Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu nay!!! Title Pages Title Pages (p.i) (p.ii) (p.iii) Paradigms in Phonological Theory Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics Paradigms in Phonological Theory General editors David Adger, Queen Mary College London; Hagit Borer, University of Southern California Advisory editors Stephen Anderson, Yale University; Gennaro Chierchia, University of Milan; Rose-Marie Dechaine, University of British Columbia; Elan Dresher, University of Toronto; James Higginbotham, University of Southern California; Pat Keating, University of California, Los Angeles; Ruth Kempson, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London; James McCloskey, University of California, Santa Cruz; Gillian Ramchand, University of Oxford; Maria-Luisa Zubizarreta, University of Southern California Page of Title Pages This series provides a forum for cutting-edge work in theoretical linguistics Its focus is on the interfaces between the subcomponents of grammar and between grammar and other components of the mind PUBLISHED The Syntax of Silence Sluicing, Islands, and the Theory of Ellipsis by Jason Merchant Questions and Answers in Embedded Contexts by Utpal Lahiri Phonetics, Phonology, and Cognition edited by Jacques Durand and Bernard Laks The Syntax–Pragmatics Interface Concept Formation and Verbal Underspecification in Dynamic Syntax by Lutz Marten The Unaccusativity Puzzle Explorations of the Syntax–Lexicon Interface edited by Artemis Alexiadou, Elena Anagnostopoulou, and Martin Everaert IN PREPARATION Tense, Mood, and Aspect edited by Alessandra Giorgi, James Higginbotham, and Fabio Pianesi The Ecology of English Noun–Noun Compounding by Ray Jackendoff The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Interfaces Page of Title Pages edited by Gillian Ramchand and Charles Reiss [published in association with the series] (p.iv) Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dares Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan South Korea Poland Portugal Singapore Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Editorial matter and organization Downing, Hall, and Raffelsiefen © The several contributors and in this collection, Page of Title Pages Laura J Downing, T A Hall, and Renate Raffelsiefen, 2005 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2005 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organizations Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Paradigms in Phonological Theory / edited by Laura J Downing, T A Hall, and Renate Raffelsiefen p cm – (Oxford studies in theoretical linguistics; 8) Includes bibliographical references and index I Grammar, Comparative and general–Verb Grammar, Comparative and general–Phonology Morphology I Downing, Laura J Page of Title Pages II Hall, T A III Raffelsiefen, Renate IV Series P381.U53 2003 415’.6–dc22 2003060967 ISBN 0–19–926771–5 (pbk) ISBN 0–19–926770–7 (hbk) 10 Typeset in Adobe Garamond by Peter Kahrel Ltd., Lancaster Page of Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics General Preface (p.vii) Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics General Preface (p.vii) The theoretical focus of this series is on the interfaces between subcomponents of the human grammatical system and the closely related area of the interfaces between the different subdisciplines of linguistics The notion of ‘interface’ has become central in grammatical theory (for instance, in Chomsky’s recent Minimalist Program) and in linguistic practice: work on the interfaces between syntax and semantics, syntax and morphology, phonology and phonetics etc has led to a deeper understanding of particular linguistic phenomena and of the architecture of the linguistic component of the mind/brain The series will cover interfaces between core components of grammar, including syntax/morphology, syntax/semantics, syntax/phonology, syntax/pragmatics, morphology/phonology, phonology/phonetics, phonetics/speech processing, semantics/ pragmatics, intonation/discourse structure as well as issues in the way that the systems of grammar involving these interface areas are acquired and deployed in use (including language acquisition, language dysfunction, and language processing) It will demonstrate, we hope, that proper understandings of Page of Oxford Studies in Theoretical Linguistics General Preface (p.vii) particular linguistic phenomena, languages, language groups, or inter-language variations all require reference to interfaces The series is open to work by linguists of all theoretical persuasions and schools of thought A main requirement is that authors should write so as to be understood by colleagues in related subfields of linguistics and by scholars in cognate disciplines We are pleased to present the eighth volume in the series, which is a collection of papers on the notion of paradigm uniformity—the levelling effect morphological paradigms have on the phonology of their individual members This phenomenon has become important in the development of new theoretical approaches within Optimality Theory and the volume illustrates the explanatory potential of these approaches across a range of languages The collection aims to provide a theoretical and empirical grounding for future work on the interrelationship between paradigms and phonological representations David Adger Hagit Borer Page of (p.viii) Abbreviations (p.viii) Abbreviations ACL Association for Computational Linguistics BLS Proceedings, Berkeley Linguistics Society CLS Proceedings, Chicago Linguistics Society DM Distributed Morphology ESCOL Eastern States Conference on Linguistics GA Gradient Attraction GTT Generalized Template Theory MA Metrical Alignment MC Metrical Consistency MWF Metrical Well-Formedness NDEB Non Derived Environment Blocking NELS Page of (p.viii) Abbreviations Proceedings, Northeastern Linguistics Society OP Optimal Paradigms OT Optimality Theory PC Paradigm Contrast PES Principles of English Stress (Burzio 1994a) PU Paradigm uniformity REH Representational Entailments Hypothesis ROA Rutgers Optimality Archive SPE Sound Pattern of English (Chomsky and Halle 1968) SSG Sonority Sequencing Generalization SWP Stress to Weight Principle TCT Transderivational Correspondence Theory UE Uniform Exponence UR Underlying Representation VOT Voice onset time WCCFL West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics WSCLA Workshop on the Structure and Constituency of the Languages of the Americas Page of (p.331) Index paradigm uniformity (PU) and 226–7, 228, 233–4, 238n, 246, 248 n, 250n, 254 Russian 13, 151 ‘proper nesting’ constraint 216n prosodic categories 217 phonetic grounds of 227 Prosodic Consistency Criterion 261 prosodic contrasts 227, 233 prosodic domination 236 prosodic fusion 231, 242n prosodic hierarchy 216, 217 prosodic properties 215, 241 prosodic representations 226, 255 prosodic structures 177, 189, 192, 215, 218, 219, 225, 231, 232n, 238, 241, 246, 248, 249, 254, 256 and syntactic structures 219 mapping in 217 of words 225–6 stems in 241 prosody 190, 228, 229, 236, 240 boundaries in 236, 247 and morphology 16, 214; constituents in 216 in English morphology 224–37 consistency in 244–6, 256, 261 domains in 216 English 218 morphology in 177, 178, 187 neutralization in 261 of compounds 225 organization in 214 words in 220, 220n of English 254; prefixed 226, 227, 229 prothesis 189 pstems 131, 131n, 132, 133, 135, 141, 143 psycholinguistics, neighbourhood effects in 79 psychologically motivated analogical changes see analogical Pulgram, E 261n ‘push chains’ 150 changes, psychologically motivated pwords 142, 142n, 214–18, 219n, 223, 227, 228, 259, 262n and syntactic boundaries 217n, 218, 219, 221 boundaries 235, 236n, 246, 249 Page 34 of 48 (p.331) Index external syllables in 239 feet and 239 final: boundary effects 245; codas, phonetics of 252; consonants 223, 224n, 233, 238, 251–2 fusion in 230 in adjectives 246 in English 224 in verbs 246 of the stems 219, 234, 235 prefixes in 226 pretonic syllables in 222; see also syllables stress in 220 structures of 221, 224, 235, 245 affixations 232n suffixes in 233 syllables in 220 voiceless ambisyllabic consonants in 247 Raffelsiefen, R 9, 16, 108, 146, 149, 173, 175, 200, 212, 212n, 224, 224n, 226, 229, 236, 236n, 239, 239n, 243n ‘readjustment rules’ 92–3 Rebrus, P 268, 270n, 271n, 293n M Törkenczy 151, 250 recursion formalism 12 reduction 150–2, 153, 156, 300; see also Salish languages, vowels reduplicants in 9, 307 reduplication 177, 207, 307 in Optimality Theory (OT) 206 in schwa see Salish languages, schwa in morphology 177 of words 298, 303 parallels 175 phonology interactions 206 Repp, B H 72 ‘Representational Entailments Hypothesis’ (REH): constraints in 75 paradigm uniformity (PU) and 74–7, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 92, 98, 102, 104, 105–6 representations 81n, 83, 84, 86, 92, 105, 106, 186, 214, 224, 227, 240 entailments in 90–1, 97 Page 35 of 48 (p.331) Index in semantics 98 morpho-syntactic 129, 134 neighboring 79 space in 78 (p.345) time 79–80 uniform interaction in 78 rhotacism: constraints in 21 Latin 30n, 36n in Latin 17, 19, 30, 30n nominative case 19 in suffixes 18 rhymes 212, 246n of words 213 structure 223, 232 superheavy 223 trimoraic 224n, 249n ‘rhythm rule’ 236n Rialland, A 256, 257, 257n, 258n, 260, 261 richness of the base 11, 180, 181, 182 Roca, J 65, 66, 197n Romance languages 226n first conjugation in 95 nouns in 36 stress in 65–6 root-and-pattern morphology 81, 177, 131 roots 300 priority of 312 and paradigm uniformity 296–312 Rose, S 200 Rosenthall, S 200 Rubach, J 9, 146, 197, 197n rule 187 based phonolgy 1, 8, 206 generative phonology see phonology, rule-based generative in Latin grammar 32, 34 induction 24–7 ordering 1, 6, and the cycle 1, phonology 201 Russell, K 51 Page 36 of 48 (p.331) Index Russian 13, 147, 150–2, 156, 168, 169 cyclic model in 13 phonology of 13 pronunciation 13 verbs in 13 Sagey, E 81n Salish languages (BC, Canada) 264, 298–312 ablaut in 304, 305 allomorphy in 300, 304, 305 alternations in 297–8 constraints 303, 307, 308 clash avoidance 303, 311; rankings 309 derivational theory 309–12 faithfulness constraints 302–3, 306, 308 glottalization in 304 Halkomelem 299, 302–4, 308n, 311 Upriver 297–8 Halq’eméylem 298–300, 305 Hul’q’umi’num’ 298, 299, 300n, 304, 310–n schwa reduction 301; stress in 301 markedness constraints 302–3, 306, 308 optimal paradigms in 309–12 OP-Faith 303, 306, 308, 308n Optimality Theory (OT) in 311–12 Output–Output correspondence 308n paradigm uniformity (PU) in 303–5, 309 paradigms 302–3, 305, 307, 308, 309, 311–12 aspectual 308; object agreement 300, 302, 307, 308, 310 reduplication in 304–5, 307–8, 311 roots/stems in 298–302, 304, 305, 312 root priority 309 schwa in 298–306, 310 reduction 310; stress 304, 309, 310 suffixes in 300, 311 lexical 310 vowels 304–6, 309–12 reduction 303, 306, 310, 311; root 308; stress in 299, 310 words in 304–5 Sanders, N 188n Sanskrit 69 Page 37 of 48 (p.331) Index Schane, S 260 Scherer, J Schmidt, J Schuchardt, H schwa 14, 151, 157, 158, 160, 162, 163 see also under Salish languages in English 145–6 loss 256, 257, 257n, 258, 258n, 259, 260, 261 paradigm uniformity (PU) and 203, 208, 236n, 243n, 244n, 246, 252n, 256, 257, 257n, 259–60 violations of 244 ‘second law of analogy’ (Kurylowicz) 95–6 segmental neutralizations see neutralizations, segmental Selkirk, E O 109, 158, 172, 213, 216, 229, 235, 250n semantics 5n, 84, 128n, 243, 244, 256 affinity in 244, 244n and local markedness 39 dissociation in 256 drifts in 244, 249 naturalness in 37 representations in 98 shortening, in Latin 19 Semitic languages 81, 178 morphology in 45, 81 sequences, illegal 26, 26n in nouns 30 word boundaries in 30 Shaw, P et al 299, 303 Shere, T 183 Sievers, E Silverman, D 107 (p.346) simplexes 8, 171 paradigm uniformity (PU) and 214, 215, 217, 218, 221, 227, 227n, 230, 241, 241n, 242, 245, 246, 247, 248, 255, 261 phonetics of 258 polysyllabic 245 Siptár, P and M Törkenczy 268 Skutsch, O 17n Smolensky, P, L Davidson and P Jusczyk 26n Soh, H.-L 150 sonorants; see also obstruents coronal 126 de-stressing 188 Page 38 of 48 (p.331) Index Hebrew 54 Latin 17 sonority 202–3, 203n, 204, 205, 208n, 221, 252n Sonority Sequencing Generalization (SSG) see Hebrew sound: changes, theory of 1, 2, exceptionless of 2; numerals 5n features 243 in verbs 178n, 200 laws properties 211, 218, 243, 244, 245, 261 shape of words structures 246 Sound Pattern of English, The (Chomsky and Halle) Spaelti, P 178n, 307 Spanish 65–6, 71, 95, 106, 149n, 150n, 172n affixes in 147 allomorphy in 147 lexicon 149n nouns 65–6 paradigm uniformity in 149 stress 65–7 syllables in 147–8 verbs 65–6 spatio-temporal proximity 81, 81n SPE theory 6, 146, 170, 263 speech 37 articulation in careful 247, 259, 258n pronunciation of 258 casual 246, 247, 256 fast 246 register, sensitivity to 246–7 sounds 214 pronunciations of 247 Speiser, E A 207 spelling 232, 252n, 253, 256 Spencer, A 174 spirantization 130–3, 136, 137, 140, 154, 207n see Hebrew, fricatives causative doubling 143–4; see also causative doubling in Bantu languages 137n of consonants 123, 137 Page 39 of 48 (p.331) Index stem-final 239n s ~ r alternations, in Latin 17–18 Stampe, D 181 ‘Stampean occultation’ 181, 189 stem-final consonants see consonants, stem-final stems 7, 95, 97n, 98, 99, 100, 138 see also under bound stems; free stems; Hungarian; pstems; verbs Salish languages, roots/stems; words base and 297 bound 91–2, 93 causative see causative, stems metrical consistency of 101 morphology of 130 mwords and 143 of nouns 179, 180 of verbs 180 of words 242, 265 optimal paradigms (OP) in 172, 173, 173n, 174, 176, 178, 200, 203, 205, 207 paradigm uniformity (PU) 228, 232, 233 n, 236, 240, 241n, 244, 261 stress 101, 230n templates 184n uniformity of 94 Steriade, D 9, 12, 16, 18, 22n, 52, 62, 68, 69, 71, 102, 107, 108, 109, 110, 114, 116, 121, 123, 137, 147, 150, 213, 214, 257, 258, 258n, 260, 261–2, 262n, 263, 264, 265, 267n Stojkove, S 152 stops 25, 107–21, 245, 246, 247, 260 aspiration in 110–12110–11, 121 and non-final 110–11; and word-final dactyls 110–11, 121 foot-initial 112–13 unaspirated 119 voiceless 110–12, 117 Strata OT 197, 197n Strauss, S 197 stress 68, 70, 100, 153, 157, 159, 161–2, 166, 168, 173n, 227–8, 237–8, 239n, 246, 259, 267n see also English, stress in; Italian, stress in constraint 121, 190 in allomorphy 101 analysis of 10 identity 11 Page 40 of 48 (p.331) Index in suffixation 243 neutrality 218 of verbs 95 patterns 190, 215 schwa 14 in English 145–6 shift 218 stems 101 violations 219 (p.347) stress-behavior 220, 240 stress-neutrality 219, 237, 239 vowel-initial suffixes in 220 stress-related diagnostics 222 stress shift 236, 236n, 239 –40 Stress to Weight Principle (SWP) 190–2, 192n, 193, 193n, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199 stressed vowels 233, 246; see also vowels stressless: syllables 211, 236n, 239n; see also syllables stems of 230 vowels 234 Strict Layer Hypothesis 216, 216n structure: identity of, in Hebrew see Hebrew, structure, identity of Struijke, C 178n, 303, 307 sub-paradigm see paradigm, sub subgrammars 27–8, 31, 33 forms in 27 in Latin 31 rules with confidence values 31 rules in 27–8 metrics of subphonemes 260; see also phonemes Sudanese Arabic 71 suffixation 231–2, 233, 236, stress in 243 suffixed words 212, 231, 247, 254n suffixes 8, 82, 97, 100, 127, 300 see also under affixes; dentalization; Hungarian; Jita; prefixes; Salish languages causative 126 stems 124 class Page 41 of 48 (p.331) Index derivational 7, 123 English 224 forms, rhotacism in Latin 17, 18 Hungarian 266, 268 Latin 29 nouns 33 inflectional junction characteristics of 232n optimal paradigms (OP) in 176, 179, 180n, 181, 182, 184, 185, 187, 191, 195, 199, 201, 203, 217, 218, 230n, 233, 234, 234n, 235, 237, 239, 239n, 173n, 174, 174n, 240, 240n, 242n, 243–4, 249, 256, 265, 279n paradigm uniformity (PU) 153, 154, 155, 158, 214, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166 phonology of 240 in Jita 137 Spanish 147 stress of 99 syntactic representation of 219 suffixing inflection 182 superfoot see dactyls, sequences in superheavy syllables 180–1, 181n, 183, 184; see also syllables markedness of 182 surface: exceptions forms 85, 87, 172, 212, 264 base-priority and 312; outputs prosody 216 resemblance 170–2, 173, 187, 197–9, 214 shapes, of words 263 stem-finals 186 Suttles, W 299, 305 Swedish 234n syllabification 189, 267n domains of 254, 258 in French 259, 261n lexical versus phonetic 251 onset, of consonants 238 paradigm uniformity (PU) and 220, 221, 222, 224n, 228-22, 231n, 234, 260 syllable-conditioned: allophony 252 Page 42 of 48 (p.331) Index phonetics 252 syllable-structures 257, 258, 259, 260 diagnostics 221 syllables 8, 111, 157, 215, 220, 220n, 223, 224, 234, 248, 257, 259 count of 257 faith-stressed 52–3 flapping in 121 in Latin 17n intitial consonants 214 loss of 257 onset 221 optimal paradigms (OP) and 160, 162, 168, 170, 177, 181–3, 187, 188–92, 194, 197, 199, 200, 202, 202n, 204, 261 positions, final 246 Spanish 147–8 stressed 119, 221 structure of 246n symbols, in phonology 73–4 symmetry 171 approach 13–15 ‘Sympathy Theory (McCarthy) 71 synchronic phonology 16, 107–8, 172 syncopes 100, 157, 159, 160–1, 162, 164n, 166, 191, 191n, 192 syncretism 101, 104n, 105 in morphology; see morphology, leveling in syntactic structures and prosodic structures 219 syntax: classification of 229 distinctions in 258 minimalism 178 representations in 241 structures in 226 (p.348) words 235 syntax–prosody: interfaces 213 mapping 216, 241 Szpyra, J 215, 217n, 219, 220, 229 Tagalog 135 tautosyllables 11, 201 templates 177–8, 179, 188–97 foot-based 178 stems 184n Page 43 of 48 (p.331) Index syllable-and-mora 178 of templates 186 satisfaction, condition of 117 verb stem 184 tensing rule 249, 249n vowels 244; see also vowels Tesar, B and P Smolensky 173 Tiberian Hebrew 45, 48, 56–64, 59, 59n, 60, 60n, 61–4, 207, 207n, 208; see also Colloquial Hebrew; Hebrew fricatives in 57, 59n imperative paradigms 57–64 jussive in 207–8 prefixes in 48 schwa 57 structure, identity of 57 truncation in 59, 63 Tibetan 221, 222 Tiersma, P 39 ‘tightness’ of associations see paradigms, associations time representations see representations, time Tobler, L token frequencies 31, 37, 39 of paradigm members 38–9 Tokyo Japanese 207n Tranel, B 95 Transderivational correspondence theory (TCT) (Benua) 9, 11– 13, 134, 139, 141–4, 171, 172, 172, 173, 174, 188, 207, 207n, 240 transitivity effects see entailments, transitivity effects in Triebe : ‘forces’ in languages triconsonantal clusters 185, 203, 204 Trigrad dialect 152 trochaic foot see foot structure Trubetzkoy, N 213, 213n truncations 12n, 252, 253; see also Hebrew, Colloquial correspondence in 251 cyclicity in 11n opacity in 11n, 12n Page 44 of 48 (p.331) Index phonology of 253 words 253 Turkish paradigm 44 Umeda, N and C H Coker 211, 214, 221 underapplication see overapplication v underapplication ‘Underlying Representation’ (UR) 84, 85–6, 87, 101, and allomorphy 70 unflapping see flapping Uniform Exponence (UE) 13, 21, 47, 172, 172n, 173, 188n, 264n constraints 41; see also constraints Korean 40 Latin 17n, 19–20, 21 violation 19 uniform paradigms see paradigm uniformity (PU) universal: distinctiveness 261 grammar 177 Upriver Halkomelem see Salish languages Urbanczyk, S 14, 178n, 181, 299, 303, 305, 307, 308 U.S.Salish languages English see American English Ussishkin, A 178, 178n Vago, R M 268 van Dam, M and P Weaver 110 van de Weijer, J 173 van der Hulst, H 233n van Marle, J 44, 45, 47 van Oostendorp, M 197n, 303 Vaux, B 117 vectors see representations, time velar nasal 240 phonology of 243 Vennemann, T 5, 212 verbal paradigms 186 inflections, in Hungarian 268–170 verbs 3, 13 see also under Hebrew; Hungarian; inflectional prefixes; sound; Spanish base 75–6, 104 causative stems of 134 clusters of 207 morphology in 13 optimal paradigms (OT) in 170, 179, 193, 195, 200, 202, 203, 204, 204n, 207, 228, 243, 247 Page 45 of 48 (p.331) Index paradigm uniformity (PU) of 95, 96, 97, 97n, 99–100, 151, 153, 154, 162, 164, stems 180, 188, 192, 203 and vowels 187; templates 184 stress of 95 tenses future 13; imperative 12–13 unstressed syllables in Vietnamese 236 vocabulary 102–3 (p.349) voiced ambisyllabic consonants 247; see also consonants voiced fricatives 247; see also fricatives voiced obstruents see obstruents, voiced voiceless: ambisyllabic consonants 247 fricatives, in American English 117 stops 25, 109, 112, 121; see also English, voiceless stops aspiration in 110–12; and word-final dactyls 110–11, 121; and non-final 110–11 voicing 230 agreements in 26 in Latin 30 measures 78 obstruents in 7; see also obstruents vowel-initial: morphemes 261, 262 suffixes 233 in German 247; nominal 239 words 222 vowel/zero alternations 186, 189, 190, 191n, 196, 199, 200, 204, 208 in verbs 200 vowels 4, 77–8, 89–90, 150, 150–1, 154–7, 159, 161, 166, 176, 267, 271 see also under English; epenthesis; Hungarian; lax; Salish languages allomorphy in 98–9 allophony in 254 Bulgarian reduction in 152–3 epenthesis in 185 German 6, 247 lengthening of Page 46 of 48 (p.331) Index Hebrew 62 Italian 88 lengthening of 181, 185n, 216, 245, 249n, 280n long 186, 198– optimal paradigms (OP) 179, 180n, 183, 185, 191, 201, 202, 207, 208n, 209 paradigm uniformity (PU) 220, 235, 245, 248, 253, 255, 256, 257 shortening of 184 stems 187 stressed 221, 246 voiceless Walker, R 178n Webster’s ninth new collegiate dictionary (Webster) 227, 228, 231n Welden, A 166 Wells, J C 212, 214n, 226, 226n, 227, 228, 231n, 240, 242n Wetzels, L 30n Whitney, W D 2, 2n Wilbur, R 206 Wilson, C 71 Wiltschko, M 301 Withgott, M 108, 109, 112, 262n Word Faithfulness (Struijke) 303 word-final: consonants 222, 223n, 224 sonorants see sonorants, word-final word-formation, base for see base, for word-formation word-sized units 72–3 words 1, 3, 45, 113–14, 146 see also under English; function; head, function; Jita; Latin, nouns; morphology; mwords; phonology; pwords; Salish languages affixes 219n analogy of and clitics 234–5 embedding 146 in groups 5n lengths and genders 37 morphology, paradigm leveling in 24, 25, 31, 31, 39 optimal paradigms (OP) 170, 172, 173, 173n, 202 paradigm uniformity (PU) effects on 212, 213, 226n, 227, 229, 230, 231n, 240, 241, 242, 243, 254, 256, 260, 261, 261n, 263 Page 47 of 48 (p.331) Index prosodic properties of 31, 39, 113 reduplication of 303 related 13, 197–9 rule induction for 23–7 stems of 242, 265 stress patterns of 219 surface shapes of 263 truncations of 253 with defective paradigms 205n Wright, W 209, 210 Wunderlich, D 104 Wurzel, W U 6n Yawelmani 71, 184 Yiddish 37 Yidiji 215, 218, 230 modifiers in 217 Yip, M 51, 150 Yucatec Maya: obstruents in 72 Zec, D 203n Zhang, J 107 Zwicky, A 229 Page 48 of 48