u re, d isto rtio n in, 57 film d isto rtio n , 58 film g rain size, 53 flight a ltitu d e, 54 g erm a n iu m detecto r, 60 g ro u n d pixel size, 59 h y p e rsp e c tra l devices, 65 im age c o o rd in a te in flight d irectio n , 72 im age m otion com p en satio n , 39 im age quality, d e terio rated , 52 im age q u ality of aerial survey cam eras, 47-59 im age sp ectro m e ters, -6 in e rtia l m easu rin g un it, 42 in terfe ro m etric principle, 73 laser altim et er, 61 laser im age from m obile van, 46 laser scan n ers, 61-63 lin e a r array, 60 m o d u latio n , 51 m u ltiray to g ram m etry , 48 object co n tra st, 47 oblique im aging, 41, 66-67 o p to electro n ic scanners, -6 o p to m ech an ical scan n ers, 59 -6 o v erlap p in g fram es, 49 passive sen sin g , 67 p h a se u n w p p in g p ro c e d u re , 74 p h o to g m m e tric c a m e developm ents, 41 P icto m etry , 66 p rin c ip a l p o in t in im ag e plan e, 37 p ro p a g a tio n coefficient, 69 p u sh -b ro o m p rinciple, 63 p u sh -b ro o m sensor, sw a th of, 64 d a r b a c k sc a tte rin g objects, 72 r a d a r beam , p o la riz a tio n of, 72 r a d a r im ag in g , 67-72 d a r im a g in g d isto rtio n s, 77 d a r im a g in g m odes, 76 d a r in terfe ro m etry , 73-76 d ia n t flux received, 69 reflected energy, 69 ro ta tin g sh u tte r, 38 sid e -lo o k in g a ir b o rn e d a r, 70, 72 sla n t n g e d ista n c e , 71 Spot satellite sensor, 64 survey of te rra in , 38 sy n th e tic a p e rtu re d a r, 72 ta n g e n tia l lens d isto rtio n s, 58 tru e o rth o p h o to s, 46 wave p ro p ag a tio n , velocity of, 71 M axw ell eq u atio n s, 19 passive energy source, 19 p latfo rm s, -8 a irc ft, 9-82 d ifferential GPS, 81 e arth observations, tendencies, 88 elec tro n ic navig atio n system s, 81 e x tra te rre stria l m issions, 85 flig h t-p lan n in g schem e, 79 g e o sta tio n a ry satellites, 82 g ro u n d resolution versus repeatability, -8 g ro u n d tra c k o f satellite, 83 h ig h-resolution system s from space, 84 Ikonos 2,84 im age scale factor, 81 K epler’s th ird law, 82 lens cones, 81 433 NOAA satellites, 83 satellites, 82-83 solar drag, 83 space age, b eg in n in g of, 84 su n -synchronous rem o te sen sin g satellites, 83 tim e series observations, 88 topo g rap h ic surveys, 81 u n m a n n e d aerial vehicles, 89 voluntary program , 89 sensor com ponents, 8-36 abso rp tio n filters, 34 astigm atism , 29 charge-coupled device, 35 chrom atic ab erratio n , 28 color an d color photography, 32-35 color negative films, 35 color reversal films, 34 color subtractive process, 34 developer, 31 digital im aging, 35-36 D -lo g E curve, 30 D -log H curve, 30 false color photography, 35 fram e grabber, 36 gray level signals, 36 h u m an vision, 32 lens m an u factu rers, 29 m ethylhydrochinon, 30 opacity, 32 optical dyes, 32 optical im aging, 28-30 photographic process, 30r 32 spherical aberrations, 29 television screen, 33 transparency, 32 w et developm ent process, 30 yellow filter, 32 KINEX, 389 Rinner, Karl, 177 RPCs; See R atio n al p olynom ial fu n c tio n s R1K GPS surveys; See Real-Time K inem atic GPS surveys R-i ree (lntergraph-Tigris), 285 R ussian sp ace photo g rap h y , 84 S S am sung, 286 S antoni, E rm ingeldo, 162 SAPOS netw ork, 385,386 SAR; See S ynthetic a p e rtu re d a r S atellites clock erro rs, geo statio n ary , 82 g ro u n d tra c k of, 83 K osm os, 113 low -orbiting, 85 m e d iu m -altitu d e , 85 N im bus satellite, 121, 127 NOAA, 83 o p tical rem o te sensing, 114-115 O rbV iew -2,127 Sentinel, 142 su n -sy n ch ro n o u s rem o te sensing, 83 u n d is tu rb e d , 82 Scheim pflug condition, 149 S cherm erhorn, W illem , 175 Schm id, H elm ut, 176 SDI Cookbook, 339 Sea ice, 127-128 Selective availability, Sem iglobal m atch in g , 230 Sentinel satellites, 142 Sharp, John, 229 Shuttle R adar T opographic M ission (SRTM), 74 SICAD, 285 SICAD/Open, 339 Side-looking airborne d a r (SEAR), 70,72 SIDIP, 213 Sm allw orld, 339 Socetset, 241 Solar drag, 83 Space age, b eg in n in g of, 84 Space resection, 195-200 S paghetti graphics, 273 Spirit leveling, Spot-Im age, 399 Spot satellite sensor, 64 Index SRTM; See S h u ttle R a d a r T o pographic M ission Stereo re s titu tio n devices, 159 S tereoscopic m e a su re m e n t principle, 150 S trip m ap SAR, 76 S u n -sy n ch ro n o u s rem o te sen sin g satellites, 83 S yn th etic a p e rtu re d a r (SAR), 72 c o h e re n t c o re g istra tio n of, 250 DEM g en eratio n from , 15 d a r p ulses, 72 T T ach eo m eters, T agged Im ag e File F o rm a t (TIFF), 237, 285 Tax c a d a stre , 343 Taylor exp an sio n , 209 TCP/IP; See T ran sm issio n C ontrol P ro to c o l/In te rn e t P rotocol T echnological changes, 407-408 K ondrat jev’s econom ic cycles, 108 p h ilo so p h ical ap p ro ach , 407 p h o to g m m e try developm ent, stag es of, 407 sp ecializatio n , 407 Television screen, 33 T ellurom eter, TerraSAR-X, 74, 76, 250, 251 T heodolites, Thom pson, E dw ard II., 164 T idal b en ch m a rk s, TIFF; See Tagged Im age File F orm at TIGRIS, 338 TINs; See T rian g u la te d irre g u la r netw orks TIROS, TOID, 354 T otal Ozone M apping S pectrom eter (TOMS), 121 Total statio n s, T ourist GIS, 365 T ourist info rm atio n system s, 342 T ransm ission C ontrol P ro to co l/In tei net Protocol (TCP/IP), 271 T ria n g u la te d irre g u la r n etw o rk s (TINs), 231, 234, 308 T rue o rth o p h o to s, 46, 238 Tuple, 284 q UAV; See U n m a n n e d a e ria l vehicle U lbricht sphere, 28 U ltra c a m c a m e (M icrosoft-Vexcel), 44,47 U nified M odeling L an g u ag e (UML), 320 U nited N ations In itiativ e on G lobal G eo sp atial In fo rm a tio n M an ag em en t, 13-17 a erial to g rap h y , 14 b ase scales, 15 c a d a stra l m aps, 14 g ro u n d sam ple d ista n c e s, 17 in te rn a tio n a l m ap vendors, 15 U niversal T ran sv erse M ercato r (UTM) projectio n , UNIX 270 U n m anned aerial vehicle (UAV), 42, 89 U.S G eological Survey (USGS), 339 U.S L an d sa t C o m m ercializatio n Act of 1984, 399 U.S N ational Im ag in g a n d M apping A u th o rity (NIMA), 339 U.S Navy NAVSTAR G lobal P ositio n in g System s, UTM projection; See U niversal T ransverse M ercator projection V V alue-added digital m ap, 341 V ector devices, 269 V ector system s (GIS), 272-282 a lp h an u m eric a ttrib u te s, 272 ATKIS, 276 a ttrib u te links, 273 CAD m odels, 276 edge cut-off, 282 g eom etric sp atial queries, 279 435 .dex GIS layer concept, 276 g p h ic re p re s e n ta tio n of a n a re a , 274 lin e -a re a table, 274 object groups, 276 object-oriented GIS, 277 object rep resen tatio n , 272-277 pointers, 276 point, line, an d a rea objects, 273 polygons, form ation of, 274 relational d atab ase, 275 rotations, 282 scale change, 282 sp ag h etti graphics, 273 topological model, 275 tran slatio n s, 281 tw o-and-a-half-dim ensional capability, 281 vector geom etry, 277-282 Very long baseline in terfero m etry (VLBI), Visual Basic, 270,320 Volcanoes, 138 von Gruber, O tto, 172 von Hugershoff, Carl R einhard, 161 von Orel, Eduard, 155 Von Orel Stereoautograph, 155 W WAP; See W ireless ap p licatio n p ro to co l W eath er zone, 121 W ide A rea A rg u m e n ta tio n System (WAAS), 389 W ide a re a n etw o rk (WAN), 269, 270 W ien’s law, 20 W ild, H einrich, 163 W indow s o p e tin g system s, 268,270 W ireless a p p lic a tio n p ro to c o l (WAP), 286 W orld B ank, 345,400 W orld R esources In s titu te (WRI), 339 W orldView im ages, 17 W right b ro th ers, 150 Y Yellow filter, 32 Z, Z eiss-O rel S tereo au to g rap h , 150, 155 Z/I DMC d ig ital cam era, 68 Z/I Im ag in g Im age Station 2001,184 Z /I Im aging P lanicom p P3, 180