Automotive steels  design, metallurgy, processing and applications

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Automotive Steels Related titles Lightweight Composite Structures in Transport: Design, Manufacturing, Analysis and Performance (ISBN 978-1-78242-325-6) Future Development of Thermal Spray Coatings: Types, Designs, Manufacture and Applications (ISBN 978-0-85709-769-9) Pekguleryuz, Kainer and Kaya, Fundamentals of Magnesium Alloy Metallurgy (ISBN 978-0-85709-088-1) Woodhead Publishing Series in Metals and Surface Engineering Automotive Steels Design, Metallurgy, Processing and Applications Edited by Radhakanta Rana Shiv Brat Singh AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier G G G G G G G G G Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd All 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https://www.elsevier.com Publisher: Matthew Deans Acquisition Editor: Gwen Jones Editorial Project Manager: Charlotte Cockle Production Project Manager: Debasish Ghosh Cover Designer: Christian J Bilbow Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India Contents List of contributors ix 1 Design of auto body: materials perspective J.R Fekete and J.N Hall 1.1 History of steel usage in vehicle body structures and closures 1.2 Significant events in history impacting steel application in vehicle design 1.3 Breakdown in vehicle by material mass and application 1.4 Improved safety and fuel economy: current regulations 1.5 Vehicle energy losses and contribution to fuel economy through mass reduction 1.6 Summary References Steels for auto bodies: a general overview J.N Hall and J.R Fekete 2.1 Steel grades and design strategy for auto body applications 2.2 Steel’s contribution to fuel economy through mass reduction 2.3 Recent body structure & closures production applications 2.4 Manufacturing concerns 2.5 Future steel technology 2.6 Sustainability/life cycle assessment 2.7 Summary References Formability of auto components E.H Atzema 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic concepts 3.3 Advanced process analysis 3.4 Basic concepts 3.5 Advanced process analysis 3.6 Forming processes 3.7 Formability aspects of different steels 1 12 16 16 19 19 25 28 31 35 37 43 44 47 47 48 48 50 63 70 82 vi Contents 3.8 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 90 90 90 Physical metallurgy of steels: an overview G Krauss 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The iron-carbon phase diagram 4.3 Austenite 4.4 Ferrite and cementite 4.5 Steel microstructure: general considerations 4.6 Steel microstructures produced by diffusion: ferrite, pearlite, and bainite 4.7 Diffusionless transformation of austenite: martensite 4.8 Transformation diagrams and Jominy End Quench Curves 4.9 Summary References 95 Deep drawable steels P Ghosh and R.K Ray 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Aluminum killed (AK) steels 5.3 Interstitial free (IF) and interstitial free high strength (IFHS) steels 5.4 Bake hardening (BH) steels 5.5 Summary and conclusions References High strength low alloyed (HSLA) steels C.I Garcia 6.1 History and definition 6.2 Structure
property relationships: effect of microstructure on the mechanical properties of HSLA steels 6.3 Fundamental metallurgical principles of thermomechanical processing 6.4 Examples of hot and cold rolled HSLA steels used in the transportation industry 6.5 Transformation behavior 6.6 Summary References Dual-phase steels N Fonstein 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Effect of structure on mechanical properties of dual-phase steels 95 96 98 99 100 101 104 108 110 110 113 113 116 127 138 140 141 145 145 148 150 153 155 165 166 169 169 170 Contents Obtaining dual-phase steels by transformations of austenite using controlled cooling from the intercritical region 7.4 Obtaining as-rolled dual-phase microstructure by cooling of deformed austenite 7.5 Effects of chemical composition on dual-phase steels 7.6 Application of dual-phase steels in modern cars 7.7 Summary References vii 7.3 10 TRIP aided and complex phase steels K Sugimoto and M Mukherjee 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Processing route and microstructure 8.3 Alloy design 8.4 Microstructure modeling 8.5 Deformation-induced transformation of retained austenite 8.6 Mechanical properties 8.7 Press formability 8.8 Other mechanical properties 8.9 Summary References Bake hardening of automotive steels E Pereloma and I Timokhina 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Mechanisms of bake hardening response 9.3 Factors affecting bake hardening response 9.4 Bake hardening of multi-phase steels 9.5 Modeling 9.6 Effect of bake hardening on the performance of automotive steels 9.7 Summary References Bainitic and quenching and partitioning steels E De Moor and J.G Speer 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Bainitic steels 10.3 Quenching & partitioning 10.4 Substitution of silicon by aluminum 10.5 Manganese alloying 10.6 Carbon alloying 10.7 Molybdenum additions 10.8 Competing reactions during partitioning 10.9 Local formability of bainitic and Q&P steels 10.10 Conclusions 186 197 198 208 208 209 217 217 219 224 229 231 239 245 247 248 249 259 259 260 264 272 281 282 283 283 289 289 289 292 294 296 298 301 304 308 312 viii 11 12 13 Contents Acknowledgments Disclaimer References 312 313 313 High Mn TWIP steel and medium Mn steel B.C De Cooman 11.1 Introduction 11.2 High Mn TWIP steel 11.3 Medium Mn TRIP and TWIP TRIP steel 11.4 Outlook for high Mn TWIP steel and medium Mn steel 11.5 Summary Acknowledgment List of abbreviations References 317 Hot formed steels E Billur 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Physical metallurgy of hot forming steels 12.3 Hot forming steels 12.4 Blank coatings 12.5 Typical automotive applications 12.6 Summary and future outlook References Forging Grade Steels for Automotives O.N Mohanty 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Basic physical metallurgy relevant to hot forging 13.3 Evolution of microalloyed forging steels 13.4 Steels for automotive forging—the way forward References Index 317 320 352 360 379 379 379 380 387 387 392 393 398 402 405 406 413 413 417 436 447 448 455 List of contributors E.H Atzema Tata Steel, IJmuiden, The Netherlands E Billur Billur Metal Form Ltd., Bursa, Turkey; Atılım University, Ankara, Turkey B.C De Cooman Graduate Institute of Ferrous Technology, POSTECH, Pohang, South Korea E De Moor Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, United States J.R Fekete National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, United States N Fonstein ArcelorMittal Global R&D, East Chicago Labs, United States C.I Garcia University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States P Ghosh Tata Steel, Jamshedpur, India J.N Hall Steel Market Development Institute, Southfield, MI, United States G Krauss Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, United States O.N Mohanty RSB Group, Pune, India M Mukherjee Tata Steel Ltd., Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India E Pereloma University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia R.K Ray Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, West Bengal, India J.G Speer Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, United States K Sugimoto Shinshu University, Wakasato, Nagano, Japan I Timokhina Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia 456 Auto bodies, steels for (Continued) welding/joining, 33
34 recent body structure and closures production applications, 28
31 sustainability, 37
38 Auto body, design of, breakdown in vehicle by material mass and application, 8
9 safety and fuel economy, 9
12 CAFE and relationship to CO2 emissions, 11
12 safety regulations, 10
11 significant events in history impacting steel application in, 1
8 vehicle body structures and closures, history of steel usage in, vehicle energy losses and contribution to fuel economy, 12
16 aluminum, 14
15 carbon fiber reinforced polymers, 15
16 magnesium, 15 Auto/Steel Partnership, 5
6 Automotive forging, steels for, 447
448 Automotive quality galvanized products, Automotive sheet steel grades, 20f Avrami equation, 161 B BA AK steel, alloying elements in, 119t BA-IFHS steels, 136
137 Bainite, 20
21, 101
103, 104f, 274
275 transformation kinetics, 226, 294
295 Bainite reaction, 196, 289 Bainitic ferrite matrix, 221
222, 221f Bainitic heat treatments, 290t Bainitic steels, 289
291 local formability of, 308
312 Bake hardenable steels, 6
7 “Bake hardenable” grades, 24 Bake hardening (BH), 169 Bake hardening (BH) steel, 138
140, 259 aluminum killed steel, 139
140 bake hardening temperature and time, effect of, 271
272 composition, 264
266 dislocation pinning, 139 effect on performance of automotive steels, 282
283 Index grain size, effect of, 270
271 interstitial free steel, 140 mechanisms, 260
264 precipitation hardening, 139 processing parameters, effect of, 266
269 annealing temperature, 266
267 cooling rate, 267
268 pre-straining, effect of, 268 strain path, effect of, 269 Bake hardening response (BHR), 259
264, 260f Banded ferrite-pearlite microstructures, 190 BaoSteel, 395
396 Bare spots, 226, 294
295 Barrier protection, 400 Batch annealed AK steels, 117
121 chemical composition, importance of, 119 processing parameters, importance of, 120
121 batch annealing heating rate, 121 coiling temperature, 120
121 finish rolling temperature, 120 slab reheating temperature, 120 Batch annealing (BA), 6
7, 108, 116, 154 Battery electric vehicle (BEV), 26 Bauschinger effect, 48
49, 348 Bendability, 88 Bending, 50, 75
78 β-fiber orientation, 366
368 Blank coatings, 398
402 AlSi coating, 399
400 varnish coatings, 402 Zn based coatings, 400
401 Body-in-white (BIW), 26
27 Body-on-frame (BOF) migration to body-frame-integral (BFI) structures, Boron, 393 Bouaziz backstress effect, 347
348, 347f B-pillar, 29
30, 402
403 Brittle network effect, 242 Burgers vector, 331
332 Buyn model, 337
338 C CA-aluminum killed steels, 125
127 CAFE (Corporate Average Fuel Economy), 2, Index compliance and effects, 27
28 mileage requirements, 3f performance, 3f and relationship to CO2 emissions, 11
12 Cahn model, 161 California Air Resources Board, CALPHAD, 323
324 Carbide free bainite (CFB), 169 Carbides, 202 Carbon, 2
3, 95, 198, 224
225, 326
327, 392 Carbon alloying, 298
300 Carbon equivalent, 33
34 Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), 15
16, 25, 387 Carbon partitioning, 306
307 Carbonitride, 202 Carbo-nitride formers, Carbonitride-forming elements, 207 Carbo-sulfide precipitates, 134 Carburized steel 8620, 429f Cellular Automata, 165 Cementite, 96
97, 99
100, 102
103, 226 Center Body Pillar, 154 CGL (continuous galvanizing line), 196 Charger XL, Chassis frame, design of, 154f Chevrolet Colorado, 28
29, 29f Chromium, 95
96, 201, 207, 229, 330 on tensile properties, 205 Chrysler Corporation, Clean Air Act, 16 Close-packed plane, 99 CMnAl steel, 301
304 CMnSi steel, 294
295, 301
304 CMnSiAl steel, 301
304 CO2 emissions, 11
12 CO2 emissions per vehicle weight savings, 146f Cohen-Weertman deviation process, 335
336 Cohen-Weertman nucleation mechanism, 334 Coiling temperature (CT), 120
121, 124
125, 131 Cold forging, 413
414 Cold forming, 68, 115t Cold rolling, 6
7 and annealing, 132 457 Cold rolling route, 220 complex phase (CP) steels, 223
224 TRIP aided steels, 220 Cold
rolled carbon steel flat products, 115t Cold-rolled HSLA sheet steel, 145, 147 Complex phase (CP) steels, 47
48, 218f, 219, 222
224, 223f See also TRIP aided and complex phase steels cold rolling route, 223
224 hot rolling route, 222
223 Composition-processing-microstructureproperty relationship, 150 Computer Aided Engineering (CAE), 49 Constitutive models, 165 Continuous annealing (CA), 6
7, 108, 116 Continuous annealing line (CAL), 183
184, 220 Continuous casting process, 2
3 Continuous cooling transformation (CCT), 161, 191
192 CCT curve, 392
393, 392f CCT diagram of conventional low alloy (AISI 4137) steel, 444f of low carbon bainitic steel, 444f Continuous transformation, 108, 109f Continuously annealed AK steels, 121
127 chemical composition, importance of, 122
124 processing parameters, importance of, 124
127 coiling temperature, 124
125 cold rolling and annealing, 125
127 finish rolling temperature, 124 slab reheating temperature, 124 typical annealing cycle for, 127f Conventional cold rolled steel, 24 Copley-Kear-Byun model for twinning, 332
334 Copper, 440
443 precipitation behavior of, 441 Copper bearing bar steel grades, 443 Copper bearing forging steels, microalloyed, 440
446 Copper-induced surface hot shortness (SHS), 442
443 Corrosion-resistant coatings, 24 Corrosion-resistant vehicle bodies, 22 Cottrell atmosphere, 262
265, 274, 277, 279 458 Cottrell locking, 100 Cottrell-Bilby model, 261
262 CP steel sheet, cooling schedule in production of, 223f Crash avoidance, 10 Crash worthiness, 10, 247 regulations, 10
11, 10f Critical safety structure applications, 19
22 CrMnSiB DP steels, 173, 174f Cross-die test geometry, 75f Crystallographic texture, 114, 117
118 Cullity method, 299
300 Cutting clearance, 72f D Deep drawable steels, 113 aluminum killed steels See Aluminum killed (AK) steels bake hardening (BH) steel, 138
140 bake hardenable aluminum killed steel, 139
140 bake hardenable interstitial free steel, 140 classification of steels based on drawing capacity, 115 grades of, 115
116 interstitial free (IF) steels See Interstitial free (IF) steels interstitial free high strength (IFHS) steels See Interstitial free high strength (IFHS) steels measure of, 113
115 Deep drawing, 73
75, 113, 114f Deep Drawing Ratio (DDR), 61 Deformation parameters, 159 Deformation twinning, 317
318, 331
332, 339 Deformation-induced transformation, models for of austenite to martensite transformation, 234
237 Angel/Ludwigson and Berger, model developed by, 234
235 Matsumura et al., model developed by, 235 Mukherjee et al., model developed by, 237 Olson and Cohen, model developed by, 235 Index Sherif et al., model developed by, 237 Shin et al., model developed by, 236
237 Sugimoto et al., model developed by, 235
236 Dent-resistant steels, 282 Department of Energy (DOE), 36 Destructive tests, 33 Diagonal direction (DD), 52
53 Diffuse necking, 56
57 Diffusion-controlled solid state phase transformations, 96 Diffusionless transformation of austenite, 104
107 Dilatometry, 108 Direct quenching microalloyed forging grade, 438
439 Direct water quenched (DWQ) condition, 438 Dislocation mediated twin nucleating process, 335
336 Dislocations, 149t Displacive transformations, 417 Docol 2000 Bor, 395
396 Double decker furnaces, 388
389 DP ferrite-martensite steels, 182 DP600, 87 DP1000 grade, 30 Dual-phase (DP) steels, 4
6, 20
22, 47
48, 169, 218f, 219, 223f, 272
273, 289, 398 application of, in modern cars, 208 effect of structure on mechanical properties of, 169
186 ductility parameters, 180
181 existing models of strength of heterogeneous materials, 170
172 factors affecting strength characteristics, 172
175 fatigue, 185 fracture behavior, 184
186 hydrogen embrittlement, 185
186 quench and strain aging, 182
183 strain hardening, 175
180 tempering, 183
184 toughness, 184
185 effects of chemical composition on, 198
208 mechanical properties, 202
207 Index phase transformations during annealing in two-phase region, 198
201 strain aging and tempering behavior, 207
208 microstructure of, 172f obtaining of, by cooling of deformed austenite, 197 obtaining of, by transformations of austenite, 186
196 annealing temperature, effect of, 189
191 austempering cycle, 194
196 cooling rate, effect of, 191
194 pseudo-binary Fe(Me)-C diagram, 187f tensile strength of, 173, 183 Ducker Analysis, 8
9 Ductile ferrite, 20
21 Dynamic recrystallization kinetics, 158
159 Dynamic strain aging (DSA), 362
366 Dynamical Hall-Petch effect, 347
348, 347f E Edge cracking, 373 Edge fracture, in hole expansion, 372
373 Electrogalvanizing process, 23 Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), 305 Electron probe micro-analysis, 362f Energy Independence and Security Act, 11 Engine and transmission components, 12 Engineering stress-strain curves evolution, 292f Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), tailpipe emissions, 11 “Equilibrium amount of austenite”, 187 Equilibrium binary Fe-Mn phase diagram, 322f Eutectic reaction, 97
98 Eutectoid reaction, 97 Extended X-ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy (EXAFS), 441 F Face-centered cubic (fcc) unit cell, 98
99 Fatigue strength, 247
248 Fe P06, 115 Federal Clean Air Act, Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards and Regulations, 10 459 Federal Register, 10 Fe-Mn-C alloy system, 322, 322f Ferrite, 99
104, 170, 179, 274
275 unit cell crystallographic structure of, 99f Ferrite contraction, 174 Ferrite grains, 179 size, 153f Ferrite nucleation, 228
229 Ferrite recrystallization, 206
207 Ferrite transformation, 155
156, 162, 230
231 Ferrite
bainite mixture, 174, 197 Ferrite
carbide interfaces, 189
190 Ferrite
martensite structure, 196
197, 208 Ferrite
pearlite matrix, 414 Ferrite
pearlite microstructure, 189 FeTiP precipitation, 130 Fiber cost and panel processing, 16 Finish rolling temperature (FRT), 120, 124, 131 Flanging, 78
81 Focused ion beam (FIB) liftouts, 305 Ford Motor Company, 14 Forging grade steels for automotive, 413 automotive forging, steels for, 447
448 microalloyed forging steels, evolution of, 436
446 low carbon microalloyed forging steels (without copper), 437
440 microalloyed copper bearing forging steels, 440
446 microalloying in medium carbon steel forgings, 436
437 physical metallurgy relevant to hot forging, 417
436 phase transformations associated with forging, 417
420 precipitates, solute atoms and grains, 425
430 stability of precipitates, 420
425 strengthening mechanisms operative in microalloyed forging steels, 430
436 Formability aspects of steels, 82
90 advanced high strength steels, 88
90 high strength steels, 86
88 mild steels and IF steels, 83
86 460 Formability of auto components, 33, 47 advanced high strength steels, 88
90 advanced process analysis, 48
50 basic concepts of, 48 forming processes, 49
50 high strength steels, 86
88 material classes, 50 advanced process analysis, 63
70 basic concepts, 50
63 forming processes, 70
81 mild steels and IF steels, 83
86 Forming Limit Curve (FLC), 48
49, 57
58, 67 Forming limit diagram (FLD), 31
33, 32f, 58 Forming process, 31
33 4150 steel austenite grains of, 103f needle- or plate-shaped crystals of lower bainite in, 104f Fracture, 372
373 in hole expansion, 373 of twinning-induced plasticity steel, 372
373 Free Form grade, 438 Fuel economy, steel’s contribution to, through mass reduction, 25
28 NHTSA Volpe model, 27
28 3-G grade, gauge, and geometry optimization, 27 2-G grade and gauge optimization, 25
26 vehicle energy losses and contribution to, 12
16 Fujita-Mori-Liu model, 334 Future steel technology, 35
37 FutureSteelVehicle (FSV), 27
28 G Galvannealing (GA), 23, 227, 229, 401 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), 34 Gas shocks, Generalized planar fault energy (GPFE) curves, 339
340 Generalized stacking fault energy (GSFE), 324
326 Geometrically necessary inhomogeneous dislocations (GNDs), 274 Gibbs free energy, 323
324 Index Gladman analysis, 427
429 Global formability, 308
309 Glossy painted surfaces, 22 Grain boundary nucleation theory, 161 Grain coarsening temperature, 150 Grain growth, 124
125, 130, 134
136, 156
157, 160, 369
371, 428 abnormal grain growth (AGG), 427
428 normal grain growth (NGG), 427
428 Grain refinement, 147
148, 149t, 158, 183, 206
207 Grain size refinement, 341, 430 and precipitation, 431
432 Graphite, 96
97 Greenhouse gas (GHG), 26 emissions, 11, 38f, 39, 41
42, 44 life cycle for, 40t, 41t, 42t Guttierez “composite effect”, 347
348, 347f H Hall
Petch analysis, 176f Hall
Petch coefficient, 175, 342
343 Hall
Petch effect, 317
318, 347
348, 347f Hall
Petch equation, 148
149, 162
163, 342, 343t, 420, 431
432 Hardening, 53
55 strain rate hardening, 63
65 Hardening model, 68
70 Hardness measurements, 108 Harper’s model, 261
262 H-delayed fracture, 373
377 Heat treating and forming process, 14 Heating and cooling, 95
96, 108, 420
425 High Mn TWIP steel alloy design, principle of, 320
326 High Mn TWIP steel and medium Mn steel, 317 aluminium, 328
329 carbon, 326
327 chromium, 330 copper, nickel, 329 fracture, 372
373 fracture, in hole expansion, 373 hydrogen-related delayed fracture, 373
377 industrial production, 360
362 liquid metal-induced embrittlement, 378
379 manganese, 327
328 Index mechanical properties of TWIP steel, 330
350 critical stress for twinning, 335
339 elastic properties, 330
331 forming properties, 350
351 grain size strengthening in TWIP steel, 342
343 high strain rate behavior of TWIP steel, 351
352 medium Mn TRIP and TWIP TRIP steel, 352
360 micro-alloyed TWIP steel, 344
345 principles of medium Mn TRIP and TWIP TRIP steel alloy design, 352
360 solid solution hardening, 340
341 strain hardening control in medium Mn TWIP TRIP steels, 357
360 strain hardening in TWIP steel, 345
350 twinning kinetics and twinning saturation, 339
340 twinning mechanisms, 331
335 nitrogen, 329 recovery annealing, 371
372 recrystallization texture, 369
371 rolling texture, 366
368 silicon, 329 static and dynamic strain aging, 362
366 High resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), 441 High strength IF (IFHS) steel, 128 High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, 4, 7, 20
21, 47
48, 145, 146t applications of, 5
6 history and definition, 145
148 hot and cold rolled HSLA steels, in transportation industry, 153
154 mechanical properties, 153
154 HSLA350, 87 HSLA460, 87 structure
property relationships, 148
149 thermomechanical processing, fundamental metallurgical principles of, 150
152 transformation behavior, 155
165 hot deformation model, 157
160 prediction of mechanical properties, 162
164 461 predictive material modeling, current state of, 164 predictive models, application of, 164
165 slab reheating, 156
157 transformation model, 160
162 High strength steel (HSS), 5
6, 8, 47, 86
88 development, 2
3 products, High-carbon steels, 95, 104
107 Higher-strength hot forming steel, 395 Highway Safety Act, 2, 16 Hill model, 61
62, 84 H-induced embrittlement, 376 Historic events impacting steel application in vehicle design, 1
8 Hole edge deformation, 373 Hole expansion capacity (HEC), 79
81, 79f Hole expansion ratio (HER), 245
246, 246f, 309
312, 309f, 312f Hole expansion test, 374f Honda, 6, 30 Honda Civic, Hot and cold rolled HSLA steels, in transportation industry, 153
154 mechanical properties, 153
154 Hot deformation model, 157
160 recovery, 157
158 recrystallization, 158
160 Hot dip galvanized (GI) steels, 401 Hot forging, 413
414 physical metallurgy relevant to, 417
436 phase transformations associated with forging, 417
420 precipitates, solute atoms and grains, 425
430 stability of precipitates, 420
425 strengthening mechanisms operative in microalloyed forging steels, 430
436 of steel, 413 Hot formed steels, 387 Hot forming, defined, 387 Hot forming steels, 393
398 blank coatings, 398
402 AlSi coating, 399
400 varnish coatings, 402 Zn based coatings, 400
401 462 Hot forming steels (Continued) brief history, 390
391 coatings after, 401f conventional AHSS, 397 die making strategies for, 390f direct process, 387 energy absorbing, 396 indirect process, 387 intrusion resistant, 393
396 medium-Mn steels, 397 physical metallurgy, 392
393 stainless steels, 397 typical automotive applications, 402
405 tailor hardened parts, 404
405 tailor rolled parts, 404 tailor welded parts, 403
404 typical hot stamping line, 388
390 Hot plate heating, 388
389 Hot rolling, 156, 158, 197f, 220 Hot rolling route, 221 complex phase (CP) steels, 222
223 TRIP aided steels, 221 Hot stamping, 22, 35, 389
390, 392
393 Hot-dip galvanizing, 23, 294
295 Hot-rolled HSLA sheet steels, 145, 147 HPF1470, 393 HPF2000, 395
396 HSLA grade steel, doubly folded, 77f Hydraulic press with accumulator drive, 389 with flywheel, 390 multi-cylinder, 389 Hydroforming, 31 Hydrogen-charging test, 373
375 Hydrogen-related delayed fracture, 372
377 I Immobilization, 64 Inclusion shape control, 147
148 Inductive heating, 388
389 Innovative door ring concept, 25f Integrated Computational Materials Engineering (ICME), 36 Intercritical annealing (IA), 169, 186
187, 219
220 Interstitial free (IF) steels, 47, 116, 127
138 chemical composition, importance of, 128
130 precipitation in IF steels, 133
134 Index processing parameters, importance of, 130
138 role of precipitates in, 132
133 Interstitial free high strength (IFHS) steels, 127
138 chemical composition, importance of, 128
130 precipitation in, 134
138 processing parameters, importance of, 130
138 Intrusion resistant hot forming steels, 393
396 Iron carbide, 96
97, 115
116, 265
266 Iron-carbon phase diagram, 96
98, 97f Isothermal austenitization curves, 187 kinetics of, 188f Isothermal bainitic transformation (IBT) treatment, 219
220 Isothermal hardening, 68, 68f Isothermal holding (IH), 189, 219
220, 225, 291, 310
312 Isothermal transformation (IT), 108, 109f, 161, 290 J Jaoul
Crussard model, 176 Java-based Material Properties (JMATPRO), 418
419 Johnson
Mehl
Avrami
Kolmogorov (JMAK) model, 161, 230 Jominy End Quench curves, 108
110, 109f K Killed steel, 2
3 Kirchhoff assumption, 76 Koistinen-Marburger equation, 292
293 Krishtal-Gordon-An model, 378
379 L Labeled end-quench test, 109
110 Lagrangian formulation, 165 Lankford parameter, 113
116 Lankfords coefficient, 52 Laser cutting, 390 Laser processes, 34 Laser welded blanks, 26, 44 Laser welding, 34 Lath martensite, 106, 107f, 219 Index Lattice friction stress, 148
149, 340
342 Life cycle assessment (LCA), 39
43 Life cycle emissions, 26, 41t Lightweighting, 12
13, 28, 39 Liquid metal embrittlement (LME), 400 Liquid metal-induced embrittlement (LMIE), 372
373, 378
379 Local formability, 308
309 Local necking analysis, 56, 84 Longitudinal cracks, 377 Low carbon microalloyed forging steels (without copper), 437
440 Low carbon-aluminum killed steel, 119f Low-alloyed dual-phase steels, 169 Low-carbon steels, 95, 106 Luăders lines, 2
3, 6
7 M Magnesium, 15, 25 Magnesium alloys, 13, 387 Magnesium Vision 2020, 15 Mahajan-Chin model, 332
334 Mahajan-Chin stacking fault process, 335
336 Manganese, 95
96, 122f, 129
130, 198, 200, 204f, 225, 327
328, 392
393 Manganese alloying, 296
298 Manganese sulfide inclusions, 95
96 Manufacturing concerns, 31
35 forming, 31
33 painting, 34
35 welding/joining, 33
34 Martensite, 20
21, 104
107, 170
171, 274
275 Martensite crystal, 105f, 106, 107f Martensite finish temperature (Mf), 405 Martensite hardness, 171, 298
299 Martensite transformation, 231
232, 233f Martensitic sheet products, application of, 5
6 Martensitic transformation, 231
232, 244, 398 Mass balance calculation, 299
300, 308 Mass reduction, 25
28 Material classes, formability aspects of, 50 advanced process analysis, 63
70 forming limit curves, 67 hardening model, 68
70 strain rate hardening, 63
65 temperature changes, 68 463 yield locus, 65
66 basic concepts, 50
63 forming limit curve, 57
58 hardening, 53
55 limits of forming, 56
57 strain measures, 50
52 stress measures, 53 yield locus, 58
63 forming processes, 70
81 bending, 75
78 cutting, 71 deep drawing, 73
75 flanging, 78
81 roll forming, 81 stretching, 72
73 Matsumura et al., model developed by, 235 MBW1500, 393 Mechanical prediction, 156 Mechanical twinning, 319 Medium carbon steel forgings, microalloying in, 436
437 Medium manganese steels, 296 Medium Mn multi-phase steels, 318
319 Medium-carbon steels, 95, 102
104 Medium-Mn steels, 397
398 Metal/tungsten inert gas (MIG/TIG), 34 Metallography, 108 METASAFE steels, 437, 437t Micro band induced plasticity (MBIP) steel, 317 Microalloyed (MA) grades, 436 Microalloyed (MA) steels, 145 forgings, 430 Microalloyed copper bearing forging steels, 440
446 Microalloyed forging steels low carbon, 437
440 strengthening mechanisms operative in, 430
436 Microalloyed HSLA steels, 148 Microalloyed steels, 86 Microalloying constituents, 420
425, 433
436 Microalloying elements, 147
148 Microalloying in medium carbon steel forgings, 436
437 Micromill, benefits of, 14
15 Microstructural uniformity, 151
152 Microstructure, steel, 100
101 produced by diffusion, 101
104 464 MicrotuffR, 438
439 composition and strength toughness of, 439t Mid-size sedan, energy losses in, 13f Mild low carbon steels, 47 Mild steels and IF steels, 83
86 Miura-Takamura-Narita nucleation mechanism, 334 Mn enrichment for stabilizing austenite, 221, 222f Mn-B alloyed steels, 387 MoCMnAl steel, 301
304 MoCMnSi steel, 301
304 Modern hot strip mills, 197 Molybdenum, 95
96, 200
202, 205, 208, 229 Molybdenum additions, 301
304 Monocoque, 4
5 Monte Carlo algorithm, 281
282 Monte Carlo models, 164 Monte Carlo simulations, 42
43, 326 of life cycle emissions, 43f Moăssbauer spectroscopy (MS), 299
300, 301f, 306
308, 326 Mukherjee et al., model developed by, 237 Multi-chamber furnaces, 388
389 Multi-cylinder hydraulic press, 389 Multi-phase steels, 205, 217 Multi-phase steels, bake hardening of, 272
281, 281f bainitic steels, 279 DP and TRIP steels, 272
279 martensitic steels, 279
281 N Nano-secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), 304
305, 305f National Highway and Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), 2, 10
11 fuel economy regulation, 11, 12f Volpe model, 27
28, 28f National Steel Corporation, 5
6, 145 Nb-stabilized steels, 266
267 Near infrared heating, 388
389 Necking, 53, 56
57, 83
84, 362
363 “New domestic” manufacturers, New United Motor Manufacturing Inc (NUMMI), NHTSA Volpe model, 27
28, 28f Index Nickel, 95
96, 442
443 Niobium, 95
96, 132
133, 147
148, 202, 208, 227
228, 438 Niobium microalloying, 290
291, 310
312 Nippon Steel Corporation (NSC), 217 Nissan, 30 Nitrogen, 2
3, 128, 264
265, 329 Non-equilibrium phase transformation diagram, for Fe-Mn binary alloys, 322f Non-recrystallization temperature, 151
152 Normal and abnormal grain growth, 427
428 Normal anisotropy, 57, 87, 113
114, 373 Normal grain growth (NGG), 427
428 North American steelmakers, O Oil crisis, in 1973, 145 Olson and Cohen, model developed by, 235 One-piece hot stamped door ring, 31f One-step Q&P, 292
293, 307
308 Optimization of mechanical properties, 155
156 Ostwald ripening, 157, 427
428 Over-aging furnace, 194
195 Over-aging temperature, 122, 125
127 P Painted surface appearance, 24 Painting, 34
35 Panel forming process, 24 Partitioning temperature, 301
304, 405 Partitioning time, 295
297, 299
304, 405 Partitioning treatment, aim of, 292
293, 304 Peach-Kohler equation, 332
334 Pearlite, 101
104, 417, 433
436 Peritectic reaction, 97
98 Phase transformations, 96, 98, 196f, 418f, 420 associated with forging, 417
420 during continuous annealing, 231 effect of steel composition on, 198
201 on Run-Out-Table (ROT), 230
231 strain-induced, 319 Phosphorous residual, 95
96 Phosphorus, 129
130, 179, 227 Phs-ultraform, 393 Physical metallurgy of steels, 95 Index austenite, 98
99 diffusionless transformation of austenite, 104
107 ferrite and cementite, 99
100 iron-carbon phase diagram, 96
98 steel microstructure, 100
101 produced by diffusion, 101
104 transformation diagrams and Jominy End Quench curves, 108
110 Pick-up truck, 26 Pillar Body Lock Inner, 154 Plain carbon steels, 147
148 Planar anisotropy, 48, 113
114 Plastic deformation, 51
52, 148
149, 157, 232
233, 236, 331 Plastic incompatibility, 178 Plastic strain ratio, 113 Plasticity modeling, 86 Plasticity-enhancing mechanisms, 317, 319 Plastic-skinned Pontiac Fiero, 4
5 Polygonal ferrite, 221f, 222 POSCO, 395
396 Post-crash standards, 10 Post-World War II economic expansion, Precipitates in interstitial free steels, 132
133 stability of, 420
425 Precipitates, solute atoms and grains, 425
430 Precipitate-time-temperature (PTT) diagrams, 431
432 Precipitation, 149t, 207 hardening, 64, 147
148, 430 in IF steels, 133
134 in IFHS steels, 134
138 kinetics, 155
156 process, 141 Predictive material modeling, 155
156 application of, 164
165 current state of, 164 Press formability, 245
247 Prehaărten, 390
391 Proeutectoid ferrite, 102, 102f Pseudo-binary Fe(Me)-C diagram, 187f, 355f Q Quenching and Partitioning (Q&P) steels, 196, 292
294, 405 carbon alloying, 298
300 465 competing reactions during partitioning, 304
308 local formability of, 308
312 manganese alloying, 296
298 molybdenum additions, 301
304 substitution of silicon by aluminium, 294
295 “Quenching and Partitioning” route, 222 Quenching and tempering (Q&T), 307
308, 308f Quenching temperature (QT), 292
293 R Reconstructive transformations, 417 Recovery annealing, 371
372 Recrystallization, 118, 158
160 of ferrite, 190
191 process, 119 texture, 369
371 Reduction of area (RA) for DP steels, 181 Regression analysis, 200 Regulatory pressure, Residual compressive stresses, 95 Retained austenite, 35
36, 177, 179
180, 184, 219, 227
229, 242, 247, 291, 298f deformation-induced transformation of, 231
239 factors affecting the stability of, 238
239 “Rimmed” steels, 2
3 Roll forming, 31, 35, 81, 82f Roller hearth furnaces, 388
389 Roll-formed parts, Rolling direction (RD), 52
53 Rolling texture, 366
368 Run-Out-Table (ROT), phase transformation on, 230
231 r-value, 52
53, 58, 61
62, 80 S SAAB, 208, 209f, 391 Safety cell, 21 Safety regulations, 9
11 Scheil’s additivity theory, 230 Second generation AHSS (2nd Gen AHSS), 35
36 2nd generation Volvo XC90, 403 Secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS), 430 466 Servo mechanical presses, 390 Shear band induced plasticity (SBIP) steel, 317, 319 Shearing process, 71f Sheet steel grades, 20f Sherif et al., model developed by, 237 Shin et al., model developed by, 236
237 Short range ordering (SRO), 363
366 Silicon, 95
96, 179, 200, 204, 208, 225
226, 329, 442
443 substitution of, by aluminium, 294
295 S-in Motion, 26
27 Slab deformation process, 157 Slab reheating, 156
157 Slab reheating temperature (SRT), 116, 120, 124, 131 Small angle neutron scattering (SANS), 441 Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), 441 Snoek process, 260
261 Society of automotive engineers (SAE), 23 Solid solution, 149t Solid solution hardening effect, 64, 420 Solidification, 96 Solubility product, 420
423, 422f Solute drag effect, 156
157, 425
427 Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), Stacking fault energy (SFE), 317
318, 322, 326, 359
360, 363
366 Stainless steels, 397 “Stair-rod cross slip” mechanisms, 333f, 334 Stamping process design, 31
33 Static and dynamic strain aging, 362
366 Static recrystallization kinetics, 159 Static strain aging (SSA), 138, 362 Steel grade changes, comparison of, 8f Steel grade development, 35 Steel Market Development Institute (SMDI), 39 Steel strengthening mechanisms, 149, 149t Steel-making process, 130 Stoloff-Johnson-Westwood-Kamdar model, 378
379 Strain aging, 2
3, 6
7, 100, 207, 259, 261
262 Strain hardening, 86
87, 301
304, 345
350, 346f, 363
366 of dual-phase steels, 175
180, 202 in TWIP steel, 345
350 Strain measures, 50
52 Index Strain rate hardening, 63
65 Strain rate sensitivity (SRS), 49, 63
64, 67f, 73, 82, 363 Strain-induced phase transformations, 319 Strain-induced transformation, 232
233, 320
322 Stress assisted transformation, 232
233 Stress measures, 53 Stress
strain behavior, 20
21 Stress
strain curve, 20
21, 21f, 86f, 176, 273f, 277, 290
291, 298
299, 301
304, 329, 354 Stretch flangeability, 79, 88, 245
247 Stretch-flanging, 362
363, 373 Stretching process, 72
73, 74f deformations, 73f schematically, 72f Stretching ratio (STR), 62 Structural adhesives, 34 Structural design, 21
22 Structure
property relationships, 148
149, 162
163 Substantial austenite retention, 289 Substantial deformation, 151
152 Sugimoto et al., model developed by, 235
236 Sulfur, 124, 129, 136f Superbainite, 289 Supercell method, 324
325, 325f Super-ultra-low carbon (SULC) steels, 259 Surface decarburization, 398 Surface hot shortness (SHS), 442
443 Sustainability, 37
38 T Tailor rolled blanks (TRB), 404 Tailor welded blank (TWB), 24, 25f, 403
404 Tailored blanks, 24 Temperature of non-recrystallization, 151
152 Tensile ductility, 308
309 Tensile testing, 33 Texture evolution modeling, 86 Texture formation, 130 THERMOCALC computation, 357f Thermodynamic estimations, 326 Thermodynamic parameter, 420
423 Thermodynamic stability, 420
423 Index Thermomechanical processing (TMP), 36, 145, 151, 197, 228, 265
266, 273
274, 416 fundamental metallurgical principles of, 150
152 Third generation of AHSS (3rd Gen AHSS), 35
37 Three-dimensional atom probe tomography, 355, 356f 3-G grade, gauge, and geometry optimization, 27 3-G methodology, 27 Ti-IFHS steel, 136
138, 136f stability versus precipitation temperature of, 138f Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram, 161, 224f, 419f, 431
432, 434f Tire rolling resistance, 12 Ti-stabilized interstitials-free (Ti-IF) ferritic steel, 319
320 Ti-stabilized steels, 266
267 Titanium, 95
96, 147
148, 202, 228 Titanium stabilized interstitial-free steel, 101f equiaxed ferrite grains in, 101f Tomota
Tamura model, 171 Total elongation (TE), 181 ductility measurement by, 244 Toyota Corolla, Toyota Venza, 26 TPCP (Thermo-mechanical Precipitation Control Process), 443, 445, 446t, 447f Transformation diagrams and Jominy End Quench curves, 108
110 Transformation induced plasticity-aided steel, 289, 398 Transformation modeling, 156, 160
162 Transformation rate, 161 Transformation strengthening, 430 and thermo-mechanical processing, 433
436 Transformation temperature, 163, 228 Transformed fraction, 161 Transition carbides, 306
307 Transmission electron microscopy, 103 Transportation industry, 1
2 Transverse direction (TD), 52
53 467 TRIP aided and complex phase steels, 217 See also Complex phase (CP) steels alloy design, 224
229 aluminum, 226
227 carbon, 224
225 chromium, 229 manganese, 225 molybdenum, 229 niobium, 227
228 phosphorus, 227 silicon, 225
226 titanium, 228 vanadium, 228
229 crashworthiness, 247 fatigue strength, 247
248 mechanical properties, 239
245 effects of strain rate, 244
245 effects of temperature, 243
244 microstructure modeling, 229
231 empirical models, 231 phase transformation during continuous annealing, 231 phase transformation on ROT, 230
231 models for deformation-induced transformation of austenite to martensite, 234
237 Angel/Ludwigson and Berger, model developed by, 234
235 Matsumura et al., model developed by, 235 Mukherjee et al., model developed by, 237 Olson and Cohen, model developed by, 235 Sherif et al., model developed by, 237 Shin et al., model developed by, 236
237 Sugimoto et al., model developed by, 235
236 press formability, 245
247 retained austenite, additional factors affecting the stability of, 238
239 TRIP aided plasticity mechanism in low alloy TRIP aided steel, 241f TRIP aided steel, 219
222 with bainitic ferrite matrix (TBF), 236f cold rolling (CR) route, 220 hot rolling (HR) route, 220
221 468 TRIP aided steel (Continued) stretch flangeability of, 246 TTT behavior in, 224f two-step heat treatment for, 219f TRIP effect, 217, 245, 274, 318
319, 318f, 354, 357
359 TRIP steels, 272
274, 277, 294
295 TRIP-aided bainitic ferrite (TBF), 290, 405 True strain, 50
51 Twin thickening mechanism, 332
334 Twinning stress, 335
338, 345
347 Twinning-induced plasticity, 317 TWIP effect, 318
319, 318f, 332
334, 354, 357
360 TWIP steel, mechanical properties of, 330
350 critical stress for twinning, 335
339 elastic properties, 330
331 forming properties, 350
351 grain size strengthening, 342
343 high strain rate behavior, 351
352 medium Mn TRIP and TWIP TRIP steel, 352
360 micro-alloyed TWIP steel, 344
345 principles of medium Mn TRIP and TWIP TRIP steel alloy design, 352
360 solute solution hardening, 340
341 strain hardening, 345
350 strain hardening control in medium Mn TWIP TRIP steels, 357
360 twinning kinetics and twinning saturation, 339
340 twinning mechanisms, 331
335 TWIP steel, twinning shear stress value for, 335t 2-G grade and gauge optimization, 25
26 2015 Acura TLX, 30, 31f 2015 Ford Edge, 30, 30f, 170f Two-step heat treatment, microstructural changes during, 220f Typical hot stamping time-temperature profile, 389f U Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), 54, 128, 177, 296
297, 309
310, 319
320 Ultra-fine grained (UFG) microstructures, 356
357 Ultrahigh strength steels, 4, 219 Index Ultra-low carbon (ULC) steels, 259 Uniform elongation, 181 ductility measurement by, 244 United States Automotive Materials Partnership LLC (USAMP), 15 United States Center for Automotive Research (USCAR), 36 University of California Santa Barbara Automotive Materials GHG Comparison Model V4 (UCSB Model), 39
42 USIBOR 1500, 393 V Vacuum degassing technique, 128, 130 Vacuum degassing technology, 127
128 Vanadium, 95
96, 147
148, 202, 228
229 Varnish coatings, 402 VDA238 test equipment, 76f, 77
78 Vehicle curb weight, 3f Vehicle downsizing, Vehicle energy losses and contribution to fuel economy, 12
16 aluminum, 14
15 carbon fiber reinforced polymers, 15
16 magnesium, 15 Vehicle manufacturing, 31 Vehicle mass, 7, 12, 30, 44 Vehicle mass breakdown, 13, 13f Vehicle migration, Vehicle noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH) performance, 24 Venables pole mechanism, 335
336 Vickers Hardness (HV) values, 394
395 V-microalloyed HSLA steel, 147
148 Volkswagen Beetle, Volpe model, 27
28 W Warm forging, 413
414 Warm forming, 14 Water quenching (WQ), 307
308, 308f Weldability, 33
34 Welding, 33
34 Work hardening, 53, 64, 88, 88f, 89f, 178, 204, 244
245, 272
273 WorldAutoSteel, 27, 39 Index X X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES), 441 X-ray diffraction analysis, 299
300 Y Yield locus, 48, 58
63, 60f, 61f, 62f, 65
66 Yield point elongation (YPE), 86, 174, 362, 363f Yield strength, 4, 20
24, 121, 147, 162
163, 259, 371 Yield stress, 53, 55
56, 58
59, 64
65, 342 Yoshida-Uemori model, 89
90 YS/TS (yield strength/tensile strength) ratio, 170, 174, 178 469 Z Zener pinning mechanism, 156
157, 425
427 Zener
Holloman parameter, 158
159 Zinc coated automotive steels, 34 Zinc coatings, 23, 34 Zinc-coated steels, ZinQuench system, 196 Zirconium, 202 Zn based coatings, 400
401 Zn coated blanks, 400 Zn liquid metal embrittlement (Zn-LMIE), 378
379 ZnNi coating, 401
402