The mental corpus: how language is represented in the mind

Tai ngay!!! Ban co the xoa dong chu The Mental Corpus This page intentionally left blank The Mental Corpus How Language is Represented in the Mind JOHN R TAYLOR Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York # John R Taylor 2012 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2012 All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by MPG Books Group, Bodmin and King’s Lynn ISBN 978–0–19–929080–2 10 Contents Conceptualizing language E-language and I-language Studying E-language—not such a simple matter! Corpora and their representativeness The BNC and linguistic experience The World Wide Web: a “fabulous linguists’ playground” 13 15 17 The dictionary and the grammar book: the generative model of linguistic knowledge 19 A rule-based approach to linguistic knowledge Subcategorization Selectional restrictions Agreement features The generative model in relation to data Explain me The lexicon Compounds Derived words Syntactic constructions Compositionality In conclusion Words and their behaviour Lexical categories Unique distribution of words Laps and bosoms Fun Pluralia tantum Much Verbs and their subcategorization Zero-complements Defective verbs In conclusion 22 24 26 26 26 28 32 35 36 37 40 42 44 45 48 51 54 57 58 62 64 66 68 vi Contents Idioms Semantic idioms Idiom variability Allusions to idioms Syntactic idioms the more the merrier him write a novel!? what about me? that idiot of a man that’ll teach you! what’s it doing raining? Phrasal idioms Minor (ir)regularities Speaking idiomatically Language and context of use Words and collocations Learning to speak idiomatically A case-study: X-minded Constructions Cognitive Grammar: some basic concepts Constructions Constructions or rules? Applying a rule: What kind of process is it? Constructions and the autonomy of syntax Collostructional analysis Acquisition Constructions all the way up? Frequency Chomsky on frequency: the Dayton Ohio argument Verb complements Words Collocations (again) Phonology Ambiguity resolution and garden path sentences Productivity Subjective estimates of frequency In conclusion 69 72 75 80 83 84 86 87 87 90 91 94 97 100 102 105 112 114 120 120 124 127 133 136 140 142 143 146 149 152 153 158 161 166 173 175 178 Contents Skewed frequencies as a design feature of language Skewed frequencies as an emergent property of language Markedness Categorization Skewed frequency as a design feature of language In conclusion Learning from input Phoneme acquisition Statistical learning Do listeners notice input features? The recency effect Recency and micro-learning In conclusion 10 Polysemy How many meanings? Opening and cutting; lumping and splitting Relatedness of meanings A single linguistic form? The story of over Polysemy and idealized cognitive models of language Word meanings In conclusion 11 Creativity and innovation Creativity Creativity and innovation Language change being busy explain me Idioms and their usage range: the case of all over In conclusion 12 Blending Blending theory Word blending Phrasal blending keeping an eye out ever since I can remember time and (time) again vii 179 180 182 185 194 194 196 196 202 206 208 212 216 219 220 223 228 230 233 238 241 243 245 246 249 250 252 256 257 262 263 263 266 269 272 272 273 viii Contents being as how I think that’s fair to say the most beautifulest girl in the world explain me this The blending of words and constructions In conclusion 273 274 275 276 276 278 13 The mental corpus 280 References Subject index Index of names 288 313 316 Conceptualizing language Readers of this book will probably be familiar with the following situation You are preparing a speech, a paper, or a report You remember having read something recently which would fit in beautifully with what you are now working on You would like to quote it, or at least include a reference to it The trouble is, you didn’t bookmark the page or highlight the passage in the margin And you don’t have the time or the inclination to re-read a 200-page book in search of a single quotation Fortunately, help may be at hand Although you cannot remember where in the book the passage occurred, you have a mental image of where on the page it was located, say, somewhere on the left-hand page, about one-third of the way down, a couple of lines into a new paragraph You page through the book, scanning the lefthand pages, glancing at the paragraphs beginning about a third of the way from the top Quite often the strategy works and in a matter of minutes you have located the passage More often than not, the passage does indeed turn out to be relevant to your current project Many people that I have discussed this with report experiences of this kind Sceptics, to be sure, might wonder whether there is any real effect here Perhaps we just remember the few successful outcomes of the strategy and suppress the numerous failures As a matter of fact, the reality of the ‘position of text on the page phenomenon’ has been confirmed experimentally (Lovelace and Southall 1983; Rothkopf 1971) Not only this, but memory for position on the page correlates with memory for content: readers who remember the content tend also to remember its location, and when we are denied the possibility of remembering location (as when we scroll down a text on a computer screen) our comprehension of the text may be hindered People who prefer to read documents in hard copy may have a point (O’Hara, Sellen, and Bentley 1999) Here, though, I want to emphasize some other aspects of the phenomenon It illustrates, firstly, the importance in our mental life of EPISODIC MEMORY, that is, our ability to recall specific episodes in the past, sometimes with great clarity, as well as our ability to recall INCIDENTAL features of a situation When you were reading that book several weeks ago, you were not planning the speech or the report that you are now working on; otherwise you would probably have underlined or highlighted the References 307 Rosenbach, Annette 2007 Exploring constructions in the web: A case study In Hundt, Nesselhauf, and Biewer (eds) (2007), 167–89 Ross, Brian H and Valarie S Makin 1999 Prototype versus exemplar models In R J Steinberg (ed.), The Nature of Cognition, 205–41 Cambridge, MA: MIT Press Rothkopf, Ernst Z 1971 Incidental memory for location of information in text Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10: 608–13 Rudzka-Ostyn, Brygida 2003 Word Power: Phrasal Verbs and Compounds: A Cognitive Approach Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Ruhl, Charles 1989 On Monosemy: A Study in Linguistic Semantics Albany, NY: State University of New York Press Ruwet, Nicolas 1982 Grammaire des insultes In Grammaire des insultes et autres études, 239–314 Paris: Éditions du Seuil ——1991 On the use and abuse of idioms in syntactic argumentation In Syntax and Human Experience, ed and trans John Goldsmith, 171–251 Chicago: University of Chicago Press Sachs, Jacqueline 1967 Recognition memory for syntactic and semantic aspects of connected discourse Perception and Psychophysics, 2: 437–42 ——1974 Memory in reading and listening to discourse Memory and Cognition, 2: 95–100 Saffran, Jenny R 2001a The use of predictive dependencies in language learning Journal of Memory and Language, 44: 493–515 ——2001b Words in a sea of sounds: The output of infant statistical leaning Cognition, 81: 149–69 ——2002 Constraints on statistical language learning Journal of Memory and Language, 47: 172–96 Saffran, Jenny R., Richard N Aslin, and Elissa L Newport 1996 Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants Science, New series, 274 (5294): 1926–8 Sampson, Geoffrey 1999 Educating Eve London: Cassell ——2007 Grammar without grammaticality Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 3: 1–32 Sandra, Dominiek and Sally Rice 1995 Network analyses of prepositional meaning: Mirroring whose mind—the linguist’s or the language user’s? 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Mu In Cuyckens, Dirven, and Taylor (eds) (2003), 447–94 Zwaan, Rolf 2004 The immersed experiencer: Toward an embodied theory of language comprehension In B H Ross (ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 35–62 New York: Academic Press Subject index acceptability judgement 2, 7, 18, 114, 166, 190, 216, 283 see also grammaticality judgement acquisition 8, 12, 48–50, 113–14, 129, 142–3, 214–6, 236–7, 285–6 of phonemes 193–204 active zone 225 adjective 46–7 comparative and superlative form 11, 56–7, 59, 208–9, 210, 212, 275 predicative vs attributive 47, 107, 108, 109, 115, 160, 209, 252 ambiguity 52, 69, 72, 73–4, 92, 128, 148, 167–72, 178, 221–3, 224, 231, 251, 283 anti-collocation 109 Bank of English 16, 108, 152 blend 140, 157, 246, 263–79 British National Corpus (BNC) 4, 13 et passim categorization 185–94 classical theory of 186–7 exemplar theory of 186–7, 286–7 see also prototpye category validity 187–91, 193 cloze procedure 181 coercion 26, 95, 220, 278, 279 Cognitive Grammar 21, 120–3, 125–7, 136–7, 173, 217, 241–2, 243 cognitive linguistics colligation 109, 141, 158 collocation 53, 81, 106–10, 112, 114, 140, 141, 148, 158–60, 174, 217, collostruction 140–2, 143, 266 colour 186, 199, 210 complementation 65, 152–3, 160–1, 173, 271, 278, 283 compound 35–6, 40, 115–8, 157 compound noun 168–9, 184, 265–6 compound verb 35, 36, 66–7 compositionality 40–2, 69, 70–2, 93, 94, 101, 130, 131–2, 224, 240, 250, 258, 259, 260, 265 construction 9, 37–40, 55, 59–60, 112, 120–45 et passim caused motion 192–3, 210, 276–9, 282 correlative 84–5, 284 ditransitive 25–6, 28–9, 31, 62, 142, 144, 175, 210, 211, 213, 256–7, 276, 278–9, 281 double-is 10 epithet 87–90 incredulity response 86–7 off with 38–40, 69, 84, 143, 281, 282 possessive 51, 53, 109, 139–40, 190, 191, 210, 282 transitive 139, 279, 282 what about 87, 258 WXDY 92–4, 284 constructional idiom 20, 84, 125, 126, 143, 250, 258 corpus 12, 27 et passim representativity of 13–15 Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 4, 13 et passim cranberry word 71, 78, 142, 189–90 creativity (in language) 5, 8, 9, 20–2, 23, 37, 40, 41, 78, 80, 133–4, 157, 227, 229, 240, 245–62, 263, 279, 285 C-test 181 cue validity 187–90 derivation 35, 36–7, 157, 258 dictionary plus grammar book model See generative model disambiguation 168–9 314 Subject index drift 131–2, 173 domain 97, 137, 228, 242–3, 260 E-language 4–13, 14, 106, 148–50, 181, 280, 283 entrenchment 21, 89, 119, 122, 130–1, 134, 135, 174, 175, 177, 182, 212, 213, 217, 243, 248, 271, 283, 285, 286 episodic memory 1, 286 epithet 87–90 expletive 87, 92 formulaic language 9, 112–3, 133, 247–8 frequency 2, 3, 106, 146–78 et passim subjective estimates of 75, 175–7 of idioms 16–17, 74–5, 78, 177 of phonemes 147, 161–4 of words 12–13, 18, 130, 153–8, 167 garden path sentence 169–72 generalization 3–4, 9, 37, 48, 50, 62, 63–5, 78, 97–9, 143, 173, 187, 204, 263, 284–5 see also schema, sanction generative model 8, 19–42, 44–5, 84, 100, 128, 142, 240, 245–6, 249–51, 257 grammaticality 5, 7, 10, 27–8, 111, 123, 148–50, 166, 216, 257 judgement 10, 23, 26–8, 30–2, 148, 215–6 see also acceptability judgement hapax legomenon 156, 174 hedge 59–61, 132, 274 homonymy 51, 223, 229–30, 236 Idealized Cognitive Model (ICM) 238–40 idiom 16–17, 20, 69–99, 111–12, 177 et passim idiomaticity 2, 70, 84, 101, 112, 282–3, 285 idiom principle 110–11 idiom schema 78–80, 83 I-language 4–13, 106, 148, 150, 181, 216, 280, 283, 285 innovation 9, 11, 83, 105, 133, 134, 173–4, 237, 245–62, 263, 265, 267, 270, 271–3, 274, 277, 279, 286 International Corpus of English 15 interrogative 31, 59, 60, 66, 91–4, 126, 139, 214, 257 see also wh-extraction, wh-word introspection 7, 10, 53, 113 intuitions 2, 5, 7, 10–11, 15, 23, 27–32, 118, 150, 175, 216, 229, 249 see also acceptability judgement, grammaticality judgement, introspection learnability 142, 179–80, 185, 193–4, 196 lexical category 24, 34–5, 44–8, 137–40, 236 lexical decision task 129–30, 148 LOB corpus 148 markedness 179, 182–5 metaphor 51, 53, 54, 79, 80, 84, 98, 129, 136, 210, 228, 233, 236, 237, 249, 258, 263, 272, 276, 278 conceptual 72–3, 95, 175, 261 metonymy 228, 251, 272 minimal pair 199–200 monitoring 130–1 motivation 70, 82, 85, 152, 252, 274, 284–5 neutralization 184 noticing 214 noun 46, 137–8 count 25, 32, 45, 50, 70, 89, 95, 127, 129, 146, 278, 279, 281 gender 147, 206 mass 25, 38, 54–5, 89, 95, 230–1, 278, 279, 281 plural 11, 57–8, 129, 133–4, 154, 155, 183, 234 singular 129, 154 Oxford Hector Pilot Corpus 16 part of speech see lexical category particle 47, 70, 140, 164, 165, 210, 212, 223 passive 31–2, 48 past participle, ambiguity of 170–1 phoneme, psychological reality of 205 Subject index phonology 33, 40, 41, 45, 121–3, 124, 125, 132, 135, 138, 146, 148, 161–6, 196–208, 212, 230, 231–2, 286 phrasal verb 70, 112, 140, 234 phrase structure rule 24, 40–1, 62, 127, 281 polysemy 42, 168, 219–44, 276, 281 tests for 221–3 poverty of the stimulus preposition 38, 46–7, 49, 51–4, 70, 97–9, 109, 281, 282 compound 35 polysemy of 234–8 priming 167, 171, 182, 210–15, 216 productivity 36, 37, 39–40, 99, 148, 173–5, 234, 285 prototype 60, 96, 137, 186–7, 193, 238–9 proverb 73, 81–3, 272 raising 274 reanalysis 251–2, 256–7 recency 208–15, 218, 286 recursivity 8, 23, 35, 36, 123, 128, 245, 261, 262, 284 redundancy 128, 180–1 re-write rule 23, 35, 127–8 sanction 9, 44, 72, 84, 86, 103, 108, 123, 127, 136, 173–5, 215, 227, 249, 258, 270, 281, 285 scheme 78, 79–80, 95, 123, 125, 126, 128, 131, 134, 135, 136, 173–5, 284, 285 see also generalization selectional restriction 26, 32, 51, 71, 111 semantic prosody 110 315 slip of the tongue see speech error speech error 5, 12, 27, 267–70 spelling variants 323 stacking (of constructions) 256, 275–6 subcategorization 24–6, 29, 32, 51, 62–4, 105, 136, 150, 250, 257, 271, 277 transitional probability 158–60, 180–1, 205 underspecification 184 verb 46, 66–8, 137–8 compound 66–7 defective 66 ditransitive 28–32 modal 66, 132 passive participle 170–2, 181 past participle 170–2, 181 past tense 135 transitive 25, 26, 28, 64, 80, 136, 140, 143–4, 161, 170, 175, 222, 282 voice onset time (VOT) 202–4 wh-extraction 190–1 wh-word 49, 92, 190–1 word, definition of 32–5 word identification 167 word recognition 208 word class 45, 61, 205–6 see also lexical category World Wide Web 17–18 et passim Zipf ’s law 156 Index of names Aarts 88 Abler 194 Abramson 202, 203 Ackerman 64 Alario 166 Alderson 176, 177 Alegre 129 Algeo 56fn, 267 Allwood 243 Altmann 194 Archangeli 184 Arnon 130 Aslin 197, 204, 205 Austin F 89 Austin J 244 Ayto 230 Azuma 207 Baayen 156, 174 Baker 19, 23 Balota 176, 177 Banerjee 109 Bannard 130 Barlow 82, 270, 271 Barney 205 Barrett 205 Barsalou 28, 215, 216, 227, 243 Bellavia 233 Berg 46 Bergen 67, 68 Berlin 201 Bever 28, 130, 170 Biber 13, 16, 104, 148 Bierwisch 42, 222, 226 Biewer 17 Black 167 Blair 18 Bloch 200 Bloomfield 4, 34, 35, 124, 200, 249 Bly 72 Blyth 276 Bock 211, 212, 213, 214 Bod 130, 286 Bohn 205 Bolinger 10, 28, 31, 56, 212, 274 Boomer 267 Borges 197–8 Boroditsky 206 Bowerman 199, 227 Branigan 212 Brems 88 Brenier 10, 274 Brooks 143 Brown 198, 201 Brugman 233, 235, 236 Bush 132 Bybee 131, 132, 135, 147, 148, 174, 217, 232, 267 Calude 210 Cappelle 70 Carroll JB 176 Carroll JM 28 Carroll S 206 Caselli 200 Chang 212 Chen 225 Choi 199 Chomsky 5–8, 14, 21, 24, 34, 46, 128, 149–51, 200, 207, 222, 232, 251 Choueka 231 Clausner 73, 175, 242 Clayards 204 Coleman 239 Connine 130 Conrad 16, 104, 148 Index of names Coppock 270, 272 Cortese 176, 177 Coseriu 184, 223 Croft 46, 73, 91, 137, 138, 139, 175, 242, 269 Cruse 19, 20, 221 Culicover 7–8, 49, 50, 84, 85, 86, 122, 190 Cuyckens 219, 224 Dąbrowska 161 Davidoff 201 Davidse 88 Davies 4, 115, 116, 117 De Smet 251 Deane 190, 191, 233, 236 Denison 56 Dewell 233 Di Scullio 34 Diessel 148 Docherty 209 Drager 208, 209 Duffley 64 Dunham 176 Egan 64 Eimas 197, 202 Ellis 16, 113, 148, 158 Erman 249 Eu 18 Evans 121, 223, 225, 233, 236, 242 Fauconnier 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 277 Fillmore 49, 64, 69, 72, 84, 86, 91, 92, 93, 126, 221, 228, 238 Firth 106, 110, 115, 117, 118 Fodor 224 Foss 130 Foster 16, Fotos 214 Foulkes 209 Fromkin 12, 21, 22, 27, 267, 268 Fry 161 Gahl 153, 166, 173 Garman 269 Garnsey 153, 173 Geeraerts 189, 221, 222, 228, 233, 243 Gehweiler 80 Gerken 203, 204, 205 Gibbs 72, 77, 231, 244 Giles 211 Gipper 189 Givón 46, 137 Gleitman 25 Goddard 219, 244 Goldberg 64, 125, 136, 142, 175, 192, 193 Goldinger 206, 207 Gomez 205 Gordon 129 Granger 104 Grant 74 Greenbaum 28 Greenberg 13, 147, 182, 183 Grefenstette 17 Gries 15, 114, 140, 142, 210, 211, 230, 266 Griffin 212, 213, 214 Gross 48, 49 Ha 155 Hallan 236 Halle 34, 200, 207, 232 Halliday 102, 148, 150, 184 Hampe 140, 277, 279 Hanks 243 Harrington 207 Hart 16 Haspelmath 185 Hawkins 111 Hay 208, 209 Hayman 207 Hayward 148 Hazan 205 Heitner 199 Hickey 151 Hilpert 208, 209 Hintzman 176, 187 Hirschbühler 89 Hirst 109 Hockett 149, 194, 267, 269 317 318 Index of names Hoey 231 Hofland 148, 151 Hopper 132, 251 Howes 167 Huddleston 28, 50, 57, 62, 87 Hudson 61, 63, 137, 147, 154 Hundt 17 Hunston 110, 152 Ingram 12 Inkpen 109 Iwata 233 Jackendoff 20, 23, 69, 84, 85, 136, 144 Jacoby 207 Jaeger 213, 214, 215 Janda 147 Jarvella 218 Johansson 148, 151 Johnson K 185 Johnson, M 7, 72 Jones 200 Jongman 46, 129 Jusczyk 197 Kaeding 12 Kahneman 177 Kay 49, 69, 84, 91, 92, 126, 201 Keller 18, 166, 168 Kelly 46 Kemmer 266 Kennedy 73 Kessler 164 Keyser 72 Kilgarriff 17, 22, 243 Kishner 231, 244 Kisseberth 135 Klein-Braley 181 Koops 253 Köpcke 134, 206 Kornai 157, 205 Kreitzer 233 Krug 12 Kruschke 187 Kuhl 197, 202 Kuiper 247 Labov 10, 185, 209 Lachs 208, 286 Lakoff 6, 7, 22, 60, 72, 223–7, 233, 235, 238 Lambrecht 86 Langacker 6, 7, 21, 46, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 137, 216, 217, 225, 232, 233, 241, 242, 243, 248, 274 Lapata 18, 166, 168 Lass 184, 185, 253 Laver 267, 269, 270 Leacock 219 Leech 13, 98 Lemmens 64 Lenneberg 201 Levelt 211, 267 Levin 28, 29, 64 Levy 206 Liberman 200, 201, 202 Lieber 156, 174 Lieven 9, 143 Lightfoot 182, 251 Liljencrants 185, 201 Lindblom 185, 201 Lindner 70 Lisker 202, 203 Liu 147, 164, 165 Lorge 177 Louw 110 Lovelace Luka 28 Ma 147, 164, 165 MacDonald 168, 243 MacFarlane 131 MacKay 267 Mackey 214, 215 Massam 10 Matthews 206 Maye 203, 204 McClelland 171 McDaniel 201 Index of names McDonald 18, 168 McDonough 214, 215 McEnery 246, 247 McGee 176, 177 McRae 75, 177 Makin 187 Martindale 161, 181 Mattingly 201 Medin 186 Meex 233 Mervis 186 Mesthrie 253 Michaelis 10, 95, 274, 278 Miller 231 Moder 135 Mompéan 205 Monaghan 46 Mondorf 209 Moon 16, 78, 80, 84 Morton 167 Murphy 186, 187, 241 Pawley 19, 133, 248 Peterson 205 Pickering 212 Pierrehumbert 134, 186, 202 Pine 143 Pinker 25, 127, 169 Pisoni 197, 208 Plauché 67, 68 Pollack 28, 167 Popiel 75, 177 Popper 151 Port 208, 232 Potter 200 Pullum 8, 28, 50, 57, 62, 87, 149 Pustejovsky 226 Pustet 157 Queller 233, 251, 259, 260, 261 Quine 221 O’Brian 72 O’Connor 69, 84, 126 O’Hara Oldfield 166 Oller 181 Radford 71 Ravin 219 Reddington 206 Renouf 109, 156, 174, 191 Reppen 16, 104, 148 Rice 161, 236 Rickford 258, 276 Risley 16, Robinson 148 Rohdenburg 212 Rosch 186, 188 Rosenbach 174 Ross 187 Rothkopf Rudzka-Ostyn 70 Ruhl 223 Ruwet 71, 89 Paardekooper 89 Pang 12, 27, 275 Panther 33, 219 Partington 109 Paul 21 Sachs 218 Saffran 205 Sampson 28, 149, 157 Sandra 236 Sapir 249 Nathan 205 Nattinger 248 Nesselhauf 17, 112 Newman 161 Newmeyer 150 Nordquist 131 Notess 17 Nunberg 69 Núñez 22(fn) 319 320 Index of names Saussure 241 Savage 214 Savin 130, 167 Schacter Schaffer 186 Scheibman 132 Schmidt 206 Schmitt 176 Scholz Schönefeld 140, 277, 279 Schumsky 131 Schütze 28 Searle 225–8 Segui 130 Sereno 46, 129 Shannon 180, 182 Shapiro 176 Shillcock 168 Sichel 157 Sinclair 51, 110, 111, 112, 129, 133, 161, 177, 191 Slobin 103, 135, 267 Smith E 186 Smith, M 64 Snider 130, 213, 214, 215 Snyder 28 Solomon 167 Sosa 131 Southall Stahl Stefanowitch 15, 140, 142, 149, 150 Stemberger 12, 27, 184, 269 Stern 251 Stevens 201 Stoel-Gammon 184 Stubbs 110, 161 Svartvik 98 Sweetser 239 Swinney 130 Syder 133, 248 Szmrecsanyi 158, 211, 212, 213 Taatgen 147 Talmy 103 Tambovtsev 161, 181 Tanenhaus 167, 173 Tao 161 Taylor, J 4, 12, 33, 36, 42, 47, 49, 58, 71, 85, 86, 88, 97, 98, 120, 121, 124, 131, 138, 144, 185, 186, 194, 196, 205, 219, 221, 223, 233, 234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 261, 267, 273, 275, 279, 284 Taylor, W 181 Tees 199 Thompson 132 Thornburg 33, 219 Thorndike 177 Titone 130 Tomasello 4, 143, 214 Treiman 164 Trueswell 168, 172, 173 Truscott 214 Tryk 175, 176 Tuggy 10, 223 Turner 263, 264, 265, 266 Tversky 177 Tyler 223, 233, 236 Vandeloise 233 Van der Gucht 233, 236 Verhagen 190, 191 Vervaeke 73 Warren 249 Weaver 180, 182 Weiss 204 Wells, J 147 Wells, R 124, 127 Werker 199, 204 Wheeler 131 Wierzbicka 25, 58, 62, 103, 238, 244 Williams 34 Wilson A 246, 247 Wilson M 173 Wingfield 166 Wischer 84 Index of names Wittgenstein 243, 244 Wulff 114 Yeh 227 Zawada 219, 224 Zeschel 173 Zipf 13, 155, 183, 193 Zlatev 233 Zubin 206 Zwaan 227 321