(Luận văn thạc sĩ) analyzing factors affecting the export efficiency of vietnams textile and garment to eu countries

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY LE HA PHUONG ANALYZING FACTORS AFFECTING THE EXPORT EFFICIENCY OF VIETNAM’S TEXTILE AND GARMENT n TO EU COUNTRIES MASTER'S THESIS VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY LE HA PHUONG ANALYZING FACTORS AFFECTING THE EXPORT EFFICIENCY OF VIETNAM’S TEXTILE AND GARMENT TO EU COUNTRIES n MAJOR: PUBLIC POLICY CODE: 8340402.01 RESEARCH SUPERVISOR: Dr DANG QUANG VINH Hanoi, 2021 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Writing a master‟s thesis is not an easy task And I cannot complete it without assistance from a lot of people I want to express my gratitude to all of them I would like to express my sincerest thanks to my supervisor, Dr Dang Quang Vinh, for his valuable guidance and enthusiastic support from the beginning to the finishing of my thesis writing process With profound knowledge and experience, he gives me a lot of useful advice to improve my research skills, especially quantitative research skills Furthermore, his reminder emails and messages are the motivation for me to overcome my laziness to finish this thesis on time My appreciation goes to Prof Naohisa Okamoto, Dr Nguyen Thuy Anh, Prof Phung Duc Tuan, Dr Vu Hoang Linh, Prof Koji Fujimoto, and Prof Hiroichi Kawashima who give me precious comments and suggestions in the interim defense and during the whole writing process n Special thanks to Ms Pham Lan Huong, the MPP program assistant Her kindness, enthusiasm, and patience help me a lot when I felt so struggling with the thesis I cannot count how many times I expressed my worry and depression to her, but she still patiently listened and comforted me My thesis cannot be done without her great encouragement Finally, thanks to MPP4 for two years full of crazy, funny, interesting, and unexpected things we spent together at VJU TABLE OF CONTENTS n LIST OF TABLES i LIST OF FIGURES ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research background 1.2 Problem statement and research purpose 1.3 Research questions 1.4 Scope of the research 1.5 Research methodology 1.6 Significance of the research 1.7 Structure of the research .4 CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW .6 2.1 Definitions 2.2 Overview of Vietnam textile and garment sector 2.2.1 Current status of Vietnam textile and garment industry 2.2.2 Current status of Vietnam textile and garment export to EU countries 2.3 Research on trade potential, trade efficiency, and export efficiency 10 2.4 Research on trade potential, trade efficiency, and export efficiency by sector 16 2.5 Research gap .18 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 22 3.1 Stochastic frontier gravity model .24 3.2 Expansion of model 26 3.3 Data description 29 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS .32 4.1 Regression results 32 4.2 Impact of institution on export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to EU countries 35 4.3 Impact of infrastructure on export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to EU countries 35 4.4 Impact of goods market efficiency on export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to EU countries 35 4.5 Impact of technology readiness on export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to EU countries 35 4.6 Export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to EU countries 36 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 39 5.1 Research summary 39 5.2 Policy implication 39 5.3 Limitation of the study 40 5.4 Further research 41 REFERENCES 42 APPENDIX 46 n LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Summary of research on identifying determinants of export efficiency 19 Table 3.1: Statistical Summary 31 Table 4.1: Correlation between four trade facilitation indicators 32 Table 4.2: One-step estimation for Vietnam‟s textile and garment export to EU countries (2007–2019) 32 Table 4.3: Level of Export efficiency 36 Table A1: Description of HS code 46 Table A2: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with institution) 47 Table A3: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with infrastructure) 50 Table A4: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with goods market efficiency) 53 Table A5: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with technology adoption) 56 n i LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Main modes of production of Vietnam's textile and garment industry Figure 2.2: Export turnover of Vietnam's textile and garment, 2007 – 2019 (USD) Figure 2.3: Export growth rate of Vietnam's textile and garment, 2007 – 2019 (%) Figure 2.4: Structure of Vietnam's textile and garment export to EU (by market, and by HS code), 2019 (%) .10 n ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACFTA: AIFTA: ASEAN: CEPII: CMT: EVFTA: FTA: GSO: HS code: MLE: MOIT: OBM: ODM: OEM/FOB: OLS: RTA: SFGM: WEF: ASEAN - China Free Trade Agreement ASEAN - India Free Trade Agreement Association of Southeast Asian Nations Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales Cut – Make – Trim EU-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement Free Trade Agreement General Statistics Office Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System Maximum Likelihood Estimation Ministry of Industry and Trade Original Brand Manufacturer Original Design Manufacturer Original Equipment Manufacturer/ Free On Board Ordinary Least Squares Regional Trade Agreement Stochastic Frontier Gravity Model World Economic Forum n iii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Research background Vietnam's foreign policy mindset has been changing a lot since Doi Moi 1986 Key mindset has evolved from International Economic Integration to Comprehensive Economic Integration to In-depth International Integration Trade liberalization is an important factor promoting the international integration process A significant milestone in the process of international integration of Vietnam was when Vietnam became the official member of WTO in 2007 By December 2020, Vietnam has participated in 15 FTAs, of which 13 FTAs came into force, and the other two FTAs are under negotiation (WTO and International Trade center, 2020) Commitments in the FTAs including tariff reduction and eliminating of trading partners bring several benefits to boost Vietnam‟s export, especially for high comparative advantage products with such as textile and garment n The textile and garment industry is one of the key export goods of Vietnam In 2007, Vietnam‟s textile and garment exports were only about USD 8.60 billion More than a decade later in 2019, the export value of this sector increased five times to USD 39.42 billion, ranked second among Vietnam‟s highest export value sector after electrical machinery and equipment Vietnam was the world‟s fourth largest textile and garment exporter, after China, EU and Bangladesh in 2019 (MOIT, 2019) As of 31st December 2018, the number of employees working in this industry was 1,870,239, accounting for 12.6% of total employees in Vietnam‟s registered enterprises From 2014 to 2019, the average annual growth rate of this sector was about 17% (T Nguyen, 2020) EU is the second largest market importing these products after the USA After joining WTO, the export value of Vietnam‟s textile and garment to the EU (including the UK) continuously increases, from nearly USD 1.65 billion to about USD 4.78 billion In 2019, Vietnam's export market share of these products to the EU expanded to 2.4% compared to 2.2% of the previous year (MOIT, 2019) The EU becomes an increasingly important market for Vietnam's textile and garment after EVFTA entered into effect on 1st August 2020 This FTA is expected to bring expansive preferential market access for these goods to the EU However, the increase in the actual level of bilateral export does not mean an improvement in export efficiency Export efficiency reflects the performance of Vietnam‟s export with a trading partner Therefore, increasing export efficiency will improve the ability to exploit the international trade opportunities of Vietnam As a result, Vietnam‟s actual trade will increase to reach its highest value A number of researchers use data of China (Drysdale et al., 2000), India (Batra, 2006), and Bangladesh (Ahsan & Chu, 2014) to indicate that export efficiencies of these countries are still low or they have not yet achieved their full potential for exporting although their total export value keeps rising This is the result of some „economic distance‟ bias or country-specific factors related to trade such as institution, policy, or weak infrastructure (“behind the border” and “beyond the border” factors) A few Vietnamese scholars such as Doan & Xing (2018), or Trung et al (2018) also showed similar results in their research n 1.2 Problem statement and research purpose So far, many studies on export efficiency have been conducted in other countries Meanwhile, in Vietnam, this topic has not received scholarly attention There is only a few research on the export efficiency of Vietnam, and most of them rather focus mainly on the export of all products than investigate the export efficiency of one particular product such as textile and garment A lot of publications point out that the export efficiency at aggregated level is relatively low (Drysdale et al., 2000; Doan & Xing, 2018) Is the export efficiency of textile and garment sector also as low as export efficiency of total products, or is it an exception? Besides, a few studies have been trying to analyze the factors affecting export efficiency Calculating the export efficiency of Vietnam‟s textile and garment and identifying its determinants would provide a more honest view of the export performance of Vietnam in this industry The government can base on this information to design better policies that could maximize export efficiency, especially to the EU market since EVFTA has just been effective, which will provide a number of export opportunities to Vietnam By increasing export n Economics Letters, 15(13), 1037–1039 https://doi.org/10.1080/13504850600993499 Kalirajan, K, & Singh, K (2008) A comparative analysis of China‟s and India‟s recent export performances Asian Economic Papers, 7(1), 1–28 https://doi.org/10.1162/asep.2008.7.1.1 Meeusen, W., & van Den Broeck, J (1977) Efficiency Estimation from CobbDouglas Production Functions with Composed Error International Economic Review, 18(2), 435 https://doi.org/10.2307/2525757 MOIT (2019) Báo cáo xuất nhập 2019 [Vietnam Export Import 2019 Report] Nguyen, D D (2020) Determinants of Vietnam‟s rice and coffee exports: using stochastic frontier gravity model Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, ahead-of-p(ahead-of-print) https://doi.org/10.1108/jabes-05-2020-0054 Nguyen, H T H., & Doan, T N (2017) The ASEAN Free Trade Agreement and Vietnam‟s Trade Efficiency Asian Social Science, 13(4), 192 https://doi.org/10.5539/ass.v13n4p192 Nguyen, S T., & Wu, Y (2020) Governance and export performance in Vietnam Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 37(1), 1–25 https://doi.org/10.1355/ae371a Nguyen, T (2020) Seizing Investment Opportunities in Vietnam’s Garment and Textile Sector Vietnam Briefing https://www.vietnambriefing.com/news/seizing-investment-opportunities-vietnams-textile-garmentindustry.html/ Pham, V N., Dao, N T., & Doan, Q H (2014) Analyzing the Determinants of Services Trade Flow between Vietnam and European Union: Gravity Model Approach In MPRA Paper (Vol 63982, Issue 5) https://mpra.ub.unimuenchen.de/63982/1/MPRA_paper_63982.pdf Pitt, M M., & Lee, L (1981) The measurement and sources of technical inefficiency in the Indonesian weaving industry Journal of Development Economics, 9(1), 43– 64 Ravishankar, G., & Stack, M M (2014) The Gravity Model and Trade Efficiency: A Stochastic Frontier Analysis of Eastern European Countries‟ Potential Trade World Economy, 37(5), 690–704 https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12144 Roperto, J D., & Edgardo, C (2014) Philippine Export Efficiency and Potential: An Application of Stochastic Frontier Gravity Model (No 53603; MPRA Paper) Schwab, K (2017) The Global Competitiveness Report 2017 In World Economic Forum Teh, R., & Piermartini, R (2005) Demystifying modelling methods for trade policy In WTO Discussion Paper no 10 Trung, N X., Hung, N D., & Hien, N T (2018) Exploiting the Trade Potential from Integration: Analysing the Impact of Free Trade Agreements between ASEAN and India and China China Report, 54(4), 442–466 44 https://doi.org/10.1177/0009445518795999 Wang, H., & Schmidt, P (2002) One-Step and Two-Step Estimation of the Effects of Exogenous Variables on Technical Efficiency Levels Journal of Productivity Analysis, 18(2), 129–144 Wilson, J S., Mann, C L., & Otsuki, T (2003) Trade Facilitation and Economic Development: Measuring the Impact (No 2988; Policy Research Working Paper) WTO and International Trade center (2020) Vietnam’s FTAs as of December 2020 https://wtocenter.vn/thong-ke/13814-vietnams-ftas-summary-as-of-april-2019 Zaman, K A U., & Kalirajan, K (2019) Strengthening of energy security & lowcarbon growth in Asia: Role of regional energy cooperation through trade Energy Policy, 133(July), 110873 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.07.009 n 45 APPENDIX Table A1: Description of HS code Chapter code Chapter Descriptions Silk 51 Wool, fine or coarse animal hair, horsehair yarn and woven fabric 52 Cotton 53 Other vegetable textile fibres, paper yarn and woven fabrics of paper yarn 54 Man-made filaments 55 Man-made staple fibres 56 Wadding, felt and nonwovens, special yarns, twine, cordage, ropes and cables and articles thereof 57 Carpets and other textile floor coverings 58 Special woven fabrics, tufted textile fabrics, lace, tapes- tries, trimmings, embroidery 59 Impregnated, coated, covered or laminated textile fabrics, textile articles of a kind suitable for industrial use 60 Knitted or crocheted fabrics 61 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, knitted or crocheted 62 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories, not knitted or crocheted 63 Other made up textile articles, sets, worn clothing and worn textile articles, rags n 50 (Source: General Department of Vietnam Customs 46 Table A2: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with institution) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Mean2 Rank 0.4256 0.4344 0.4525 0.4862 0.6088 0.5953 0.5822 0.4401 0.4774 0.5421 0.6277 0.6431 0.5613 0.5290 12 Belgium 0.7392 0.7064 0.7044 0.7340 0.7867 0.7667 0.7753 0.8061 0.7869 0.7961 0.7980 0.8181 0.8497 0.7744 Bulgaria 0.6423 0.6699 0.4759 0.7096 0.6142 0.8500 0.8541 0.8628 0.7893 0.7398 0.6555 0.1236 0.4040 0.6455 Croatia 0.0500 0.0375 0.1608 0.1196 0.0684 0.1653 0.1840 0.7267 0.6192 0.8442 0.8617 0.8721 0.8841 0.4303 19 Cyprus 0.0685 0.1893 0.2426 0.2591 0.6354 0.4372 0.4289 0.3260 0.1356 0.1392 0.6005 0.1671 0.2536 0.2987 23 Czechia 0.7390 0.7449 0.7218 0.6643 0.6735 0.6334 0.5647 0.7784 0.0000 0.1853 0.1735 0.2331 0.2030 0.4858 13 Denmark 0.5604 0.6119 0.6510 0.7568 0.8162 0.8217 0.7917 0.7783 0.7434 0.7315 0.7155 0.7545 0.6897 0.7248 Estonia 0.4121 0.4827 0.5041 0.4191 0.4488 0.6453 0.5511 0.6029 0.7854 0.8019 0.6125 0.6314 0.4235 0.5631 10 Finland 0.2853 0.3771 0.4078 0.4031 0.5207 0.3807 0.5357 0.6019 0.5517 0.5674 0.4536 0.5176 0.5060 0.4699 15 France 0.2420 0.2381 0.2271 0.2413 0.3091 0.2655 0.2625 0.3176 0.4742 0.5318 0.5846 0.6197 0.6040 0.3783 22 Germany 0.6482 0.6589 0.6916 0.6968 0.7409 0.7243 0.7520 0.7737 0.7541 0.7548 0.7461 0.7514 0.7543 0.7267 n Austria 47 0.3532 0.3868 0.3609 0.3974 0.5332 0.5223 0.5350 0.4309 0.4368 0.5112 0.5417 0.4917 0.4933 0.4611 18 Hungary 0.7699 0.7664 0.6622 0.4569 0.5558 0.4065 0.5168 0.3847 0.0856 0.0595 0.1043 0.1413 0.0720 0.3832 20 Ireland 0.1647 0.1820 0.1999 0.2217 0.3088 0.4225 0.3100 0.2552 0.1848 0.1599 0.1307 0.1156 0.1231 0.2138 24 Italy 0.2688 0.3043 0.3239 0.3490 0.4363 0.4262 0.4582 0.5515 0.5611 0.5435 0.5848 0.6167 0.6401 0.4665 17 Latvia 0.0806 0.0436 0.3388 0.4546 0.3313 0.5045 0.3811 0.8551 0.8372 0.8372 0.7134 0.2872 0.5829 0.4806 14 Lithuania 0.0620 0.0816 0.1361 0.1236 0.1149 0.0691 0.0976 0.1129 0.1576 0.2782 0.2883 0.4079 0.3971 0.1790 27 Luxembourg 0.0063 0.0000 0.6823 0.7002 0.7312 0.7780 0.8019 0.7587 0.7959 0.7348 0.7354 0.7338 0.7573 0.6320 Malta 0.0941 0.0537 0.1206 0.0590 0.0000 0.0314 0.2390 0.0112 0.0144 0.4102 0.4754 0.4392 0.5372 0.1912 26 Netherlands 0.5673 0.6485 0.6179 0.6547 0.7365 0.7469 0.7507 0.8172 0.8471 0.8472 0.8510 0.8470 0.8548 0.7528 Poland 0.5585 0.5315 0.4565 0.4553 0.5119 0.4717 0.5817 0.6757 0.5933 0.5787 0.5428 0.5774 0.5874 0.5479 11 Portugal 0.0314 0.0221 0.0322 0.0717 0.0555 0.0611 0.0740 0.0821 0.1081 0.1540 0.2180 0.2159 0.2018 0.1021 28 Romania 0.6544 0.7296 0.5014 0.2485 0.4435 0.2485 0.2930 0.2480 0.3072 0.3652 0.5710 0.7337 0.7303 0.4673 16 Slovakia 0.5503 0.3225 0.5577 0.5734 0.7258 0.6649 0.6335 0.2856 0.2078 0.1597 0.1049 0.0744 0.0677 0.3791 21 n Greece 48 Slovenia 0.0617 0.0312 0.0277 0.0046 0.0192 0.0092 0.0246 0.2191 0.2977 0.4104 0.4693 0.5861 0.5513 0.2086 25 Spain 0.3427 0.4577 0.5521 0.6267 0.6781 0.6959 0.7558 0.7965 0.7295 0.6705 0.6699 0.6626 0.6370 0.6365 Sweden 0.5676 0.5929 0.5895 0.6580 0.7226 0.6815 0.7319 0.7402 0.6949 0.6606 0.6889 0.7173 0.6877 0.6718 UK 0.4479 0.5077 0.4965 0.5594 0.6404 0.6386 0.6337 0.6796 0.7091 0.7063 0.6930 0.6985 0.6961 0.6236 Mean1 0.3712 0.3862 0.4249 0.4323 0.4917 0.4880 0.5036 0.5328 0.4888 0.5258 0.5433 0.5171 0.5268 Mean efficiency 0.4794 n Source: Author‟s calculation 49 Table A3: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with infrastructure) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Mean2 Rank 0.4595 0.4648 0.4788 0.5189 0.6399 0.6224 0.6096 0.4677 0.4982 0.5616 0.6558 0.6709 0.5939 0.5571 11 Belgium 0.7569 0.7260 0.7235 0.7516 0.7984 0.7777 0.7837 0.8096 0.7874 0.7977 0.8077 0.8268 0.8541 0.7847 Bulgaria 0.6381 0.6652 0.4938 0.7193 0.6281 0.8501 0.8538 0.8610 0.7860 0.7374 0.6734 0.1349 0.4309 0.6517 Croatia 0.0519 0.0390 0.1733 0.1309 0.0736 0.1782 0.1978 0.7328 0.6253 0.8419 0.8640 0.8740 0.8846 0.4360 19 Cyprus 0.0615 0.1680 0.2234 0.2416 0.6028 0.4087 0.4014 0.3006 0.1217 0.1255 0.5807 0.1606 0.2415 0.2798 23 Czechia 0.7523 0.7600 0.7458 0.7039 0.7100 0.6716 0.6046 0.7874 0.0000 0.1986 0.2017 0.2726 0.2360 0.5111 14 Denmark 0.5635 0.6058 0.6480 0.7538 0.8140 0.8177 0.7865 0.7705 0.7308 0.7184 0.7157 0.7537 0.6891 0.7206 Estonia 0.3820 0.4503 0.4881 0.4085 0.4325 0.6304 0.5366 0.5851 0.7682 0.7862 0.6108 0.6320 0.4262 0.5490 12 Finland 0.2777 0.3621 0.3920 0.3883 0.4997 0.3597 0.5106 0.5725 0.5120 0.5284 0.4408 0.5065 0.4923 0.4494 18 France 0.3108 0.3029 0.2794 0.2987 0.3819 0.3243 0.3164 0.3756 0.5303 0.5855 0.6350 0.6658 0.6498 0.4351 20 Germany 0.6951 0.6999 0.7232 0.7290 0.7652 0.7457 0.7674 0.7862 0.7652 0.7627 0.7609 0.7673 0.7685 0.7489 n Austria 50 0.3667 0.4001 0.3845 0.4274 0.5656 0.5509 0.5586 0.4506 0.4473 0.5230 0.5691 0.5234 0.5213 0.4837 15 Hungary 0.7758 0.7726 0.6813 0.4962 0.5868 0.4405 0.5481 0.4127 0.0907 0.0630 0.1176 0.1596 0.0806 0.4020 21 Ireland 0.1645 0.1840 0.2111 0.2370 0.3299 0.4409 0.3241 0.2632 0.1836 0.1596 0.1369 0.1212 0.1280 0.2219 24 Italy 0.3038 0.3431 0.3849 0.4135 0.5112 0.5017 0.5360 0.6175 0.6188 0.6015 0.6364 0.6641 0.6817 0.5242 13 Latvia 0.0761 0.0416 0.3396 0.4547 0.3280 0.4993 0.3770 0.8473 0.8264 0.8265 0.7134 0.2972 0.5878 0.4781 16 Lithuania 0.0596 0.0787 0.1374 0.1260 0.1158 0.0698 0.0979 0.1120 0.1527 0.2700 0.2973 0.4207 0.4064 0.1803 27 Luxembourg 0.0063 0.0000 0.6782 0.6999 0.7294 0.7759 0.7982 0.7535 0.7871 0.7253 0.7408 0.7404 0.7611 0.6305 Malta 0.0919 0.0518 0.1215 0.0601 0.0000 0.0319 0.2424 0.0112 0.0141 0.4009 0.4896 0.4568 0.5496 0.1940 26 Netherlands 0.5948 0.6662 0.6442 0.6780 0.7518 0.7590 0.7641 0.8228 0.8481 0.8483 0.8540 0.8513 0.8578 0.7646 Poland 0.5566 0.5251 0.4557 0.4643 0.5190 0.4792 0.5893 0.6775 0.5942 0.5880 0.5722 0.6082 0.6148 0.5572 10 Portugal 0.0380 0.0268 0.0395 0.0901 0.0691 0.0758 0.0910 0.0996 0.1287 0.1835 0.2673 0.2652 0.2460 0.1247 28 Romania 0.6431 0.7115 0.4944 0.2517 0.4451 0.2495 0.2954 0.2470 0.3006 0.3575 0.5810 0.7371 0.7323 0.4651 17 Slovakia 0.5632 0.3393 0.5891 0.6078 0.7427 0.6887 0.6594 0.3128 0.2224 0.1707 0.1192 0.0850 0.0769 0.3982 22 n Greece 51 Slovenia 0.0609 0.0306 0.0280 0.0048 0.0196 0.0095 0.0252 0.2217 0.2940 0.4047 0.4831 0.5977 0.5619 0.2109 25 Spain 0.4221 0.5415 0.6358 0.7000 0.7412 0.7544 0.8000 0.8269 0.7701 0.7250 0.7230 0.7188 0.6962 0.6965 Sweden 0.5647 0.5819 0.5729 0.6483 0.7177 0.6733 0.7251 0.7282 0.6707 0.6407 0.6831 0.7107 0.6788 0.6612 UK 0.5142 0.5505 0.5400 0.6060 0.6797 0.6744 0.6644 0.7060 0.7293 0.7224 0.7156 0.7234 0.7201 0.6574 Mean1 0.3840 0.3960 0.4396 0.4504 0.5071 0.5022 0.5166 0.5414 0.4930 0.5305 0.5588 0.5338 0.5417 Mean efficiency 0.4919 n Source: Author‟s calculation 52 Table A4: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with goods market efficiency) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Mean2 Rank 0.4349 0.4355 0.4501 0.4840 0.6164 0.6024 0.5918 0.4382 0.4749 0.5422 0.6307 0.6470 0.5614 0.5315 12 Belgium 0.7541 0.7200 0.7168 0.7460 0.8000 0.7800 0.7890 0.8179 0.8000 0.8093 0.8032 0.8231 0.8555 0.7858 Bulgaria 0.6183 0.6494 0.4422 0.6962 0.5914 0.8533 0.8585 0.8664 0.7872 0.7306 0.6300 0.1119 0.3709 0.6313 Croatia 0.0438 0.0326 0.1392 0.1041 0.0597 0.1465 0.1643 0.7065 0.5827 0.8403 0.8590 0.8713 0.8845 0.4180 19 Cyprus 0.0613 0.1692 0.2194 0.2341 0.6084 0.4070 0.3988 0.2954 0.1217 0.1244 0.5604 0.1485 0.2257 0.2749 23 Czechia 0.7597 0.7671 0.7394 0.6859 0.6932 0.6516 0.5834 0.7940 0.0000 0.1881 0.1717 0.2287 0.1993 0.4971 13 Denmark 0.5602 0.6077 0.6488 0.7588 0.8245 0.8296 0.7998 0.7854 0.7499 0.7385 0.7169 0.7587 0.6905 0.7284 Estonia 0.3875 0.4548 0.4754 0.3912 0.4215 0.6361 0.5372 0.5884 0.7849 0.8013 0.5880 0.6136 0.3974 0.5444 11 Finland 0.2709 0.3526 0.3812 0.3760 0.5011 0.3598 0.5174 0.5832 0.5313 0.5496 0.4297 0.4968 0.4849 0.4488 17 France 0.2483 0.2408 0.2220 0.2323 0.2977 0.2545 0.2589 0.3143 0.4745 0.5335 0.5845 0.6205 0.6042 0.3758 22 Germany 0.6649 0.6702 0.7007 0.7033 0.7535 0.7370 0.7680 0.7873 0.7701 0.7779 0.7700 0.7693 0.7720 0.7419 n Austria 53 0.3287 0.3600 0.3306 0.3669 0.5063 0.4944 0.5151 0.4048 0.4080 0.4817 0.5155 0.4605 0.4624 0.4335 18 Hungary 0.7735 0.7715 0.6601 0.4507 0.5530 0.4017 0.5196 0.3814 0.0856 0.0587 0.0989 0.1340 0.0684 0.3813 20 Ireland 0.1644 0.1780 0.1959 0.2172 0.3063 0.4220 0.3086 0.2550 0.1865 0.1614 0.1249 0.1092 0.1166 0.2112 24 Italy 0.2683 0.3070 0.3198 0.3516 0.4421 0.4256 0.4684 0.5629 0.5735 0.5584 0.5983 0.6268 0.6508 0.4734 14 Latvia 0.0742 0.0400 0.3108 0.4245 0.3061 0.4861 0.3634 0.8590 0.8396 0.8385 0.6987 0.2648 0.5603 0.4666 15 Lithuania 0.0574 0.0751 0.1244 0.1141 0.1067 0.0656 0.0934 0.1072 0.1485 0.2600 0.2640 0.3816 0.3718 0.1669 27 Luxembourg 0.0062 0.0000 0.6909 0.7100 0.7402 0.7904 0.8148 0.7708 0.8069 0.7437 0.7388 0.7392 0.7635 0.6396 Malta 0.0805 0.0459 0.1042 0.0513 0.0000 0.0280 0.2135 0.0099 0.0127 0.3632 0.4211 0.3918 0.4912 0.1703 26 Netherlands 0.5830 0.6607 0.6282 0.6646 0.7504 0.7613 0.7685 0.8314 0.8598 0.8606 0.8624 0.8570 0.8646 0.7656 Poland 0.5551 0.5275 0.4461 0.4457 0.5078 0.4676 0.5890 0.6854 0.6042 0.5909 0.5471 0.5779 0.5892 0.5487 10 Portugal 0.0287 0.0201 0.0293 0.0655 0.0506 0.0557 0.0693 0.0771 0.1016 0.1441 0.1998 0.1970 0.1843 0.0941 28 Romania 0.6428 0.7268 0.4754 0.2295 0.4155 0.2319 0.2795 0.2364 0.2917 0.3434 0.5500 0.7276 0.7245 0.4519 16 Slovakia 0.5547 0.3221 0.5570 0.5774 0.7354 0.6754 0.6456 0.2863 0.2073 0.1583 0.0996 0.0710 0.0647 0.3812 21 n Greece 54 Slovenia 0.0585 0.0297 0.0264 0.0044 0.0184 0.0089 0.0239 0.2116 0.2866 0.3956 0.4489 0.5758 0.5393 0.2022 25 Spain 0.3373 0.4480 0.5341 0.6151 0.6770 0.6967 0.7619 0.8040 0.7354 0.6775 0.6710 0.6611 0.6339 0.6349 Sweden 0.5696 0.5907 0.5872 0.6582 0.7291 0.6860 0.7407 0.7477 0.7021 0.6694 0.6947 0.7212 0.6899 0.6759 UK 0.4659 0.5198 0.5003 0.5652 0.6537 0.6498 0.6502 0.6989 0.7313 0.7265 0.7050 0.7037 0.7013 0.6363 Mean1 0.3697 0.3830 0.4163 0.4258 0.4881 0.4859 0.5033 0.5324 0.4878 0.5238 0.5351 0.5103 0.5187 Mean efficiency 0.4754 n Source: Author‟s calculation 55 Table A5: Export efficiency of Vietnam textile and garment to EU countries, 2007 – 2019 (model with technology adoption) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Mean2 Rank 0.4281 0.4388 0.4516 0.4978 0.6296 0.6088 0.5970 0.4494 0.4853 0.5611 0.6175 0.6467 0.5634 0.5365 12 Belgium 0.7458 0.7185 0.7151 0.7520 0.7984 0.7774 0.7858 0.8150 0.7958 0.8070 0.7970 0.8229 0.8533 0.7834 Bulgaria 0.6337 0.6681 0.4759 0.7132 0.6165 0.8507 0.8549 0.8636 0.7887 0.7443 0.6465 0.1315 0.4260 0.6472 Croatia 0.0461 0.0355 0.1527 0.1150 0.0649 0.1536 0.1707 0.7103 0.5941 0.8421 0.8556 0.8742 0.8859 0.4231 19 Cyprus 0.0581 0.1625 0.2105 0.2264 0.5919 0.3807 0.3703 0.2776 0.1146 0.1226 0.5402 0.1564 0.2365 0.2653 23 Czechia 0.7602 0.7699 0.7461 0.7025 0.7133 0.6694 0.6007 0.7974 0.0000 0.2063 0.1822 0.2610 0.2267 0.5104 13 Denmark 0.5557 0.6084 0.6465 0.7613 0.8229 0.8265 0.7957 0.7813 0.7439 0.7350 0.7125 0.7612 0.6966 0.7267 Estonia 0.3856 0.4602 0.4812 0.3987 0.4275 0.6218 0.5220 0.5764 0.7732 0.7977 0.5859 0.6442 0.4353 0.5469 11 Finland 0.2651 0.3560 0.3781 0.3849 0.5040 0.3576 0.5117 0.5795 0.5234 0.5450 0.4220 0.5098 0.4968 0.4488 18 France 0.2655 0.2625 0.2482 0.2718 0.3531 0.3006 0.2999 0.3610 0.5201 0.5784 0.6043 0.6451 0.6288 0.4107 20 Germany 0.6639 0.6828 0.7065 0.7202 0.7620 0.7446 0.7715 0.7935 0.7762 0.7763 0.7511 0.7598 0.7618 0.7439 n Austria 56 0.3334 0.3764 0.3573 0.4005 0.5446 0.5248 0.5346 0.4290 0.4313 0.5097 0.5234 0.4995 0.4994 0.4588 17 Hungary 0.7807 0.7803 0.6795 0.4825 0.5784 0.4205 0.5306 0.3992 0.0889 0.0640 0.1053 0.1533 0.0778 0.3955 21 Ireland 0.1633 0.1842 0.1993 0.2242 0.3178 0.4251 0.3111 0.2568 0.1849 0.1633 0.1247 0.1156 0.1228 0.2149 24 Italy 0.3031 0.3432 0.3498 0.3817 0.4855 0.4719 0.5088 0.5998 0.6070 0.5922 0.5990 0.6378 0.6589 0.5030 14 Latvia 0.0749 0.0412 0.3251 0.4397 0.3182 0.4804 0.3584 0.8513 0.8322 0.8361 0.6984 0.2993 0.5983 0.4733 15 Lithuania 0.0584 0.0786 0.1322 0.1210 0.1125 0.0660 0.0938 0.1089 0.1511 0.2753 0.2740 0.4286 0.4161 0.1782 26 Luxembourg 0.0060 0.0000 0.6774 0.6974 0.7293 0.7735 0.7982 0.7529 0.7912 0.7336 0.7230 0.7440 0.7661 0.6302 Malta 0.0818 0.0473 0.1075 0.0530 0.0000 0.0274 0.2085 0.0098 0.0126 0.3751 0.4229 0.4320 0.5293 0.1775 27 Netherlands 0.5935 0.6705 0.6419 0.6784 0.7509 0.7592 0.7635 0.8262 0.8531 0.8546 0.8527 0.8514 0.8587 0.7657 Poland 0.5787 0.5513 0.4633 0.4712 0.5402 0.4924 0.5995 0.6951 0.6147 0.6076 0.5442 0.6054 0.6142 0.5675 10 Portugal 0.0322 0.0231 0.0335 0.0783 0.0599 0.0647 0.0781 0.0870 0.1144 0.1659 0.2194 0.2319 0.2160 0.1080 28 Romania 0.6575 0.7314 0.4974 0.2486 0.4522 0.2494 0.2961 0.2510 0.3108 0.3744 0.5684 0.7499 0.7462 0.4718 16 Slovakia 0.5637 0.3399 0.5819 0.6011 0.7437 0.6798 0.6495 0.2993 0.2173 0.1720 0.1073 0.0827 0.0751 0.3933 22 n Greece 57 Slovenia 0.0602 0.0306 0.0272 0.0047 0.0192 0.0090 0.0241 0.2145 0.2901 0.4129 0.4523 0.6072 0.5720 0.2095 25 Spain 0.3723 0.4986 0.5893 0.6669 0.7200 0.7343 0.7891 0.8227 0.7634 0.7155 0.6969 0.6992 0.6747 0.6725 Sweden 0.5698 0.5930 0.5842 0.6628 0.7325 0.6878 0.7398 0.7452 0.6929 0.6664 0.6888 0.7273 0.6970 0.6759 UK 0.5004 0.5526 0.5243 0.6008 0.6736 0.6717 0.6702 0.7129 0.7378 0.7342 0.6985 0.7112 0.7083 0.6536 Mean1 0.3764 0.3930 0.4280 0.4413 0.5022 0.4939 0.5084 0.5381 0.4932 0.5346 0.5362 0.5282 0.5372 Mean efficiency 0.4854 n Source: Author‟s calculation 58