Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu Merging Features This page intentionally left blank Merging Features Computation, Interpretation, and Acquisition Edited by J O S É M B RU C A RT, A N NA G AVA R R Ó , A N D JAUME SO LÀ Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © 2009 organization and editorial matter José M Brucart, Anna Gavarró, and Jaume Solà © 2009 the chapters their various authors The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2009 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk _ ISBN 978–0–19–955326–6 10 Contents List of figures List of tables Notes on contributors List of abbreviations Merge and features: a minimalist introduction José M Brucart, Anna Gavarró, and Jaume Solà vii viii ix xii Part I Formal features Probing phrases, pronouns, and binding Fredrik Heinat 25 Wh-agreement and bounded unbounded movement Patricia Schneider-Zioga 46 Universal 20 without the LCA Klaus Abels and Ad Neeleman 60 What it means (not) to know (number) agreement Carson T Schütze 80 Number agreement in the acquisition of English and Xhosa Jill de Villiers and Sandile Gxilishe 104 Variable vs consistent input: comprehension of plural morphology and verbal agreement in children Karen Miller and Cristina Schmitt 123 Grammatical features in the comprehension of Italian relative clauses by children Fabrizio Arosio, Flavia Adani, and Maria Teresa Guasti 138 Part II Interpretable features When movement fails to reconstruct Nicolas Guilliot and Nouman Malkawi 159 vi Contents 10 If non-simultaneous spell-out exists, this is what it can explain Franc Marušiˇc 11 Valuing V features and N features: What adjuncts tell us about case, agreement, and syntax in general Joseph Emonds 175 194 12 The diversity of dative experiencers György Rákosi 215 13 Homogeneity and flexibility in temporal modification Aniko Csirmaz 235 14 The syntactically well-behaved comparative correlative Heather Lee Taylor 254 15 Some silent first person plurals Richard S Kayne 276 16 From Greek to Germanic: Poly-(∗ in)-definiteness and weak/strong adjectival inflection Thomas Leu 293 17 Acquisition of plurality in a language without plurality Alan Munn, Xiaofei Zhang, and Cristina Schmitt 310 References Language Index Subject Index 329 359 361 List of figures 6.1 Sample stimulus for the recorded sentence: /therabbitsnifftheflowers/ 107 6.2 Data on plural and singular subject agreement from two- to three-year-old Xhosa speakers 115 6.3 Tree diagram of derivation of subject agreement in Xhosa 119 7.1 Experimental paradigm 127 7.2 Experiment 1: Sample target trial 130 7.3 Experiment 1: Percentage of plural responses 132 7.4 Experiment 2: Sample target trial 134 7.5 Experiment 2: Percentage of plural responses 136 8.1 Overall results from the picture selection task 149 17.1 Sample picture from Experiment 318 17.2 Sample picture from Experiment 323 List of tables 5.1 Age range and number of recordings for each Swahili child 88 5.2 Proportions of all indicative clause types for each child and for the adults in a subset of these files 91 5.3 Swahili children’s clause types as a function of age: Hawa 91 5.4 Swahili children’s clause types as a function of age: Mustafa 92 5.5 Swahili children’s clause types as a function of age: Fauzia 92 5.6 Swahili children’s clause types as a function of age: Hassan 93 5.7 Total number of object agreement markers produced 93 5.8 Distribution of MIT twins’ subject pronouns: twin pair I 96 5.9 Distribution of MIT twins’ subject pronouns: twin pair II 97 5.10 Distribution of MIT twins’ subject pronouns: twin pair III 97 5.11 Distribution of MIT twins’ subject pronouns: twin pair IV 98 5.12 Distribution of agreeing versus default verb forms as a function of subject phi-features for three French children 100 6.1 Number of utterances and number of samples ( ) by age band 114 6.2 Pilot studies of subject number agreement comprehension in Xhosa 121 9.1 Determiners and pronouns in French 169 17.1 Proportion of No responses 319 17.2 Proportion of No responses Experiment 1b (English) 321 17.3 Proportion of generic responses: discourse order 325 17.4 Proportion of generic responses: canonicity 325 Notes on contributors Klaus Abels received his PhD at the University of Connecticut in 2003 He has since held positions at the Universities of Leipzig and Tromsø and is currently lecturer in linguistics at University College London He is interested in constraints on syntactic movement operations Flavia Adani is a graduate student at the University of Milano-Bicocca and she works in sentence comprehension in typically-developing children and children with language disorders As an undergraduate, she studied at the University of Siena and at the University of Reading Fabrizio Arosio is a research assistant at the University of Milano-Bicocca where he teaches in the Faculty of Psychology He has worked in theoretical linguistics on the semantics of tense, aspect and temporal adverbials and on the processing of verbal agreement morphology in child language Aniko Csirmaz obtained a PhD degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2005 Since then, she has been the recipient of an Andrew W Mellon Postdoctoral Fellowship (at Carleton College), and is currently an assistant professor at the University of Utah Joseph Emonds has published four books on syntactic and morphological analysis: Transformational Approach to English Syntax (1976), Unified Theory of Syntactic Categories (1985), Lexicon and Grammar: the English Syntacticon (2000), and Discovering Syntax (2007) He is American but moved to England in 1992 He has also taught in France, Holland, Japan, Austria, and Spain Maria Teresa Guasti is Professor at the Department of Psychology, Università di Milano-Bicocca She held positions at the University of Siena, at the Department of Cognitive Science, San Raffaele Hospital in Milan, and at the University of Geneva She is author of one textbook on language acquisition and of several articles on theoretical linguistics, language acquisition, and language impairment Nicolas Guilliot defended his PhD thesis, Reconstruction at the Syntax-Semantics Interface, in 2006 at the University of Nantes, and is currently Assistant Professor at the University of Toronto (2007–09) Sandile Gxilishe is an Associate Professor at the University of Cape Town His research is on child language development, second language acquisition and language in education He has published widely on these aspects and has also published educational material in Xhosa, an indigenous language of South Africa 358 References Zagona, Karen (1990) ‘Times as temporal argument structure’, ms., University of Washington, Seattle Zanuttini, Raffaella (2007) ‘Encoding the Addressee in the syntax: evidence from English imperative subjects’, ms., Georgetown University Zeller, Jochen (2008) ‘The subject marker in Bantu as n∗ ’ Paper presented at the Joint Annual LSSA/SAALA Conference, Stellenbosch Zhang, Xioafei (2006) ‘Chinese -men and associative plural’, ms., Michigan State University Zucchi, Sandro (1991) ‘Negation and aspect’, in Proceedings of the Eighth Eastern States Conference on Linguistics Ithaca: CLC Publications Zucchi, Sandro and White, Michael (2001) ‘Twigs, sequences and the temporal constitution of events’, Linguistics and Philosophy 24 Zwart, Jan-Wouter (1997) Morphosyntax of Verb Movement Dordrecht: Kluwer Zwart, Jan-Wouter (2002) ‘Issues relating to a derivational theory of binding’, in S D Epstein and T D Seely (eds.), Derivation and Explanation in the Minimalist Program Oxford: Blackwell, 269–302 Zwicky, Arnold (1986) ‘German adjective agreement in GPSG’, Linguistics 24: 957–90 Language Index Afrikaans 76n Albanian 306n Amele 81 Arabic 256n Jordanian 16, 159, 162–3, 166, 170 Lebanese 164, 177 Armenian 183–4 Bantu 12, 46–59, 104–22 Basque 154n, 256n Bavarian 307n Bayso 82 Berber 256n Bulgarian 256n Catalan 289 Barcelona 286n Chichewa 117–18 Chinese 21, 102, 298 Mandarin 256n, 310–20, 322, 324–7 Cushitic 82 Czech 203n, 204n, 205–6, 221n Danish 256n, 298 Dutch 139, 256n, 264, 302, 316 English 5, 7, 12, 16, 20, 21, 26, 30–1, 45, 74, 83, 87, 93–8, 101n, 103, 104–22, 134, 139, 159, 194, 196, 198, 200–1, 204, 215–16, 221, 224–5, 228, 232n, 245, 247, 252, 256n, 260n, 264, 266, 268, 271, 277–8, 290, 291n, 311, 314–16, 321–2 African American 105–8 American 105–8 Non-standard 211, 213n Archaic 264 British 178–9, 279n Mainstream American; see American Middle 264 Faroese 218n Flemish West 303 French 20, 98–100, 103, 139, 159, 162–3, 166, 169–70, 194, 196, 199, 203–5, 209–10, 211n, 256n, 260n, 264, 276–84, 287, 289, 290, 315 Colloquial 9, 280, 289n German 51, 72n, 83, 100, 101n, 139–42, 144, 152–4, 196, 204n, 205, 256n, 264, 302, 308 Swiss 294n, 296–9, 302, 304, 306–8 Germanic 20, 26, 110, 264, 288, 293–309 North 298 West 294n, 298–9 Greek 20, 154, 256n, 293–309 Classical 205 Greenlandic West 237n Hebrew Modern 6n, 256n Hindi 256n Hungarian 216, 218–25, 228–31, 232n, 245–7, 256n, 264 Icelandic 7n, 216n, 218n, 296 Indo-European 205 Irish 56 Italian 15, 101, 111, 117, 120, 138–55, 221n, 256n, 279, 282–4, 286n, 287, 289–92 Bellinzonese dialect 286 Lombardy dialects 286 Mendrisiotto dialect 286n Milanese 286n Northern dialects 118 Paduan 284–6, 289 Ticino dialects 286 Japanese 72n, 74, 183–4, 196, 198–200, 212, 256n Kinande 12, 46–59, Korean 74, 245, 256n Latin 197, 205, 256n 360 Language Index Madurese 56 Malayalam 256n Maltese 256 Mongolian Khalkha 256n Nguni 112 Nkore-Kiga 77 Noni 77 Norwegian 298 Oceanic 81n Papuan 81 Pitjantjatjara 77 Polish 51, 256n, 260n Portuguese Brazilian 256n Selayarese 56 Serbian 232n Sign languages 2n, 72n Slavic 205, 288 Slowenian Colloquial 300n Somalian 288 Spanish 5, 20, 51, 66n, 100, 120, 194, 197, 199–200, 203–5, 209, 217, 220, 245, 256n, 260n, 271, 289 Chilean 15, 125–37 Dominican 111, 134, 135n, 136 Mexican 125–37 Sursurunga 83n Swahili 14, 88–93, 101, 103 Nairobi 118 Swedish 26, 29–32, 256n, 298, 300n, 306 Rapanoui 81n Romance 7n, 12, 21, 203–4, 211, 286–92 Romanian 298 Russian 100, 101n, 102, 221n, 245, 256n, 264 Xhosa 14–15, 104–22 Scandinavian 298–9 Mainland 294n, 299, 304n Northern Mainland 307n Zapotec San Lucas Quiaviní 35 Zulu 112, 117–18 Tagalog 298 Turkish 74–5, 256n Subject Index Absolute construction; See Clause, absolute Abstraction 167–8 Ỵ- 167n Accord 87, 102 Accord Maximization Principle (AMP) 14, 86–7, 93, 101–2 Across-the-Board; See ATB Acquisition 2, 310–27; see also Language Acquisition Device Activation condition 27, 37 Active Filler Hypothesis 139, 145, 152n Adequacy descriptive explanatory Adjective 20, 31–2, 61–7, 70, 78 adnominal 293, 295 bare 199n, 211, 212n declension 293, 295–303, 307, 309 ergative 216 evaluative 216 lexical 200n multiple 307n non-agreeing 199n, 210–12 non-predicative 294n, 307–9 noun-modifying 194, 211 of quantity 77 order 294, 296 predicative 294 unergative 216–17, 230 Adjective Phrases 74, 204–5, 293–309 adverbial 198–9, 210–11, 212n factive 211 speaker-oriented 211 attributive 203 fronting 301 non-agreeing 210–12 predicative 203 Adjunct 17–18, 70, 194–214, 216, 224; see also Adverb agreeing 204 accompaniment 202 AP- 199n, 202, 212 bare adverbial 199, 202, 212 causal 200, 209 clausal 197–202 comitative 225, 231n durative 18, 235–42, 245–8, 250–3 instrument 196–7, 202 IP- 201, 203, 212 manner 196–9, 202 non-thematic 18, 217, 232 NP- 199–200, 202 place 195 PP- 195–6 space 209, 213 thematic 18, 226, 229–30, 232–3 time 195, 200, 209, 213 VP- 199, 212 Adposition 215n, 220 Adverb 76n, 280 accusative 245, 247 bare 245–7 durative 235–6, 238–9, 241–2, 245–8, 252 frequency 249 in- 238, 242, 247–8, 253 for- 235, 238–40, 242–4, 247–50, 252–3 manner 194, 213n postpositional 247 spatial 194 temporal 194 Adverbial; see Adjunct Affectedness 229 Affix agreement 99, 117, 121 -hopping 296n Agent phrase 194 passive 196 Agree 6–8, 10, 11–12, 14, 17, 25–6, 34, 37–8, 45, 179, 301 multiple 37, 40 value Sharing 37 Agreement 6, 7, 11, 14, 15, 17, 37, 53, 80, 82–4, 87, 89, 94–5, 96n, 100, 102, 105, 108–9, 111–12, 117, 120–1, 140–2, 178, 182, 188, 194–214, 278, 280–2, 293 A′ - 57 abstract 204 adjectival 200, 295–9, 303 antecedent-pronoun 110 complementizer 303 362 Subject Index Agreement (cont.) controller 109 index 81, 85–6, 92 marker 104, 108, 117 mismatch 141–2, 145, 147, 150–3 morphological 104, 120, 122, 125, 298n number 15, 80–103, 104–22, 141, 143–7, 151, 152n object 89, 92–3, 113, 117, 121–2 overt 205, 210, 246 phi-feature 203, 205, 301 post-syntactic 111, 122 pronoun 109 Spec-head 12, 301 subject (-verb) agreement 11, 13–15, 52, 83, 89–90, 92, 101, 104–5, 110, 112–14, 116–20, 122, 135n syntactic 110, 120 verb 104, 109–11, 123–37, 139, 142, 153, 178, 303 wh- 46–59 Agr/Tense Omission Model (ATOM) 85–8, 91, 93–8, 100, 103 Allomorphy stem 84 Ambiguity 18, 94–5, 101n, 108–9, 118, 138–43, 175, 188, 239, 242, 291, 310–11 Anaphor 225 Anaphora Bound Variable 160 and left-subordinating 261 Animacy 92, 155 Antecedent 25–6, 33, 44, 68, 71, 110, 166, 168, 279 Anti-locality condition 13, 73, 75 Antisymmetry 12–13, 64, 75, 78 Applicative 217, 225 Apposition 77 Appositive restrictive elliptical 306n Argument 144, 154, 176, 231n, 248 agent 226 cause 230 dative 18, 217, 223–4, 227–9, 235n experiencer 215, 228 external 226 goal 227 implicit 222 indefinite nominative 227 non-specific recipient 227 structure 8, 226–7, 228n target 227 Argument Marking Languages 154n Article 66n, 152n definite 21, 139, 141, 293, 298–9, 300n indefinite 293–5, 300–1, 307, 309 Aspect 19, 237n viewpoint 236 Assimilation 110, 126 Asymmetry 6, 9, 14, 72, 104, 121 linear 60–1, 64, 66 subject/object 101n, 148 ATB (Across-the-Board) 72n, 167n Attribute NP- 203 predicate 203, 209, 212n Auxiliary 94, 118, 278 Base generation 60–1, 65, 69, 78, 163, 255, 257, 265, 273 symmetrical 61 Benefactive; see Dative of interest Binding 11, 25–45, 50, 159, 225 principle A 72n, 117, 279 principle B 86, 87n, 101, 108, 279, 287–8 principle C 180 reflexive 11 C-command 43, 49–50, 62, 64, 66, 69–70, 72n, 83, 225, 270, 279, 301 domain 6, 8–9, 27, 37 mutual 73 Canonicity 325 Capacity strong generative 70 weak generative 70 Cardinal; see Quantifier, cardinal Cardinality; see Expression, cardinality Cartographic Project 19 Case 11, 14, 17, 44, 81, 87, 96n, 141–2, 144, 176, 179, 189, 191, 194–214, 227 abstract 207–12 accusative 101n, 139–41, 182, 208, 212n, 227, 245, 297n assignment 205–7, 212 checking 246–7 dative 101n, 218n, 220–1, 223 default 87 ergative 77 Subject Index filter 85 generalized 207 genitive 208, 212 lexical/inherent 223n, 227 licensing 245–6 mismatch 141–2 morphological 87, 204, 208 nominative 100, 101n, 139–42, 182, 208, 212, 297n oblique 208, 212, 227 quirky 223n semantic 223n structural 182, 223n, 245 Causative 183, 226 CED (Condition on Extraction Domains); see Condition Chain 37–8, 44, 48, 57, 144n, 177 Checking 7n, 25–7, 81, 85, 87, 100, 102, 142, 153, 267 Classifier 21, 312–14, 316 Clause absolute 194, 197–8 adjunct 201, 256–7, 264, 265, 269, 271–4 causal 194 comparative 194, 195n, 200, 203, 254, 268 complement 200 conditional 20, 194, 200, 201n, 203, 271 coordinate 198 degree 195, 200 ECM 41, 44, 210 embedded 12, 42, 47, 50, 53, 259 finite 41, 235–6, 252, 302–3 matrix 41, 47, 103, 178, 203, 256–7, 264, 269 non-finite 41–3 paratactic 260 purpose 200, 203 relative 15, 76, 111, 133–4, 138–55, 159, 161, 194, 195n, 201n, 203, 254, 257, 294–5, 301, 303, 307–9; object 139–55 restrictive 145, 200 subject 133–4, 139–55 result 195n, 200–1 root 57–8, 201 subjunctive 53 than- 264 tensed; see finite Cleft sentence 117, 189, 201n Clitic 104, 116–21, 163, 170, 197, 276–92 doubled; see Doubling, Clitic 363 extra object 286–8 locative 290–2 object 276, 286n, 289n, 291n order 291–2 reflexive 284–6 resumptive 53, 56, 164, 170 subject 276–8, 280, 286 Cliticization 216 second-position 72 CNPC (Complex Noun Phrase Constraint) 268 Co-indexing 25, 203 Collectivizer 313 Comitative; see Adjunct Comparative 268; see also Clause, comparative constituent 258–9, 264, 265n, 267, 268–9 correlative 19, 254–75 morpheme 257 Complement 60, 209–12 bare IP- 209–10 clausal 209 covert 209 non-agreeing AP-; see Non-agreeing AP phrase 209–12 oblique 209 than- 264 Complementizer 20, 46, 48, 57, 75n, 138, 144, 146, 152–3, 195n, 200–2, 209, 213, 293, 298–9, 309 negative 6n null 20, 201 the 254–5, 259, 265–8 -trace Effect 267 Component base 60 morphological post-syntactic 109 movement 3, 60, 67 Compound 29–30 Comprehension 108, 116, 129–37 Computational System 3–5, 8, 226, 246 Concord 81, 83, 86, 110, 120 Condition Bare Output on Bound Variable Anaphora 164 on Extraction Domains 255, 260–3, 270 Phase Impenetrability 41 Conditional 261 “intonational” 262 Connectivity effect 176 364 Subject Index Consonant cluster 106 voiced 126 voiceless 126 Constituency gross 67, 69–70, 78 Construction 19n complex inversion 278n correlative; see Comparative Correlative tough- 189 Control 283 adjunct 271 Copula 200, 307 Coordinate conjunct 118, 261, 263 sentence 118 Coordinate Structure Constraint (CSC) 255, 260–3 Coordination 198, 231n, 260–1 Coordinator 260 Copy 6n, 7, 16, 81, 113, 159, 161, 165–9, 172, 177, 181, 271 elided 170, 172 theory; see movement Co-reference 39n, 110, 168, 195 CP Recursion 267–8 Cumulativity 237n, 239, 245 Dative 18, 215–34, 235n, 258, 286 adjunct 217, 230 bare 197 clitic 197n, 289 ethical 232n experiencer 217–18, 223–6, 231–4, 235n high-level experiencer 217, 232–3 inanimate 219 non-thematic adjunct 18, 235n possessor 224 thematic adjunct 18, 217, 226, 230–1, 235n of interest 194, 196–7, 218 Benefactive 196, 202, 235n Malefactive 196, 202, 235n Definite; see Description, definite Definiteness 20–1, 310–12, 314–17 double 293, 299 poly- 293–309 Degree; see Expression, degree Deixis 282n Delay 130, 133 Hypothesis 15, 128 in comprehension 124, 128–9, 137 variability 129–30, 133 Deletion 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 116, 177, 185, 307 NP-; see Ellipsis, NPDemonstrative 54, 61–7, 70, 264, 304n, 311 definite 299n Derivation 5, 10, 21, 177 admissible 86 convergent 14, 86, 102 optimal 86 Description affirmative 239–40 definite 159, 165–70, 172–3, 320 dynamic 240–1 eventuality 236 perfective 247–8 telic 247–8 generic 237n, 280n, 316 habitual 237n, 241, 249 imperfective 236, 240–1 indefinite 159, 165–6, 172–3 negated; see Negation perfective 236, 240–1, 243 stative 236, 240 Determiner 32, 126, 169n, 304n adjectival 293, 299 definite 167–9, 173, 259, 293, 311, 314, 316 demonstrative; see Demonstrative empty 293, 304, 309, 312 spreading 294–5; see Definiteness, PolyDisambiguation 141–50 by agreement 141–2, 144–5, 148–54 by case 141–2, 152–4 by position 148, 150, 152–3 Discourse 8, 16, 314, 320 context 308, 326 properties Dislocation 117, 159, 162–3, 169, 276 clitic left- 12, 177 Disorder language 106 Displacement; see movement base-generated 58–9 Divisibility 238, 244–5, 248, 250–2 Dominance relation 68 Double-Filled-Comp Filter; see Filter, Double-filled COMP Doubling clitic 118, 170 Subject Index DP 32, 34, 81, 85n, 176, 191, 203, 294n, 305, 311; see also NP big 59, 119 definite 297, 298–9, 304 modified 294, 300 indefinite 295, 295, 297–9, 311 polydefinite 294 possessive 224 referential 31, 36, 44 reflexive 33, 35–6, 44 scope-linking 190 Dynamicity 241 Economy principle 139, 242 Edge 10n, 271 left- 50, 296 Ellipsis 159, 165–6, 169–70, 173 NP- 166, 171 Emphasis 78 Empty category 16 Entailment 224 Strawson 244 Epithet 164, 170 Error 14–15, 84, 316 agreement 90, 98, 141 case 141 comprehension 14 omission 15, 114 production 14, 96 substitution 114 Escape-hatch 12, 73, 75 Event 109 maximal 251 Experiencer; see Dative Expletive 176–7, 179 Expression cardinality 80 degree 74, 232n, 267–8, 294n, 307 nominal 25 numerosity 80 referential 191n Extraction 48, 74–5, 260–2 A′ - 49 from CP 74 of possessor 224 Faculty of Language 1–4, 6, 10, 184n, 228n Feature 5, 14, 21, 33–4, 83, 138–55, 183, 228n active 37 agreement; see agreement case 5, 34, 85–6, 102, 212n, 223 365 categorial 207–8, 212–13 checking 27, 48, 56–7 disambiguating 152n, 155 edge 9, 12, 182 EPP 15, 85n, 178–9, 182, 186, 191–2 formal 5, 11–15, 19, 21, 183 gender 5, 85, 105 interpretable 5, 15–21, 33, 85, 201, 310 N- 194–214 number 14–15, 81, 84, 110, 140, 310 P- 198 phi- 5, 14–15, 27, 34–43, 85–6, 95, 98–9, 105, 178–9, 187, 205 phonological 5, 180, 183, 187–8 semantic 5, 178, 183, 187, 189 sharing 37, 40 T- 38, 40, 103 uninterpretable 5–9, 11–14, 17, 85–6, 92, 102 unvalued 11, 13, 27, 37 V- 194–214 valuing; see Valuation Filter Double-filled COMP 201n, 300 Generalized doubly filled COMP 68n LF Case 212n Focus 46, 49, 54, 86, 232n, 295, 306 contrastive 266–7 Full Interpretation 7, 10, 228, 231 Function 177 choice 161 partial 167–8 Skolemized choice 161, 167–8, 173 Fusion 199n Gap 46, 54, 58, 108, 195n, 293 parasitic 270–1 prediction 139 Garden Path Effect 139–42, 144–5, 152–5 Gender 81, 85, 203n neuter 154 Genericity 21, 317 Gerund; see Tense, gerund Goal 6, 8–9, 10n, 17, 26–7, 37, 44 active 38–40 Government 25 Head 6, 9, 10n, 11–13, 16–18, 20, 26–31, 34–7, 40–2, 54, 60, 64, 66, 68, 70–5, 81, 83, 85, 102, 112, 118–19, 133–4, 140–1, 143–7, 154–5, 183, 198–200, 202–3, 366 Subject Index Head (cont.) 206, 209, 213, 217–18, 225, 230, 245–7, 255, 259, 263–8, 272–3, 297–301, 303, 309 category-forming 30 degree 255, 259, 264–5 drop 300n functional 64, 68, 74, 75n, 272–4 parameter; see Parameter, Head phase 12, 37, 41–2, 183 silent 20, 75n, 300n, 301n unpronounced; see Silent Head-initial language 194 Head-marking language 154 Homogeneity 235–53 Imperative 240n, 281, 286 subjectless 281 Implicature contrastive 242 schalar 86, 87n Incorporation adjective 307n Indefinite; see NP, indefinite Infinitive 89, 99 elliptical root 85n, 87, 90–1, 99 Inflection adjectival 293–309 aerbal 81, 88–94, 101, 104, 110, 152n Input 123, 129 consistent 123–37 inconsistent 124 unreliable 124, 126, 129, 133 variable 123–37 Interface 21, 177–8, 226, 228 Articulatory-Perceptual 2n Conceptual-Intentional 2–9, 11, 18, 228, 247 conditions 10 sensorimotor 2–4, 7, 11 Interpretation associative 312–14 vound variable 25–6, 35, 39, 160–4, 166, 168, 170–1 co-variant 168–9 discourse-bound 314 disjoint reference 279, 283 distributive 51, 160, 161, 164, 165n, 173, 243 durative 248, 250 e-type 168, 173 existential 161 full; see Full Interpretation functional 164–5 , 167–8, 172–3 generic 315, 322–3, 326 habitual 237n, 241, 249–50 inalienable possession 316 iterative 243, 248–50 individual 167 maximal 251 non-cumulative 244, 249 non-maximal 251 of copies 172, 174 pair-list 161, 165–7, 169, 172–3 plural 312 referential 314 specific 161n, 168, 178 type 249 Interrogative 9, 151, 159 Intervention 9–10, 40, 164, 216 Intonation 180 IP Immobility Principle 74, 75n Island 12, 46, 51, 54–5, 58–9, 159, 162–4, 169–70, 173, 216, 224, 264 adjunct 270–4 complex-NP 162 extraction from 270–4 factive 268 scope 190 strong 164, 169 violations 59 weak 162–4 wh- 162–3, 268 Juxtaposition 203, 213 LAD (Language Acquisiton Device) 123–4 Last Resort 12, 57 LCA (Linear Correspondence Axiom) 12, 60–79 Lenition 126, 131 Lexical Insertion post-syntactic 45 Lexicon 3–4, 7, 13–14, 19–21, 26, 113, 116, 119, 131, 196, 213, 218, 220, 223, 226–8, 236, 247 grammatical 213 LF 85, 236 interface 179, 181 lowering; see Lowering Subject Index Little v 38, 40, 42 Location 199 spatial 199 temporal 199 Lowering 176–7, 184 Mapping semantic 116 Malefactive; see Dative of interest Marker 121 agreement 117–18 aspect 118 definite 294–9, 302–5, 309, 311 multiple 294, 303, 305 null 303, 305 overt 294 pre-adjectival 293, 298–9, 305, 309 re-emerging 304–5 suffix 298 mood; see Mood object 118, 122 person 117 subject 117–19, 122 subjunctive; see Mood, Subjunctive Matching 7, 37 Maximality 250–2, 314n, 317, 320–1, 326 Maximize Matching Effect 86 Memory working 108 Merge 3–7, 10, 26, 29–31, 34–6, 38–43, 75n, 105, 119, 181, 187, 189, 216, 220n, 224, 226–8, 232, 236, 242, 245, 252, 271, 273, 293, 296, 299–304 external 3, 8, 27–8, 226 internal 3, 6–9, 15–16, 226, 270 first 177 Merger 199n, 296, 300, 302–3, 309 Minimal Chain Principle (MCP) 15, 139, 146, 152 Minimality 46, 58 Mismatch Detection Point Hypothesis (MDPH) 142, 144, 152 Mismatch Detection Stage Hypothesis (MDSH) 142, 144, 152–3 Modals 118, 182 Modifier adjectival 20, 294n, 297–9, 301–4 degree; see Expression, degree nominal 77 temporal 235–53 367 Mood 19, 90 imperative 90 subjunctive 90 Morpheme 30, 106 agreement 117, 303, 308 inflectional 29 plural 311, 313, 315 portmanteau 314–15, 317, 320, 326 Morphology 13, 139 distributed 14, 26, 81 grammatical 124, 128 inflectional 19, 85n Move 6, 7, 12, 180, 299–302 Movement 7–8, 11n, 12–13, 16, 25–6, 46, 48–53, 60–1, 64, 71, 73, 75, 79, 159–74, 257, 268–74, 299 A- 16–17, 52–3 A′ - 12, 20, 49, 51, 254–5, 264, 268, 272 adjective 293–6, 299–303, 306–7, 309 clause-bound 57 comp to comp 57 copy theory of – 51, 160–1, 164, 175, 177, 181 covert 180–1 DP- internal 12 focus 254 dead 73n, 266 illicit 59 local 13, 47, 51 long distance 46–59, 69 NP- 73 of a non-constituent 65 overt 85n, 180–1, 184 PF 177–8, 185–9 remnant 71–2, 73n, 75n rightward 61, 67, 71–3, 79, 296n roll-up 69–70 short 65 sideward 255, 270–4 successive cyclic 12, 46, 49–51, 57, 59, 71, 264–5, 269, 272 T-to-C 266 to the edge 180 tough- 53 unbounded; see Long distance very local 73 wh- 12, 48, 72, 75n, 166, 254, 257 successive cyclic 70 Name 35 proper 92 368 Subject Index Negation 9, 18, 239–43, 248, 252 Noi (Italian) overt non-clitic 283, 289 silent 283 Nominal; see NP Noun 61–7, 70, 125–6, 298 ambiguous 109 body part 35, 288 class 112–16, 119 collective 83, 109, 178–80, 188, 279 abstract 111 common 312–13 count 82, 124 extended projection 60–1, 64, 69, 71, 77, 81 mass 82, 124 proper 312–14 subject 109–10, 112, 116, 119–20 Nous (French) 280–2 non-clitic 276, 280 object clitic 276, 280 reflexive clitic 281 silent 278–81, 285 subject clitic 276, 280–1 NP 61, 125, 128–33, 136, 140, 189–90 -adjunction 294n appositive 203 attributive 203 bare 199, 310–11, 317, 320–1, 326–7 definite 312 existential 312 kind 312 definite 136 human 312, 314 indefinite 130–3, 135–7, 160–1, 175–8, 185–6, 188–90, 191n, 251–2, 301, 306–8 inanimate 154–5, 121 modified 301 non-divisible 251 postverbal 143, 151 preverbal 143–4, 146 Number 14, 80, 101, 108–10, 113, 125–9, 137, 203n, 311–12, 314 abstract dual 82–3 grammatical 109, 120 indeterminate 106, 109 interpretable 81n notional 104, 109–11, 120 plural 82–3, 146 singular 82–3, 146 subject 104, 107, 120–1 uninterpretable 81 Numeral 61–7, 70, 77, 129, 311–12 Numeration 4–5, 10, 181, 183, 242 Numerosity; see Expression, cardinality Object 8, 38, 47, 53, 54n, 101n, 111–12, 138, 143 direct 140, 154n, 209–11, 212n, 258 embedded 56 indirect 154n, 196n, 209–10, 258 logical 52 of preposition 52, 276 On (French) first person plural 276–8, 281 generic 277, 280 indefinite 280, 282 Only 243–4, 252–3 Operator 54, 248, 263 aspectual 236 focus 86n iterative 237n, 243 lambda (Ỵ) 177 modality 6n temporal 236 Parameter 84n, 183–4 Head-initial 211 Optional Polysynthesis 117 Parenthetical 76n Parsing 138, 146, 174 Participle 194 present 199–200, 210, 280; see also Tense, present participle Parsing 111, 140, 155 strategy 139 Passive 8, 52, 117 Periphery left 12, 291, 293, 299, 302–3, 306–7 Person 81, 314 first plural 283–4, 286 silent 277, 290 PF interface 179, 183, 189, 191, 247 movement 177–8, 180, 185–9 Phase 4, 10, 12, 16–17, 41, 177–84, 186, 189–91 Impenetrability Condition; see Condition Phase Impenetrability root 10n strong 182 Subject Index Phonotactic rule 106 Phrase aplicative 217 benefactive 225 comitative 225, 231n functional 255 headless 72n instrument 225 intervening 213 measure 264 probing 25–45 prosodic 182, 189 Pied-piping 7, 71, 73, 76, 78 Plural 113–15, 123–37, 178, 280, 315 irregular 106, 113 silent first person 276–92 Plurality 21, 310–27 Position checking 25 clause-initial 242, 302n clause-final 242 sentence-initial 255, 271 Possessive 166, 286–9 Possessor 224 Postposition 74–5, 221 Pragmatic halo 321 Predicate 81n adjectival 215–16, 230 ergative 216 evaluative 216, 218–19, 230 experiencer 216, 218–19 fronting 189, 303 homogeneous time 235, 239–45, 247–8 likely 185–8 modal 218–19 non-homogeneous time 239, 247–8 psych(ological) 215, 220–1, 223 stative 218 stative 239 unaccusative 216, 234 unergative 216, 234 Predication 50, 307 Preposition 17, 74, 75n, 76, 195–200, 202, 207–8, 213–14 contentful 196 contentless 213 empty 197, 199, 247n locative 196, 199 Prepositional Phrase 194–202; see also Phrase participant 225–6 369 Presupposition 143, 167 maximality 314, 316 uniqueness 314, 316 Principle of Full Interpretation; see Full Interpretation Probe 6, 8–9, 10n, 11, 12, 17, 26, 27–8, 36–7, 44–5 Pro-drop Language 88, 104, 111–13, 117–18, 120 Production 108, 110, 116 speech; see Speech Progressive 108, 198, 200 Projection activation 300 extended 293, 296n, 299 functional 70–2 Principle 2, 17 Prolepsis 56 Promotion analysis 254, 301 Pronoun 20, 25–45, 96n, 104, 109–10, 160, 162, 165, 169n, 313–14 bound 49, 169 e-type 168–9 emphatic 35 empty; see Null free 117 intervening 12 nominative 94 non-nominative 94 null 12, 20, 54, 179 object 35 personal 26, 28, 32 referential 32, 138 relative 139–42 resumptive 16, 54–6, 59, 159, 163, 168–9, 173 silent 279, 282n, 283, 285–6 strong 164n, 170, 276, 286, 289 Proposition 10, 20, 168, 182, 186, 190 Quantification 167 universal 222 Quantifier 8n, 77, 129, 160, 164, 176–7, 189–92, 248–50, 311 absolute 248–9, 252 cardinal 166 decreasing 243–5, 248, 250–2 dual 304 float 76n, 299–300 floating 277–80, 283 negative 71 370 Subject Index Quantifier (cont.) universal 160–1, 164, 166–8, 170, 173, 176, 189, 192 restriction 167, 189–90 strong 189 vague 248–9, 252 Question distributed 52 how-come 266–7 multiple wh- 51 object 151 subject 118, 120, 151 tag 256–7, 260 wh- 117–20, 184, 266–7 wh-in-situ yes/no 266–7 QP 49–50 Raising 56, 313 construction 178–80, 185–6, 191–2, 216 long NP- 72 noun 313 predicate 176 quantifier-(QR) 16, 17, 166, 175, 180–1, 189–92 subject 52 super- 53 Reading; see Interpretation Realization Alternative 199n, 200, 213 Reanalysis 139, 141–2, 144–5, 153 Reconstruction 12, 15–17, 46, 49–51, 58, 70, 73n, 138, 159–74, 185 A- 159n A′ - 159n binding 160–1, 163, 170, 176 copy theory of 16 partial 50, 176 scope 160–1 total 16, 175–80, 184–9 Reduction phonological 110 Reference; see Interpretation Reflexive 11, 25–6, 28, 32–6, 38, 41–4, 176, 283, 288–9 Relativization; see Clause, relative Relativized Minimality 9n Restrictive Elliptical Appositive; see Appositive, Restrictive Elliptical Resumption 12, 16, 46–7, 53–6, 58–9, 159, 162–5, 169 strong 164n, 170–2 weak 170–2 Rheme Role agent 226 auxiliary theta 226 benefactive 195 cause 195, 229 condition 195 instrument 195 locative goal 229 non-agentive cause 226 patient 226 recipient goal 229 theta 142, 144, 152–5, 226, 232–3 Root 26, 28–32, 36, 38 verb 114 Scopal property Scope 8n, 12, 16, 72n, 159–61, 166, 175, 178, 188–91, 243 Select 3n Sentence copular 307 generic 277 locative 290 reflexive 286 there- Shrinking 67–71, 72n Si (Italian) 282–3, 287–8, 290 impersonal 282–3, 286, 292n reflexive 284–6 Silent category 277n, 278, 279n, 280–2, 285–7, 290–1 Specifier 10n, 60 right 70 Specificity 92, 175 Speech spontaneous 107 Spell-Out 4, 7, 10, 16, 82, 86, 112, 175, 182, 184 non-simultaneous 175–93 State 109 Stativity 240–1, 252 Stranding 73, 76 preposition 74, 75n Stress sentential 182 shift 86 Subject Index Stretching 67–71, 73–8 Strong Minimalist Thesis (SMT) Structure conceptual 261 coordinate 260–3 paratactic 260–2 roll-up 72–3 syntactic 261 Subcategorization 195, 198 Subinterval 238, 41, 243–4, 249 Subjacency 269 Subject 38–9, 41–2, 52, 53, 54n, 77, 82–3, 99, 101n, 105, 109–11, 116, 127, 130, 136, 138, 143, 144n, 153, 154n, 177–8, 198, 211, 312 collective 279 genitive 87 indefinite 137 nominative 87, 228 non-nominative 87, 94–6 null 99, 128, 133n overt 117 post-posed 110, postverbal 7n, 15, 112, 146–7, 151 preverbal 15, 119, 144n, 146–7, 151, 303n quirky 7n, 216n, 228 Subnumeration 271–4 Subordinator 302 Superiority effects 51–2 Superlative 166, 259 Suppletion 81 Syncretism 289–92 Syntax narrow 4, 7, 11 Target of agreement 6, 11, 14 Telicity 230–1, 252 Temporal modifier; see Modifier, temporal Tense 5, 14, 87–90, 95, 101, 105 compound 118 generic 108 gerund 280 past 108 present 110, 241, 316 Test comprehension 106, 108 production 106 That-trace effect 266–7 371 Theme incremental 250–2 Theta; see also Role, Theta Criterion System 217, 226–9, 234 theory 17 Time event 235–7, 240–2, 245–8, 250–2 habitual 237, 245, 249, 252 interval 235–8, 252–3 iterative 237, 242, 245–7, 249, 252 modal 237–8 operator 237 perfect 237 reference 235–7, 240–5, 248, 250, 252–3 result 237, 245–6 speech 235–6 Topic 8, 117, 119 contrastive 224, 242 non-contrastive 224 Topicalization 12, 92, 110, 159, 201, 254, 257, 268 Trace 68, 71, 138–41, 144n, 177 of long movement 69–70 Type; see Interpretation, type Unify 3n Unique Checking Constraint 87n Universal 20 60–79 V-2 (verb-second) 12, 57, 72, 302n, 305 V-shell 268 Valuation 7–9, 11, 14–15, 17, 27, 33, 36–7, 40, 194–214 category feature 208, 211, 213–14 feature 208–12 Variability Delay Hypothesis 15, 128–9, 133, 137 Variable 160 bound; see Reading, bound variable complex 168 individual 167 Variation Model 129 Verb 57, 104–5, 106, 109–10, 125, 140, 302n bridge 268 causative; see Causative compound 119 control 155, 185–6 eventive 316 existential 130 finite 85n, 98–9, 280 372 Subject Index Verb (cont.) inflected 90, 95, 99 intensional 190 motion 218 non-bridge 57 non-finite 85n, 179, 186 of mental emergence 218, 223, 225, 228 psychological; see Predicate, Psych(ological)raising 99, 105, 155, 185–6, 215–16, 220 transitive 8, 121, 140n unaccusative 216–17, 230 unergative 216, 230 Viewpoint 232n external 220n internal 220n Whagreement; see Agreement constituent 176 fronting 201n island constraint question; see Question, whstructure 159, 161–4 word 47–8, 51n, 201n Word 101, 106 formation 26, 28–30, 32 interrogative 6n order 2, 10, 12–13, 60–79, 85n, 101, 112, 139–41, 257, 268 prosodic 182 X-2 57